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PUTNAM'S HOME GTOLOPEDIA. 



HAND-BOOK 



Oy 



HRONOLOGY AND HISTORY. 



A DICTIONARY OF DATES: 



riTH TABULAR VIEWS OF GENERAL HISTORY, AND A 
HISTORICAL CHART. 



EDITED BY 

GEORGE P . P U T^ AM . 




NEW-YORK : 
GEORGE P. PUTNAM. 

1853. 




Enter BD, according to the Act of Congress, in the j'ear 1850, by 

George P. PaxNAM, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for th*^ Southern District 
of New- York. 



John F. Trow, 

Printer and Stereotyper^ 

49, 51 and 53 Ajin-st., N. Y. 



PEEPACE. 



While revising a chronological manual, in compiling whioli I hadj 
at the age of fifteen,* employed many midnight hours, I have found 
material assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, D. A. 
Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford 
Chronological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the 
comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by Haydn.f has been 
incorporated almost entire, vpith such additions relating to the United 
States as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations 
to the present year. 

The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had 
cost much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating 
them with the more recent works, that some slight additions only 
were needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for 
the purpose in view, viz. : a convenient and portable volume for refer- 
ence, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent 
reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession ; 
and showing also what was going on at the same time in different 
countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear, 
many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they 
are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume. 

To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contempo- 
rary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration : but while 
the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and 



* Chronclogy — An Index to Universal History. &c. 12mo. Leavitt, Now- 
York, 1833. The vokime has been long out of print. 

t Fourth edit. 8vo. Lond., 1847. That Avork needs no praise here. 



IV PREFACE. 

others, are available to the historian or the merely literary man, they 
are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason 
that they contain too micch for ordinary purposes ; their very elaborate- 
ness serves to puzzle and to mystify. 

What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges- 
tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the 
governments in the chief nations of the world — enough merely to 
recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these events, and 
to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory. 

The aljjhabetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more 
full and ample references to the same historical facts ; but still the 
whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge — a Diction- 
ary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the 
largest amount of useful information in the smallest possible 
compass. 

There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to names 
and dates — especially in the Middle Ages — and in some instances 
the dictionary varies from the tables ; but these instances are not 
numerous or important. 

The Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute, 
it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously 
useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it 
the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will 
show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent per- 
sons lived during the life-time of that individual. 

It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That 
such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to be 
supposed ; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all 
reasonable expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the 
World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as in 
Politics and Government. Gr. P. P. 



CONTENTS. 



TAEULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL fflSTORY, 

IN CONTEMPORARY COLUMNS, 

1. ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Period I. — The Antediluvian (1656 years) ... .8 

Period II.— Dispersion of Mankind (427 years).— The Deluge to Abraham 4 

Period III.— The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (430 years).— Abraham to Mosea . . 6 

Period IV. — The Mosaic or Theocratic (396 years).— Bloses to Saul . . 8 

Period V. — The Monarchical (489 years).— Saul to Cyrus .... 14 

Period VI. — The Persian (322 years). — Cyrus to Alexander ... 21 

Period VII. —The Grecian (184 years). — Alexander to the Fall of Greece . , 26 

Period VIII.— The Roman (146 years).— Fall of Greece to the Christian Era . 38 



II. MODERN HISTORY. 



48 



Period I. — (306 years). — From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine , 

Period II. — (170 years.) — Constantine to Odoacer 

Period III.— (146 years.)— Odoacer to Mahomet .... 

Period IV. — (178 years.)— Mahomet to Charlemagne 

Period V.— (266 years.)— Charlemagne to William the Conqueror 

Period VI. — (233 years.)— William the Conqueror to Othman I. 

Period VII, — 154 years.) — Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire 

Period VIII. — (145 years.)— Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nantes 

Period IX. — (120 years.)— Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden 

Period X— (97 years.)— Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon • • 134 

Period XI.— (35 years.)— Napoleon to the year 1850 ...... 146 



62 
68 

72 
86 
102 
112 
122 



II. DICTIONARY OF DATES . . ■ 146 

III. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY 609 

IV. HEATHEN DEITIES, &c 648 

V BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 667 



EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OF HISTORY, 

ixepresenting, in a Chronological Series, the Rise, Revolutions, and Fall J Ike 
principal Empires of the World. 

ON THE PLAN OF DR. J, PRIESTLEY. 

It is necessary to notice, tliat the space allotted .o each country is rather according to its relative 
political importance, than to its geographical extent. 

The spaces between the vertical lines which cross the chart, represent time, viz., eacli a cen- 
tury or 100 years ; those between the horizontal lines represent countries, the names of wliich are 
expressed at the end of the chart. 

By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations al- 
the period we fix upon. For instance : about 1500 years before Christ, we see states forming in 
Greece ; the Israelites in Egypt (from whence they depart nine years after) ; the Egyptian, Assy- 
rian, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founded several centuries previous — but their 
history uncertain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a 
greater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued 
by them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under 
barbarians : the Heptarchy in England ; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul ; the African 
provinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1.500 we find the Eastern or Greek 
Empire fallen under the Turks; the Tartars powerful in Asia: many of the modern states o/ 
Europe founded ; America discovered by the Europeans, &c. &c. 

On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by looking 
along the chart horizontally : the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity ; united with that 
of the Medes, about 600 b. c. ; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 536 ; falls 
in turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and Tartars, successively. — The 
Israelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 b. c. ; in Canaan 1451 ; under the Judges about 1300; under 
Kings, 1095 ; Ten Tribes separated, 975 ; they are conquered, 721, and Judah, 588, by the Assyrians ; 
restored by the Persians, 535 ; under the Macedonians, 330 ; restored to independence by the Mac- 
cabees, 150; conquered by the Romans, 63; by the Saracens, a. d. 622; afterwards by the cru- 
saders, Mamelukes, and Turks, successively. — England subdued by the Romans in the first cen- 
tury; relinquished by them, A. D. 410; subdued by the Saxons, 500; by the Danes, 860; by the 
Normans (receiving French territories), 1066 ; united with Ireland, 1170 ; with Wales, 1280; with 
Scotland, 1600. — Italy in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes ; by the Romans from 300—200 
B. C. to 480 A. D., then by the Herulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively ; — in modern 
times, divided into several small republics and principalities ; joined to the French empire about 
ISOO, and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c., the 
Pope, and the King of Naples. 

" They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt to 
excite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions are 
marked upon it ! What torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and in 
what complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals involved a great part ol 
their species ! "—Priestley. 




UTith a 

Iiuli.x. Rrit. /Empire 

T ar t ai'y 

A s ia ti c 



P e 1- s i a 



Turl^ ey 



Aralira 

B at l)ar>^ 

^ Fl'eiicU posFessiotls. 

Moiotco 
Spam 
T ovlug-al 

jjuvopeau Tui-key 
Greeee 

Ital. Ducllies \ 
A«» Ir. Eiiip . ^ 

W ^ X ■ t 

Ixiscany 
FopeAom 1 
"N aT>le s 

Swilx erlaitd 
Holland 

Fran ce 



Gr eat 
IVriUiin 



Fr u s s i a 
All s Ir i a. 
Gei-inaii States 
Sweden 

Den 111 arlt. 

Russia 

Brit.ATJieiTca. 

UiiiLed \ 
Slates/ 



g/ Mexir n 

/^ TOew Gremarl a Sec 

Per It- Boll via 

.AvgenliiieRepifb. 
/* ChUi. Eouaaov 



ew HoUauJ , Uew'^ S.ealaud t-i: . J'li U.Empii- e 



f^ 






i*L*': 



THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. 



PART I. 

TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 

I. Ancient Chronology — from the Creation to the Birth of Christ — 4004 years. 
[I. Modern Chronology — from the Birth of Christ to the present time — 1850 years. 



I. ANCIENT CHEONOLOGY. 
DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS. 



1. From the Creation, 

to the Deluge, 

2. From the Deluge, 

to the Call of Abraham, 

3. From the Call of Abraham, 

to the Exode from Egypt, 

4. From the Exode, 

to the Kingdom of Saul, 

5. From Saul, 

to the Captivity of Israel, 

6. From the Captivity, 

to Alexander the Great, 

7 From Alexander, 



B. C. 

4004 
2348.. 

2348 
1921. 

1921 
1491. 



. 1656 years The Antediluvian Period, 

. 427 years The Dispersion Period. 

. 430 years The Patriarchal Period. 



1491 

1095 396 years.. 



.The Theocratic Period, 



330. 



507 years The Monarchical Period. 

258 years The Persian Period. 



330 



to the Subjugation of Greece, 146 184 years The Grecian Period. 

8 From the Subjugation of Greece, 146 

to the Birth of Christ, 146 years The Roman Period. 



' From the Creation to the Christian era, the dates are reckoned b c- 
BEFORE CHRIST. They are then changed to a. B.—the Year of our Lord. 



Tllfi WORLD'S PllOGP^ESS. 



FIRST PERIOD— (^/^e Antediluvian)— 165Q years. 



B. C 

4004 



3S75 
3S74 
3769 



3679 
3609 
a544 
33S2 
3317 
3130 
3074 
3017 
2948 
2468 
2348 



THE CREATION OF THE WORLD.— (Seirew Pentateuch.-) [Hales places it 5411 B. c* 

The fall of man, and the promise of a Saviour. 

The birth of Cam, the tiist-born of woman — a husbandman. 

The death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd. 



Seth born, the third son of Adam. 
Enos born. 



Cainan born. 
Mahalaleel born. 
Jared " 

Enoch " 

Methuselah " (lived 969 years.) 
Lamech " 

Death of Adam, aged 930 years. 
Enoch translated. 
Noah born. 

The building of the Ark commenced. 
THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 3154 
B. c] 



Enoch born, the first son of Cain.t 

Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch. He in- 
troduces the use of weights and measures, — Jo- 
sephus. Tytler. 

Irad. 

Mehujael. 

Methusael. 

Lamech — polygamy introduced. 



Jabal 
The first to 
build a Tent 
for habita- 
tion, and to 
use cattle for 
purposes of 
husbandry. 



Jubal. 
He invent- 
ed the Harp 
and the Or- 
gan,or wind 
and stringed 
instruments 
of music. 



Tubal-cain. 
He discov- 
ed the mode 
ofpreparing 
and using 
iron, brass, 
and other 
Metals. 



Naamah 
She intro- 
duced the 
artsof;S^zw- 
ning and 
Weaving. 



* See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch places the Creation b. c. 4700; the Septuagint, 5872; Josephus, 4658; the 
Talmadists, BZii ; Scaligei; 3950; Petaviiis, d98i; and Dr. Hales, 5411. The last named enu- 
merates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difference between the latest and remotest 
date of which is no less than 3263. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is here adopted 
as the most generally received standard. 

t No dates are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-hand column. — They 
are however contemporary with those in the other column. 



Remarks. — The Antediluvian Period was nearly as long as the whole period that has elapsed 
since the birth of Christ. Of the progress of knowledge and the arts, during that period, nothing 
is known beyond what is given above, except that ship-building, calking, and the use of pitch, or 
paint, of measures by cubit, &c., and of doors and windows, were known. They imply, in their 
adaptation to the use of man, other arts, ard a considerable advance in science and the mechanical 
powers. 



Ji3=-The Tabular Views are continued across two pages at th« 

same time, 



TsXE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



SECOND F'EmOJ)— {Dispersion of Mankind. )- 



SACRED HISTORY. 



Proqrbss op Society and the Arts. 



2347 



2247 



2234 



Wine made by Noah from the grape. 



Bricks made, and cement used to unite them. 
Confusion oi languages at Babel. 



Astronomical observations begun at Babylon. 



2347. The descendants of Noah dispersed 
through the earth : those of Shem probably 
in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of Japhet in 
Europe. 

2347. The curse pronounced upon the descend- 
ants of Ham. 

2247. The building of Babel.* 

2245. BABYLON founded by Nimrod, son of 
Cush, and Grandson of Ham. 

NINEVEH founded by Ashur, son of 
Shem. 



2122 



2100 
2095 



Athotes (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics. 



Sculpture and Painting employed to com- 
memorate the exploits of Osymandyas. 

Pyramids and Canals in Egypt. The science 
of Geometry begim to be cultivated. 



1998 



Ching Hong teaches the Chinese the art of 
Husbandry, and the method of making 
Bread from wheat, and wine from rice. 



1996. Abraham bom. 



1921. The call of Abraham. 



* The chronology here adopted is that of the Hebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan places 
Babel 531 years after the deluge. 



THE world's progress. 

427 years. — The Deluge to Abraham. 



PROFANE HISTORY.— (/n this period traditional and uncertain.) 



2207 1 CHINA. The first imperial 
dynasty of Hia begins. Fohi 
(who is perhaps Noah him- 
self) is mentioned as the first 
Chinese monarch. 



2124 



2069 
2059 



2017 



Belus reigns in BABYLON 
[Some suppose Belus to be 
the Nimrod of Scripture. If 
so, there is a discrepancy of 
121 years between the sacred 
and profane chronologies.] 
The origin of the kingdoms 
of Babylon and Nineveh, and 
of the Assyrian empire, is 
variously stated by the chron- 
ologists. See Sacred Hist.] 



fiiinus, son of Belus, reigns in 

'Nineveh. 
Reestablishes the ASSYRIAN 
EMPIRE. 



Semiramis enlarges and embel 
lishes Babylon, and makes it 
the seat of empire. [By others 
placed 2107 b. c] 



1975 Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethi- 
opia, and India. 



1937 



The Arabs seize Nineveh. C?) 



Europe. 



2188. Misraim (Mones), the son 
of Ham, builds Memphis, in 
EGYPT, and begins the E- 
gyptian monarchy. 



2111. THEBES founded by 
Busiris. 

2100. Osymandyas, the first 
warlike king, passes into 
Asia, and conquers Bactria. 



2085. Egypt conquered by the 
shepherd kings of Phenicia, 
who hold it 2(50 years. 



1938. Lake Moeris constructed. 



089. SICYON, the first king- 
dom of GREECE, founded 
by Egialus, or Inachus. 



2048. A colony of Pheniciana 

land in Ireland. (7) 
2042. Uranus arrives in Greece. 



Revolt of the Titans 
War of the Giants. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



THIKD PERIOD— (T^ Abrahamic or Fatriarchal.)— 



1582 



1580 



1534 



1506 
1497 



1494 



Progress op Society and the Arts. 



Gold and silver first mentioned as money. 



Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoas. 



Memnon invents the Egyptian alphabet. 



Atlas, the astronomer. 

The chronology of the Arundelian marble? 

begins. 
The cymbal used at the feasts of Cybele. 



Dancing to music introduced by Curetes. 
Book of Job written about this time. 



TheJ?u/e invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian. 
Amphictyon gives interpretation to dreams 

and draws prognostics from omens. 
Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry. 



SACRED HISTORY. 



1921 . Abraham called. 
1920. — goes into Egypt. 
1912. — delivers Lot from captivity, and re- 
ceives ihe blessing of Melchizedec. 
1909. Ishniael born. 
1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed. 

God renews liis covenant with Abraham. 
1896. Isaac born. 

1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac in 

sacrifice. 
1856. Isaac married. 

1836. Jacob and Esau bom. 

1824. Abraham dies, aged 172. 

1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel. 
1739. His name changed to Israel. 

1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 

1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 

1706. Jacob and his family settle in Egypt. 

1702. End of the seven years' famine. 

1699. Death of Jacob. 

1635. Death of Joseph. 



1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt. 
1574. Aaron born. 
1571. Moses born. 



1531. Moses flees into Midian. 
1513. The supposed era of Job. 



1491. God appears to Moses in a burning bush 
at Horeb, and sends him to Egypt to deliver 
the Israelites. 

The Ten Plagues in Egypt. 
Institution of the Passover. 
The EXODUS of the Israelites from 
Egypt. 



THE world's progress. 

Abraham to Moses. — (430 years.) 



PROFANE HlSTOKY.—QStm fabulous or uncertain.) 



Asia. 



Africa. 



1766 



China. The 2d Imperial dy- 
nasty begins. 



1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt. 

1556. Rameses-Miamum reigns 
in Egypt. 



1856. Inachus, the Pheniciai 
plants a colony in ARGOS. 



1807. Phoroneus reigns in 
Argos. 

1764. Ogyges reigns in Boeotia. 

1707. Apis, king of Avgos. 

1732. The Ogygean Deluge in 
Attica. 

1711. The city of Argos built 
by Argus, the son of Niobe. 

1710. A colony of Arcadians 
emigrate into Italy under 
CEnotrus. — CEnotria after- 
wards called Magna Grecia. 

1641. Criasus succeeds his 
father, Argus. 



1556. ATHENS founded by 
Cecrops. 



1552. Triopas, king of Argos. 
The kingdom divided. Poly- 
caon reigning in Messenia. 

1546. TROY founded by Sea- 
mander. 

1529. Deluge of Deucalion in 
Thessaly. 

1520. Cormth founded. 

1516. Sparta founded, and the 
kingcfom of Laconia, or La- 
cedemon. 

1507. The Areopagus establish- 
ed in Athens. 

1506. Crotopas succeeds to the 
throne of Argos. 

1504. Deucalion arrives in Ati 
tica. 

The kmgdom of Messe. 
nia commenced by Poly caon. 

1493. THEBES in Boeotia, 
founded by Cadmus, a Phe 
nician, who introduces tlie 
alphabet into Greece. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



FOURTH PERIOD.— (TAe Mosaic or TJieocratic.)- 



Progress op Society and the Arts. 



Crockery made by the Egyptians and Greeks. 
Ericthonius introduces the first chariot. 

The fabulous or traditionary Hermes- Tr is- 
megisttis placed about this period. 



Bacchus, god of wine. 



Olympic Games first celebrated in Greece. 
Apollo, god of music and poetry. 



Bucklers used in single combat invented by 

Proetus and Acrisius of Argos. 
Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumol- 

pus. 



Orpheus and Linus, sons of Apollo, skilled 

in music. 
The temple of Apollo at Delphi built by the 

council of Amphiciyons. 
Jason leads the Argonautic expedition; the 

first OTccDoZ expedition on record. 



MuscBUs, a poet. 



The axe, teedge, wiinble and lever, also masts 
and sails for ships invented by Dsedalus of 
Athens. 



The game of Backgammon invented by Pala- 
medes of Greece. 



SACRED HISTORY. 



The Jews. 



1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egypt, 
The law given at Mount Sinai. 



1471. Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abirani 

1453. Aaron dies. 

1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and dies. 

1451. Israelites enter Canaan under Joshua. 



1443. Joshua dies. 

1405. Othniel judges Israel. 

1390. The tribe of Benjamin tlmost ext.nct. 



1343. Eglon, king of Moab, enslaves Israel. 
1325. Ehud kills Eglon, and delivers Israel. 
1317. Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with art 

ox goad. 
1305. Israel subdued by Jabin, king of Canaanr 
1285. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canaan- 

ites — Sisera killed by Jael. 



1252. Israel enslaved by the Midiantes. 
1249. Gideon, with 300 men, defeats the Mi- 
dianites. 



1209. Abimelech judges Israel. 
1206. Tola judges Israel. 



1183. Jair, judge of Israel. 



THE WOULD S PROGRESS. 



396 years. — Moses to Saul. 



PROFANE HISTORY.— (-Sit';; uncertain.) 



1449 

1413 
1400 



1374 
1314 



Dardarius, king of Troy, builds 
Dardania. 



Ericthonius reigns in Troy. 



Cushanrishathaim, king of 
Mesopotamia. (See Scrip 
ture.) 

Teucer, king of Troy. 



Troas, king of Troy. 
Ilus, son of Troas, founder of 
Ilium. 



1260 
1259 



1252 
1240 



1225 
1222 



1220 
1215 



1194 
1184 



1183 
1182 



Laomedon, kmg of Troy. 
Phenicia : TYRE founded. 

Second Assyrian Dynasty : 

Mithreaus or Ninus II. 
Troy taken by the Argonauts. 



Hercules arrives in Phrygia. 
Argon, a descendant of Hercu- 
les, first king of LYDIA. 
Priam, king of Troy. 
Tautanas, king of Assyria. 



The TRO.TAN WAR begins 
Troy taken, 403 years before 

the 1st Olympiad. 
Teutaeus, kmg of Assyria. 
Trojans migrate into Italy. 



Africa. 



1491. Pharaoh and his army 
drowned in the Red Sea. 

1485. Egyptus reigns, and 
gives name to the country. 



1376. Sethos reigns in Egypt. 



1233. Cart, age founded by the 
Tyrians 



Sthenelus reigns in Argos. 



1474. Danaus usurps the king- 
dom of Argos. 

1463. Damnonii invade Ire- 
land. 

1457. The kingdom of Mycene 
begins under Perseus, late 
king of Argos. 

1453. Olympic games first ce- 
lebrated at Elis. 

1438. Pandion begins to reign 
at Athens. 

1400. Minos reigns in Crete. 

1397. CORINTH becomes a 
kingdom under Sisyphus. 

1383. Ceres arrives in Attica. 

1376. The Isthmian games in- 
stituted. 

1356. Eleusinian mysteries in- 
troduced. 



1283. jEgeus reigns in Attica. 

1266. CEdipus, king of Thebes. 

1263. The Argonautic Expe- 
dition. 

1257. Theseus unites the cities 
of Attica under one govern- 
ment. 

1243. The Arcadians conducted 
by Evander into Italy.— Mu- 
saeus, a poet. 

1239. Latinus reigns in Italy 



1225. First Theban War.— 
Euristhenes and Procles, 
kings of Lacedemon. 

1222. Hercules celebrates the 
Olympic Games. 

1216. War of the Epigonii, or 
2d Theban War. 

1213. Helen carried off by 
Theseus, is recovered by 
Castor and Pollux, and mar- 
ries Menelaus. 

1204. Helen elopes with Paris. 
1182. .^neas lands in Italy. 
1176. Salamis Ibunded by 

Teucer. 
1170. Epirus : Pyrrhus Neop- 

tolemus. 



10 



THE world's progress. 

Fourth Period. — {The Mosaic or Theocratic.] 



1115 

1100 



Prooress op Society and the Arts. 



Mariner's compass said to be known in 
China. C?) 

A standard dictionary of the Chinese contain- 
ing 40,000 characters, completed by Pa-out- 
she. (1) 



SACRED HISTORY. 



1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines and 
Ammonites. — Samson born. — Eli judges a 
portion of Israel. 

1143. Jephtha defeats the Ammonites, and 
becomes judge of a part of Israel. 



1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistines with the 
jawbone of an ass. 



1117. Death of Samson and Eli. 
1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel 



1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebenezer. 
1095. Establishment of the HEBREW MO- 
NARCHY.— Saul anointed king of Israel. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 

396 years. — (Continued.) — Moses to Saul 



11 



PROFANE HXSVOViY .—iStiU fabulous or uncertain.) 



1141 
U39 



1122 



Temple of Ephesua burnt 

the Amazons. 
Thinseus, king of Assyria. 



China :— 3 J dynasty ;— Tchcoo. 



Dercylus, king of Assyria. 



Africa. 



1152. Alba-Longa built by 
Ascanius. 



1124. ^olian migration. 

THEBES, the Capital of 
BcEOtia, founded. 



1104. Return of the Heraclidae. 
—End of the kingdom of 
Mycene. 



12 



THE world's progress. 



FIFTH PERIOD.— (TAe Monarchical)— 







SACRED HISTORY. 


B.C, 


Progress op Society and the Arts. 


The Jews. 






1095. Saul, King of Israel. 






1085. David born. 






1062. David kills Goliath. 






1055. Death of Saul. David reigns in Hebron 
over Judah ; Ishbosheth reigning in Maha- 
naim, over eleven tribes. 






1048. Ishbosheth slain. David made king 
over all Israel. 






1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moab- 
ites, Syrians, and extends his dominions to 
the Euphrates, on the East, the Red Sea, on 
the South, and Lebanon, on the North. 






1036. Solomon born. 






1023 Revolt and death of Absaloni. 






1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah. 


1015 


Minos gives his laws to Crete. 


1015. Solomon crowned in the presence of 
David. 

1016. David dies. 

1012. Solomon lays the foundation of the 
temple. 

1004. DEDICATION OF SOLOMON'S 
TEMPLE. 

1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in con- 
nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to India, 
via Red Sea, and to the shores of the Atlan- 
tic, via Straits of Gibraltar : builds Tad- 
mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec, and 
other cities. 

985. He is seduced into idolatry by his wives. 
975. — dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam. 

JtjDAH. Israel. 

975. Rehoboam, king. Jeroboam, king. 
971. Shishak plunders 

the temple. 
958. Abijah, king. 
955. Asa, king. 

954. Nadab, king. 
953 Baasha, king. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



13 



507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. 



PROFANE HISTORY. 



1044 



The Ionian emigrants settle 
in Asia Minor. 



Alliance between Solomon and 
Hiram, king of Tyre. 



Samos built. 



Shishak plunders Jerusalem. 



Alliance between Solomon ani 
Pharaoh. 



986. Utica built. 



978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scrip- 
ture, and supposed Sesos- 
tris,) king of Egypt. 



1088. End of the kingdom of 

Sicyon. 
1070. Heremon, from Gallicia, 

conquers Ireland. 
1069. Codrus devotes himself 

for Athens. 
1060. Athens governed by 

Archons. 



976. Capys reigns in Alba 
Longa. 



H 



THE world's progress. 



Fifth Period. — {The Monarchical.) — 







SACRED HISTORY. 


B.C. 


Progress of Society and the Arts. 


The Jews. 






JuDAH. Israel. 






942. Asa defeats Ze- 
rah, king of Ethio- 
pia, with a million 






of men. 
941. — makes a league 
with Benhadad, king 


937 


Breastplates invented by Jason. 


of Syria. 930. Elah, king. 

929. Zimri, king. 

Orari, king. 

918. Aiiab, king. 



800 
786 



772 



721 



710 

685 
680 



Homer'' s poems brought into Greece. 
Lycurgics reforms the constitution of Sparta 
Gold and silver coined by Phtdon, tyrant of 
Argos. 



Prophecies of Jonah. 



Carpets in use for tents. 
The Corinthians employ triremes or vessels 
with three banks ot oars. 



Sculpture first mentioned in profane history- 
an Egyptian art. 



The first eclipse of the moon observed by the 
Chaldeans at Babylon. 

The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama 
into India. 

Roman Calendar reformed. The year divided, 
12 months instead of 10 as before. 

Augurs instituted by Numa. 

lam,bic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyr- 
iceusj and JEvander, poets. 

Chess invented. 



914. Jehoshaphat, 
king. 

907. Benhadad, king of 

„„„,,, , Syria, besieges Sa- 

898. Jehoshaphat as- maria, but is re- 
sists Ahab. pulsed. 

894. War with Moab. 



9. Jehoram, king 



897. Ahaziah, king. 
896. Jehoram, king. 
895. Elijah translated. 



884. Ahaziah, king. 884. Jehu, king. 
Alhaliah, queen ; 
usurps the throne. 856. Jehoahaz, king. 
878. Jehoash, king. 



The Prophet Jo- 841. Jehoash, kins 



nah. 

839. Amaziah, king. 
810. Azariah, king. 



758. Jotham, king 
742. Ahaz,king. 



825. Jeroboam, king. 

784. InterregnuTn. 

773. Zachariah, king. 
Shallum, king. 

772. Menahem, king. 

770. Pul invades Is- 
rael, and is bribed 
to depart with 1000 
talents. 

762. Pekahiah, king. 

759. Pekah, king. 
Interregnum. 
Hoshea, king. 

721. CAPTZVITY OP 
ISRAEL. 



17. Hezekiah, king. 

712. Sennacherib in- 
vades Judah. 

711. His army (185,- 
000) destroyed by a 
pestilence. 

696. Manasseh, king. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



15 



507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.) 



PROFANE HISTORY. 



971 



840 



820 
797 



767 



709 



680 



Homer bom. 



Jonah preaches to the Nine- 
vites. 



Arbaces, king of Assyria. — 

Media revolts. 
Ardyssus, 1st king of LYDIA. 



Pul, king of Nineveh. 



Sardanapalus, king of Nine- 
veh. 

Media subjected to Assyria. 

Alyattea, king of Lydia. 

ERA OF NABONAZZAR.— 
Assyrian empire destroyed. 
— Meles, king of Lydia. 

Phamacea, king of Cappado. 
cia. 

Tiglath-Pileser conquers Sy- 
ria and part of Israel. 

Candaules, king of Lydia. 

Shalvianezer king of .Nine- 
veh, takes Samaria, and car- 
ries the Ten Tribes into 
captivity. 

Gyges usurps the throne of 
Lydia. 

Sennacherib, king of Nineveh. 

MEDIA becomes a kingdom 
under Dejoces. 

Ecbatana founded by Dejoces. 



Babylon and Nineveh under 
Esarhaddon. 



869. Dido arrives in Africa, 
and builds Byrsa. 

825. The dynasty of the Ta. 
nites in Egypt ; begins with 
Peterbastes. 



781. The dynasty of the Saites 
in Egypt. 



737. Sebacon invades Egypt. 



935. Bacchus, king of Corinth 



916. Calpetus, Ung of Alba. 



903. Tiberinus, king of Alba. 

895. Tiberinus drowned in tha 
river Albula, which is thence 
called the Tiber. 



864. Romulus, king of Alba 
Longa. 



845. Aventinus, king of Alba. 



814. The kingdom of MACE- 
DON founded by Caranus. 
18. Procas, king of Alba. 
794. Numitor, " " 

794. Amulius, " " 



Clam Fodla, king in Ii-e- 
land. (-!) 

769. Syracuse founded by 
Archias of Corinth. 

753. BUILDING OF ROME 
begun. 

Catania founded by a co- 
lony from Chalcis. 

747. Union of Romans and 
Sabines. 

743. Ist Messinian War. 



716. Romulus murdered by the 

senators. 
715. Numa Pompilius. 
713. Gela in Sicily founded. 

703. Corcyra built by the Co- 
rinthians. 

685. 2d Messinian War. 



16 



THE world's progress. 

Fifth Period. — {The Monarchical.)- 



Progress of Society and the Arts. 



Attempt to discover the primitive language of 
mankind ; Interpreters instituted by Psam- 
meticus ; children educated in the language 
and manners of Greece. 

Se-Matsien's history of China' begins. 



The Spherical form of the earth and the true 
cause of lunar eclipses taught by Tholes, 
who discovers the electricity of amber. 



Periander encourages learning at Corinth. 



Draco frames his bloody code of laws at 
Athena. 



Pharaoh-Necho begins a canal between the 
Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives of 
120,000 men lost in the attempt. He sends 
out a Phoenician fleet wliich, sailing through 
the Straits of Babelmandel, returned the 
third year by the Straits of Gibraltar, thus 
circumnavigating Africa. 



Sappho, Alccms, Pittacus, Bius, Chilo, Mj/- 
son, Anacharsis, .^sop, Ilychis, Theognis, 
Stesichorus, Phocylides, and Cadmus (of 
Miletus), flourish at this time. 



Thales' prediction of a solar eclipse accom- 
plished. — (See Asia.) 



Solon's legislation in Athens, supersedes that 

of Draco. 
The Pythian Games at Delphi. 



SACRED HISTORY. 



The Jews. 



677. Marjasseh carried to Balylon, is after- 
wards reAored. 



640. Ammon, king of Juciah. 

641. Josiah. king of Judah. 



Josiah killed at Megiddo, by Pharaoh Ne- 



cho. 



609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and carried to 
Egypt. 

Jehoiakim, kmg. 



606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM by 

Nebuchadnezzar. 



598. Jehoiachin, king, reigns three months, 
and is carried captive to Bahylon. 
Zedekiah, king. 
591. Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaldea. 



588. CAPTIVITY OF JUDAH completed. 
JERUSALEM DESTROYED— the tern- 
pie burnt. 
Ohadiah prophesies. 



THE world's progress. 



17 



507 years.— Saul to Ct/ras.— (Continued.) 



676 



658 



626 
624 



PROFANE HISTORY. 



Ardysus H., king of Lydia. 
Holofernes, Assyrian general. 

Phraortes, king of Media. 

Saracus, king of Babylon and 

Nineveh. 
Phraortes conquers Persia, 

Armenia, &c. 

Cyaxares, king of Media. 
Sadyattes, king of Lydia. 

Nabopolassar revolts from Sa- 
racus. 

The Scythians invade Lydia 
and Media. 

Alyattes II., king of Lydia. 

Nineveh a second time destroy 
ed. 

Nabopolassar, king of Baby 
Ion. 



Africa. 



660. Psammeticus, king of 
Egypt.— Memphis becomes 
the capital of the kingdom. 



006 

604 
601 



599 
696 



Pharaoh-Necho defeated by 
Nebuchadnezzar at Circe- 
eium, on the Euphrates. 

Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- 
bylon. 

Daniel interprets the king's 
dream. 

A solar eclipse predicted by 
Thales— separates the Medes 
and Lydians in battle. {New 
ton's Chron., 585.) 

Birth of Cyrus. 

Astyages of Media drives out 
the Scythians. 



610. Pharaoh-Necho, king of 
Egypt. 



678. Argaeus, 1st king of Ma- 

cedon. 
672. Tullus Hostilius, king oi 

Rome. 
668. Messina in Sicily founded. 
665. Alba destroyed. 
664. Sea fight ' between the 

Corinthians and Corcyreans. 

658. BYZANTIUM founded. 



640. AncusMartius.— The port 
of Ostia built.— The Latins 
conquered by the Romans.— 

Philip, 1st king of Mace- 



629. Periander rules at Co- 
rinth. 



616. Tarquinius Priscus, king 
of Rome. 



60O. Psammia, king of Egypt. 



602. .^Eropus, king of Mate- 
don, conquers lUyria. 



594. Pharaoh-Hophra, king of 594. Solon, Archor of Athena 
Egypt. 



18 



THE world's progress. 



SIXTH PERIOD.— (T/^ePersmw.)— 



B.c Progress of Society. 



585 



.578 



DSy 



5i0 



535 



Money coined a.t Rome by Ser- 
vius TuUius. 



Depoenus and Scyllis open a 
school of statuary at Athens. 

Naucrates given to the Greeks 
by Egypt as a factory. 

Egypt possesses 20,000 inha- 
bited cities. 

First comedy acted at Athens 
on a cart, by Susarion and 
Dolon. 

Dials invented by Anaximan 
der of Miletus. 

Anaximenes, Cleobulus. 



The Corinthian order of ar- 
chitecture invented by Call- 
machus. 

Zoroaster, the Persian Philo- 
sopher. 

iSimonides, Anacreon, poets. 



Thespis performs the first 
tragedy at Athens. 



Learning encouraged at Ath 
ens. — Firet public library 
founded. 

Confucius the Cliinese philo- 
sopher. 
The Dane issued by Darius. 



559. Handwriting on the wall 
at Belshazzar's feast. 



536. Edict of Cyrus for the Re- 
turn of the Jews. 
Joshua, Zerubbabel. 

535. Rebuilding of the tem- 
ple begins. 

Zechariah. Ilaggai. 



516. Dedication of the second 
temple. 



582. Nebuchadnezzar invadea 
Elam — takes Susa. 



572. Tyre taken by Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 



569. Nebuchadnezzar 
his reason is deposed. 
New Tyre founded, 



562. Croesus, king of Lydia. 

Solon and Mso\> at his court. 
561. Evil-Merodach, king of 

Babylon. 

559. Neriglissar or Belshazzai 
killed in the night. 

Cyaxares H. (Darius) 
king of Media. 

Cyrus the Persian assists 
him. 
Asia Minor subjected to Croe 
sus. 



546. Sardis taken by Cyrus. — 
Croesus made prisoner. — 
The Lydian Kingdom end- 
ed. 

538. BABYLON TAKEN by 
Cyrus. 

536. PERSIAN EMPIRE 
founded by CYRUS, com- 
posed of Assyria, Media and 
Persia. 



529. Cambyses, king of Per- 
sia. 



522. Darius Hystaspes, king 
of Persia. 



THE world's progress. 



19 



258 -years. — Gyrus to Alexander the Cheat. 



581 



536 



505 



Egypt invaded by Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 



Apries taken prisoner, and 
strangled in his palace. 

Amasis, Iving — connection be- 
tween Greece and Egypt. 



Pythagoras visits Egypt. 



Psammenitus, last king of 
Egypt. — Invasion of Cam- 
byses, who defeats the 
Egyptians at Pelusium, and 
takes Memphis. 

Egypt becomes a Persian 
Province. 



585. Death of Periander, tyrant 

of Corinth. 
582. Corinth becomes a repub 

lie. 



Rome, etc. 



560. Pisistratus, tyrant ol Ath- 
ens. 



549. Temple of Apollo at 
Delphi burnt by the Plsis- 
tratidae. 

547. Amyntas, king of Mace- 
don. 



539. The Phocians emigrate to 
Gaul and build Massilia 
(now Marseilles). 



527. Pisistratus dies. 



522. Polycrates, tyrant of Sa- 

mos. 
521. Hippias and Hipparchus 

reign in Athens. 



510. The Pisistratidas expelled. 
— Democracy estabfished at 
Athens. — Statues erected to 
Harmonius and Aristogiton, 
leaders in the revolution. 



578. Servius Tullius, king cf 
Rome. 



567. Conquest of the Etruriana 

by Rome. 
565. First census of Rome: 

84,700 citizens. 



534. Tarquinius SuperbuB, 
king of Rome. 

530. Cadiz built by the Car- 
thaginians (near the ancient 
Tarshish). 



20 



THE WOULD'S PROGRESS. 



Sixth Period. — [Tlie Persian.) — 



B.C. 

509 



507 



483 



479 



4:7 



460 



Progress op Society. 



Abolition of the Regal Govern- 
ment, and establishment of 
Republic at Rome. 



HeracUtus, Theano, Prota- 
goras, Anaxagoras, philoso- 
phers. — Corinna, poetess. 



The Phctnician letters carried 
to Ireland from Spain. 

Pythagoras teaches the doc- 
trine of celestial motions. 

The temple of Minerva built. 



The Etruriayis excel in music, 
the drama and architecture. 



jEsckylus, Pindar, poets. 



Simonides, of Cos, obtains the 
prize at Olympia, for teach- 
ing a system o{ 3Ineino>iics, 
which he had invented. 

Empirics instituted by Acron, 
of Agrigentutn. 



Sophocles, the tragic, and 
Plato, the comic poet. 



Voyage of the Carthaginians 
to Britain for tin. 



483. Joachim, High Priest. 



458. Esther. 

457. Ezra goes to Jerusalem, 
collects life Jewish Scrip- 
tures : and 

45.3. —writes the Chronicles. 



508. Darius conquers India. 



98. The . onians revolt from 
Persia and burn Sardis. 



491. Darius sends an army of 
500,000 men into Greece. 



487. Artabazes, king of Pen- 

tua. 
486. Xerxes, king of Persia. 

481. The expedition of Xerxes 
into Greece. . 

480. The family of Archean- 
actes, from Mytilene, settle 
in Bosphorus (now Circas- 
sia.) 



478. Death of Confucius.— 
China distracted by interna 
wars. 



466. Persians defeated by sea 

and land. 
465. Xerxes assassinated. 
464. Artaxerxes I. (Longiiua 

nus,) king of Persia. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



21 



258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 



480 



460 



455 



Egypt revolts— is subdued by 
Xerxes. 



Hamilcar killed in battle. 



Egypt, under Inarus, revolts 
from Persia. 



All Egypt reduced by Megaby- 
eus. 



505. Lacedemonian War. 
504. Lemnos taken by Milti- 
ades. 



497. Alexander 1st, king 
Macedon. 

Hippocrates, tyrant 
Gela. 

491. Invasion of the Persians 
under Datis and Artaplier- 
nes. 

490. Battle of MARATHON. 



488. Miltiades imprisoned. 



483. Aristides banished. 



I Battle of Thermopylse. 
Athens burnt by Xerxes. 
Battle of Salamis. 
479. Mardonius a second time 
takes Athens. 

Defeat of the Persians at 
Platea and Mycale on the 
same day. 



476. Themistocles rebuilds 
Athens. — The Piraeus built. 

470. Cimon son of Miltiades.— 
Themistocles banished.— 
The kingdom of the Odrysse 
extends over the most of 
Thrace. 

466. The Persians twice de- 
feated at the Eurymedon by 
Cimon. 

465. 3d Messinian War. 

461. Ostracism of Cimon. — 
Pericles rises to great 
povper. 

459. Athens assumes to be the 
head of Greece. 

456. Cimon recalled. 



Ri. JO/ AND Italy. 



509. Thj Tarqums expelled 

from Ili.me. 
Brutus and Collatinus 

first Consuls of Rome. 

507. Second census of Rome, 

130,909 citizens. 
The Capitol finished.— War 

against the Tarquins and 

their ally Porsenna. 



498. Titus Lartius, first Dicta- 
tor. 

Tribunes of the people. 
496. Posthumius, Dictator. 



491. Coriolanus banished. 



488. At the request of his 
mother, Coriolanus with- 
draws the Volsci from Rome. 

485. Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse. 

483. Quasstors appointed. 

480. The Carthaginians de- 
feated by Gelon. 

479. Syracuse governed by 
Hiero. 



477. The 300 Fabii slain. 



467. Thrasybulus succeeds 
Hiero, and is expelled for 
his cruelty. 

Democracy in Syracuse. 



461. Earthquake at Rome. 



456. Cincinnatus Dictator. 



22 



THE world's progress. 

Tim Sixth Period. — [The Fersian.)- 



B.c Pkogeess op Society, etc. 



The Bfitona inflict punish- 
ment of death by drowning 
in a quagmire. 



Herodotus reads his history in 
the Athenian council. — E7n- 
pedocles, Parmenides, Aris- 
tippus, and Antisthenes, 
philosophers. — Phidias the 
finest sculptor of antiquity. 
— Euripides, tragic poet. 

The Battering Ram invented 
hy Anemones. 



Aristophanes, prince of an- 
cient comedy. 



Melon begins his lunar cycle. 

Socrates, the greatest of hea- 
then moralists. 

Hippocrates, of Cos, the father 
01 medicine. 

Thucydides, Ctesias, histo- 
rians. 

Democritus, the laugliing phi- 
losopher. 



An eclipse of the sun causes 
the defeat of the Atlienians 
at Syracuse 



Thucydides' history ends, and 
Xenophon's begins. 



445. Walls of Jerusalem built 
by Nehemiah. 

Sect of Samaritans. 



449. Persians defeated at Sa- 
lamis in Cyprus. 
Peace with Greece. 



438. Spartacua takes posses 
sion of the Bosphorus. 



425. Xerxes n. k. of Per.-ia 
424. Darius 11. k. ol lV;rsia. 



4(M. Artaxerxes H. (JVuiemon.) 

king of Persia. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 

258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 



23 



414 



407 



Amyrteeus, king of Egypt, 
shakes off the yoke of Per- 
sia. 



The Carthaginians send 300,- 
000 men into Sicily. 



454. Perdiccas, II., king of Ma- 
cedon. 

449. Cimon makes peace with 

Persia. 
448. First Sacred War. 
447. Athenians defeated at Che- 

ronoea. 



440. Pericles takes Samos. 



437. Amphipolis planted by 

Athenians. 
436. Corinth at war with Cor- 

cyra. 



432. Revolt of Potidaea from 
the Athenian confederacy 

431. The Peloponnesian War. 
Invasion of Attica. 

430. The Plague at Athens. 

429. Pericles dies, having goV' 
emed Athens 40 years. 

425. An earthquake separates 
the peninsula of Eubcea 
from the main land. 

424. Exile of Thucydides. 

Campaign of Brasidas in 

420. The 'gOth Olympiad. 

Alcibiades effects a treaty 
between the Athenians and 
Argives. 

416. Nicias, general of the 
Athenians. 

War in Sicily . 

414. The Athenians .Tlarmed by 
an eclipse, are repulsed be- 
fore Syracuse. 

413. Archelaus, king of Mace- 
don. 

412. Athens governed by the 
400. — Alliance of Sparta 
with Persia. 

411. Alcibiades at the court of 
Tissaphemes. 

410. Alcibiades defeats the 
Spartans. 



408. Capture of Byzantium. 

405. Lysander defeats the 
Athenians — takes Athens, 
and establishes the 30 ty- 
rants. 

End of the Peloponnesian 
War. 

Death of Alcibiades. 



Rome, etc. 



451. Decemviri— the laws of 
the 12 tables. 

Virginia killed by her 
father. 



446. Syracuse reduces Agri- 
gentum. 

445. Military Tribunes. 

444. Office of Censor insti- 
tuted. 

440. Famine in Rome. 



437. The Veil defeated. 



434. War with the Tuscans. 

433. The temple of Apollo de- 
dicated. 

431. The Equi and Volsci de- 
feated. 



24 



THE world's progress. 

The Sixth Period. — ( The Persian.)- 



B.c. Progress op Society, etc, 



377 



368 



360 



CatapultcB, invented by Diony- 



Cynics, sect of philosophers 
founded by Antisthenes, 



Plato, the philosopher. 
Philoxenes, the poet. 



Treatise on conic sections by 
Arist(Bus. 



Diogenes, the cynic ; Isocrates 
and Isoius, orators. 



A celestial globe brought into 
Greece from Egypt. 



Philippics of Demosthenes. 



Commerce of Rhodes with 
Africa and Byzantium 



3GC. Jeshua slain by Johan- 
nan in the inner court of the 
temjDle, for which a heavy 
fine is laid on the daily sacri- 
fices. 



401. Cyrus the younger de- 
feated.— Retreat of the 10,000 
imder Xenophon. 

400. The city of Delhi found 
ed. 



387. The Greek cities of Asia 
tributaiy to Persia. 

383, BITHYNIA becomes a 
kingdom. 

Mithridates 1st, king of 
PONTUS. 



362. Ariobarzanes king of Pon- 
tu3. — Revolt of the Persian 
governor in Asia Minor. 

361. Darius Ochus, or Artax- 
erxes III. king of Persia. 

360. CAPPADOCIA becomes 
a kingdom under Ariarathes L 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



25 



258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 



362 



360 



The Ci^rthaginians land in 
Italy" 



Tachos, king of Egypt. 

Agesilaus, the Spartan, 
aids the Egyptians. 



Voyages of the Carthaginians 
under Hanno. 



401. Thrasybulus espela the 
30 tyrants. 

Death of Socrates. 



399. Amyntas II., king of Ma^ 
cedon. 



396. Agesilaus goes into Asia, 
395. Corinthian War begun.— 
Battle of Coronea. 



382. Thebes taken by Phcebi- 
das. 

380. Thebes delivered by Pelo- 
pides and Epaminondas. 
100th Olympiad. 

377. Spartan fleet defeated at 
Naxos. 

372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe- 
loponnesus, swallowed up 
by an earthquake. 

371. Battle of Leuctra. 

Alexander II., kingofMa- 
cedon. 
Predominance of Thebes. 

370. Perdiccas III., king of 
Macedon. 

364. Pelopidas killed in-battle. 

362. Battle of Mantinea, death 
of Epaminondas. 

Decline of Grecian 
Republics. 

360. Philip II., king of Mace- 
don. defeats the Athenians 
at Methone. 

The Macedonian phalanx. 

War of the allies against 
Athens. 



358. Philip takes Amphipolis 

and loses his right eye by an 

arrow from Astoi\ 
357. The 2d Sacred War. 
356. Philip conquers Thrace 

and Illyria. 

The Temple of Diana at 

Ephesus burnt. 

A L B X A N D E R " the 

Great" bom. 



Rome and Italy. 



400. Siege of Veil begun. 



397. Lake Alba drained. 



391. Camillus, Dictator, takes 
Veii, after a siege of ten 
years. 

390. Rome taken and burnt by 
the Gauls, under Brennus. 
— The Capitol besieged. — 
Camillus delivers his coun- 
try. 

386. Damon and Pythias. 

384. M. Manlius Capilolinua 
thrown from the Tarpeian 
rock. 



379. The Volsci defeat the 
Romans. 



376. Lucius Sextus, first ple- 
beian consul. 

Camillus, the fifth time 
Dictator. 

371. The curule magistrates 
appointed. 



362. Curtius leaps into a gulf 
' in the Forum. 



357. Dionysius, the younger, 
expelled from Syracuse. 



26 



THE world's progress. 

SEVENTH PERIOD.— (TAe Grecian.)- 



B.C. Progress of Society, etc- 



343 



336 



328 



320 



Aristotle, the logician and phi- 
losopher, founder of the Pe- 
ripatetics; uEschines, ora- 
tor. 

Demosthenes ; Jcetas, of Syra- 
cuse. 

The Lyceum built in Attica. 



Alexander spares the house of 

Pindar. 
The revolution of eclipses first 

calculated by Calippus, the 

Athenian. 

Caustic painting or the art 
of burning colors into icooei 
or ivory, invented by Gau- 
sias, a painter of Sicyon. 



The voyage of Nearchus from 

the Indus to the Euphrates. 
Apelles, the painter ; Calis- 

thenes, philosopher. 
Menander, the inventor of the 

new comedy. 
Lysistratus invents moulds 

from which to cast wax 

figures. 



First work on mechanics, writ 
ten by Aristotle. — Diving 
Bell first mentioned. 



Alexander enters Jerusa- 
lem. — On seeing Jaddus, the 
High Priest, clad in his 
robes, he declares he had 
seen him in a vision, invit- 
ing him to Asia, and pro- 
mising him the Persian em- 
pire. He goes to the Tem- 
ple, offers sacrifices to Jeho- 
vah, and departs. 



320. Ptolemy carries 100,000 
Jews into Eypt. 
Onias I. 



336. Mithridates 11., king of 
Pontus. 



334. Battle of the Granicus. 

333. Battle of Issus. — Parthia, 
Bactria, Hyrcania,Sogdiana, 
and Asia Minor, conquered 
by Alexander. 

332. Tyre subdued after seven 
months' siege. 

Damascus taken. — Gaza 
surrenders. 

331. Battle of Arbela.— The 
Persian army totally defeat- 
ed. 

330. CONQUEST of the PER- 
SIAN EMPIRE. 

329. Thalestris, queen of the 
Amazons, visits Alexander, 
with a train of 300 women. 

328. Alexander extends his 
conquest to the Ganges. 

323. Alexander dies at Baby- 
lon. 

322. Perdiccas takes Cappa- 
docia. 



320. Eumenes defeated by An- 
tigonus. 



THE world's progress. 



27 



184 years. — Alexatider to the Fall of Gh'mce. 



319 



340 



332 



323 



Darius Ochus conquers Egypt, 
and pillages its temples. 



The Carihaginians defeated by 
Timoleon. 



Egypt conquered by Alexan- 
der. 

Alexandria built. 



Ptolemy I. (Soter, son of La- 
gus.) 



Greece — Macedon. 



353. The Phocians defeated bv 
Philip. 

348. End of the Sacred War. 
Philip takes Olynthus. 

346. Philip admitted to the 
Amphictyonic Comicil. 

345. Duras buried by an earth- 
quake. 

343. Thrace tributary to Mace- 
don. 

Aristotle appointed tutor 
to Alexander. 



341. Philip makes war upon 
Athens. 

•340. — lays siege to Byzantium. 
Timoleon recovers Syra- 
cuse, expels Dionysius, the 
tyrant, and defeats the Car- 
thaginians at Agrigentum. 

338. Philip defeats the Greeks 
at Cheronea. 

336. Philip is murdered by 
Pausanias. 

ALEXANDER III., sur- 
named the Great. — He rava- 
ges Greece, destroys Thebes, 
sparing the house of Pindar. 

335. ^is chosen generalissimo 
of Greece against Persia. 

334. — invades Persia, and after 
several great battles (see 
" Asia ") subdues the Per- 
sian empire and Egypt, and 
marches into India. 



330. .ffischines, the orator, 
banished. 



325. Demosthenes banished. 

323. Death of Alexander. — 
The Grecian cities revolt 
from Macedon. — Demosthe- 
nes recalled. 

322. The Greeks defeated by 
sea and land near Cranon. 
Death of Demosthenes. 

321. Antipater, regent. 



319. Polysperchon succeeds 
Antipater, and proclaims 
liberty to the Grecian cities- 



Rome, etc. 



354. Dion put to death, and 
Syracuse usurped by ty- 
rants. 



345. Twelve cities in Campa- 
nia buried by an earthquake. 

343. Samnian War, which con- 
tinues 53 years. 



340. P. Decius aevoles him- 
self for his courtry. 

All Campania is subdued. 



332. The Caledonian mo- 
narchy (Scotland) founded 
by Fergus I. 



325. Papirius Cursor, Dictator. 



Kl. The Samnites make the 
Romans pass under the yoke. 

.320. The Samnites defeated at 
Luceria. 



28 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



The Seventh Period. — (TAe Grecian^ — 



B. c. Progress of Society, etc. 



Commerce of Macedon with 
India, through Egypt. 



The Appian Way constructed. 
— The Gnomon inventecl to 
measure altitudes. 



Aqueducts and baths in Rome. 



311. Judea subject to Ar.tigo- 
nus. 



Euclid, of Alexandria, the 
celebrated mathematician. — 
Zeiio, founder of the Stoics ; 
—Pyrrho, of the Skeptics ; 
Epicurus, of the Epicu- 
reans. — Bion, of Borysthe- 
nes, philosopher. 

The great Chinese Wall built. 



The first sun-dial erected at 
Rome by Papirius Cursor, 
and the time first divided 
into hours. 



Fabius mtroduces painting at 
Rome. 

The Colossus of Rhodes 
built by Chares, of Lindus. 



Theocrites, the father of pas- 
toral poetry. 

Dionysius, the astronomer at 
Alexandria, begins his era. 
He found the solar year to 
consist of 365 days, 5 hours, 
and 49 minutes. 

The Septuagint translation of 
the old Testament, begun at 
Alexandria, by order of Pto 
lemy Philadelphus. 



The Jews. 



301. Judea under the domi- 
nion of the Ptolemies. 



284. The sect of the Sadducees. 



312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicator. 



311. Seleucus Nicator retakes 

Babylon. 

Era of the SeleucidtB. 
310. Eumeles usurps the 

throne of Bosphorus, putting 

to death all his brothers. 

After a reign of six years, is 

murdered. 



305. War in India, against 

Sandrocottus. 



301. Battle of jfpsws.— Antigo- 
nus killed. 

ALEXANDER'S EM- 
PIRE DIVIDED in four 
parts. — Ptolemy, Seleucus, 
Cassander, Lysimachus. 

Mithvidates III., king of 
Pontus. 



291. Seleucus founds Antioch, 
Edessa, and Laodicea. 



285. The Scythians invada 
Bosphorus, 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



29 



184 years. — (Continued.) 



307 

306 



Agathocles is defeated by the 
Carthaginians. 

Peace between Sicily and Car- 
thage. 



318. Phocion put to death by 
the Athenians. 

317. Cassander assumes 
the government of Macedon, 
Demetrius Phalerius gov- 
erns Athens. 

315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes, 
and founds Cassandria. 



312. Epirus : P y r r h u s II., 

the greatest hero of his time. 



306. Democracy established at 
Athens by Demetrius. 

304. Athenians •repulsed from 
Rhodes. 

303, Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
general of the Grecian States. 



300. Restoration of Democracy 
at Athens. 



291. Death of Cassander. — 
Alexander and Antipater 
succeed. 

296. Siege of Athens, by De- 
metrius. 

294. Demetrius murders Alex- 
ander, and seizes the throne 
of Macedon. 



287. Athens revolts from De- 
metrius. 

286. Pyrrhus expelled from 
Macedon. 



2&1. The Achtean Republic. 



Rome, etc. 



317. Syracuse and Sicily usurp- 
ed by Agathocles. 



312. War with the Etruscans 



310. The Carthaginians defeat 
Agathocles, and besiege Sy- 
racuse. 

308. Fabius Maximus 
defeats the Samnites. 



303. Establishment of 
Tribus Urbancb. 



the 



300.First Plebeian High Priest. 



290. End of the Samnite War. 



86. Law of Hortensius, by 
which the decrees of the 
people had the force of those 
of the senate. 



30 



THE world's progress. 



The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.) — 



B.C. 


Progress op Society, etc. 


The Jews. 


Asia. 


283 
281 


The Pharos built at Alesan- 
dria, the first light-house on 
record. 

Philetaerus, of Pergamus, pa- 
tron of the arts, especially 
Architecture. 

Alexandria, the resort of the 
learned, and centre of trade. 

Chariots armed with scythes, 
axA fortified camps, in use. 




282. The kingdom of PER- 
GAMUS founded by Phile- 
t«rus. 

281. Lysimachus defeated and 
killed by Seleucus.— Antio- 
chus Soter succeeds Seleu- 
cus. 


276 


First society of critics formed. 


• 




267 
266 


Ptolemy makes a :anal from 

the Nile to the Red Sea. 
Silver money first coined. 




266. Ariobarzanes III., king of 

Pontus. 


264 


The Parian Chronicle com- 
posed. 

Gladiators first exhibited at 
Rome. 










262. Antiochus Soter defeated 
at Sardis. 


256 
255 


Beroszis, the historian of Ba- 
bylon. 

The armillary sphere invented 
by Erastosthenes, who made 
the first attempt to determine 
the length of a degree. 

Greece instructs the Romans 
in the arts and sciences. 


248. Onias 11., high priest. 


256. Kingdom of PARTHIA 
fotmded by Arsaces. 

255. The fourth imperial dy- 
nasty of China begins. 

252. Mithridates IV., besieged 
in his capital by the Gauls. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



31 



184 2/mr5.— (Continued.) 



283 



Ptolemy Philadelphua king of 
Egypt. 



269 



256 



251 



Egypt first sends ambassadors 
to Rome. 



Regulus invades Africa, and is 
defeated by Xantippus, a 
Spartan general. 



Metellus defeats Asdrubal. 



283. Lysimachia destroyed by 
an earthquake. 



281. Lysimachus defeated and 
slain by Seleucus. 

The Achasan League of 
12 states, under Aratus, of 
Sicyon. 



279. Irrruption of the Gauls 

under Brennus. 
278. — they are defeated near 

Delphi. 
277. Antigonus Gonatus, king 

of Macedon. 



274. Pyrrhus iftvades Mace 
don, defeats Antigonus, and 
is proclaimed king. 



272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta 
and Argos — is slain, and An- 
tigonus is restored. 



268. Athens taken by Antigo- 
nus Gonatus. 

Second incursion of the 
Gauls into Macedon. 



255. Antigonus liberates 
Athens. 

Athens joins the Achasan 
league. 



251. Sicyon joins the Achaean 
league. 

250. The Romans begin to re- 
sort to Greece for improve- 
ment in knowledge. — Par- 
thia revolts from Macedon. 



Rome, etc. 



283. The Gauls and Eim- 
rians subdued. 



281. The Tarentine War. 



280. The Tarentines seek the 
alliance of Pyrrhus, who 
conquers the Romans at 
Pandosia, and at 

279 — Asculum. 

278. Sicily conquered by Pyrr- 
hus. 



275. Curius defeats Pyrrhus, 
and compels him to leave 
Italy. 



272. Fall of Tarentum. 



266. Rome mistress of all Italy : 
census of the city 292,224. 

264. The iirst PUNIC WAR. 
— Appius Claudius drives 
Hiero from Syracuse. 

260. D u i 1 1 u s gains a vic- 
tory over the Carthaginian 
fleet. 

256. Regulus gains ano- 
ther victory. 

255. The Lacedemonians as- 
sisting Carthage. — Xantip- 
pus defeats Regulus, and 
takes him prisoner. 

254. Palermo besieged by the 
Romans. — About this time 
the Huns are first heard of, 
governed by Teuman. 

249. Naval fight at Drapanum 



32 



THE world's progress. 



The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.)—^ 



B. c Prooress op Society, etc. 



Agrarianism attempted in 
Sparta, but is put down. 



Comedies first acted at Rome, 
those oiLivius Andronicits. 



The original MSS. of JEschy- 
lus, Euripides and Sopho- 
cles, lent by the Athenians 
to Ptolemy, on a pledge of 15 
talents. 



Fabius Pictor, the first Roman 
historian. 

Appollonius Rhodius, poet. — 
Chrysippus, Stoic philoso- 
pher. 

ArchiTnedes, the mathemati- 
cian, demonstrates the pro- 
perties of the lever, and 
other mechanical powers, 
also the art of measuring 
solids and surfaces,and conic 
sections — constructs a.plane- 
tarium. 



The art of Surgery introduced. 
An eclipse of the moon ob- 
served in Asis Minor. 



The Jews. 



237. Simon II., High Priest. 



246. Antiochus II. poisoned by 
his wife. 



211. Attains I., king of Perga. 
mus. 



226. Seleucus III., k. of Syria. 



224. The Colossus of Rhodei 
thrown down. 



213. Chi Hong Ti destroys tha 
records of the Chinese em- 
pire. 

211. Antiochus tha 
Great, king of Syria. 



THE world's rROGRESS. 



33 



184 years. — (Continued.) 



227 



Hamilcar Barcas, general of 

the Carthaginians. 
Ptolemy Eurgetes subdues Sy- 



Greece. 



End of the Libyan War. 
Hamiloar with Hannibal, pass- 
es into Spain. 



Carthagena in Spain, built by 
Asdrubal. 



219 



Ptolemv Philopater, king of 
Egypt. 



Conquests of Hannibal, 
the Carthaginian, in Spain ; 
He crosses the Alps. 



Rome, etc. 



213. Corinth taken by Aratus. 

312. Demetrius H., of Mace 
don. 

241. Agis, king of Sparta, put 
to death for attempting to es- 
tablish an Agrarian law. 

240. Cleanihus, the Stoic, 
starves himself. 



232. Philip III., of Macedon. 

228. Roman ambassadors first 
appear at Athens and Co- 
nnth. 

The fortress of the Athe- 
naeum built. 



226. Cleomenes, king of Spar- 
ta, defeats the Achaeana. — 
Lyscades killed. — The Agra- 
rian law restored. 

225. The Romans send another 
embassy to Greece. They 
are admitted to a share in 
the Isthmian games, and 
granted the freedom of Ath- 
ens. 

223. Cleomenes takes Megalo- 
polis. 
222. Battle of Sellasia. 



220. The S o c i a 1 W a r . 
— Philip, of Macedon, as- 
sists the Achaeans. — Cleome- 
nes dies in Eyypt. — Agesi- 
polis and Lycurgus elected 
kings of Sparta. 

218. Acanania ceded to Philip. 



215. Aratus poisoned at 

.^gium. 
214. First Macedonian War, 



211. Alliance of Philip with 
Hannibal. 



247. Hamilcar defeats the Ro- 
mans at Liliboeum. 



241. End of the first Punic 
War. 



231. Sardinia and Corsica con- 
quered by Rome. 



225. The Gauls repulsed in 
Italy. 



224. The Romans first cross 

the Po. 
223. Colonies of Placen- 

i i a and Cremona. 
222. Insubria (Milan) andLigu- 

ria (Genoa) conquered by 

Rome. 



219. Hannibal takes Sagun- 
tum, and crosses the Alps. 



218. The Second Punic 
War .—The Romans de- 
feated by Hannibal at T i - 
c i n i s and T r e b i a . 

217. F 1 a m i n i u s defeated 
at Thrasymene. 

216. Varro at C a n n ae to- 
totally defeated by Hannibal. 
Fabius Maximus, 
Dictator. 

212. Syracuse and Sicily con- 
quered by M a r c e 1 1 u s . 
— Archimedes killed. 

211. The Carthaginians driven 
from Capua. 



2* 



34 



THE world's progress. 



The Seventh Perwd. — {The Grecian.) — 



B.C. Progress op Societt, etc. 



Ennius, of Calabria, poet; 
Sotion, of Alexandria,, a 
grammarian. 

Plautus, of TJmbria, the co 
mic poet ; Appollonius, of 
Perga, mathematician; Ze 
no, of Tarsus, the philoso 
pher. 

Gold coined at Rome. 



The art oi printing in China. 



Aristonymus 4th, librarian of 

Alexandria. 
Caius Lelius-i the Roman 

orator. 



Books, with leaves of vellum, 
introduced by Attalus, king 
of Pergamus, in lieu of rolls. 



A total eclips,^. of the sun at 

Rome. 
Asiatic luxuries brought to 

Rome. 



A co7net visible 80 days. 
Bion and Moschus, comic 
poets. 

Statius Ccbcilius, comic poet. 



The Jews. 



203. JUDEA CONaUERED 3Y 
ANTIOCHUS THE GREAT. 



201. Onias III., High Priest. 



200. Jesus, the son of Sirach, 
writes Ecclesiasticus. 



198. The Jews assist Antio- 
chus in expelling Scopas and 
the Egyptian troops from 
Jerusalem. 

First mention of a Senate or 
Sanhedrim. 



206. The dynasty of H a n in 
China. 



197. Euraenes, king of Perga- 
mus. 

196. Hannibal joins Antiochus, 
who seizes the Thracian 

Chersonese. 



192. Syria at war with Rome. 
190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats 
Antiochus at Magnesia. 



187. Antiochus killed in the 
temple of Jupiter Belus.— 
Syria becomes a 
Roman province. 

186. The city of Artaxata (in 
Armenia) built. 

185. Seleucus IV.. king of Sy- 
ria. 

183. Phamacesl.,king of Pon- 
tus, conquers S i n o p e . 



THE world's progress. 



35 



184 years. — (Continued. 



202 



193 



180 



Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of 
Egypt. 

The Roman general Scipio be- 
sieges Utica, and takes in 
one day the camps of Asdru- 
bal and Syphax. 

Hannibal recalled.— Sophonis- 
ba poisoned by Masinissa. 

Hannibal defeated at Z a m a . 
—End of the 2d Punic War. 



Treaty of Carthage with Ma- 
sinissa, king of Nunaidia. 

Egypt loses her Syrian posses- 
sions. 



Masinissa harasses the Cartha- 
ginians, and injures their 
commerce. 



Ptolemy Philometer, king of 
Egypt. 



208. Battle of Lamia, near Elis. 
— Philip, of Macedon, de- 
feats the .SItolians. 



206. Battle of Mantinea : 
Philopcemen, the Prae- 
tor of Achaia, defeats the 
Spartans. 



200. The Rhodians defeat the 
Macedonian fleet near Chios. 
— Siege of Abydos. — Second 
Macedonian War begins. 



198. The Achseans and Spar- 
tans join the Romans against 
Macedon. 

I9r. Philip in. defeated at Cy- 
nocephatas by the Romans, 
under Flaminius. 

195. Flaminius, the Roman, 
quarrels with Nabis, king of 
Sparta. 



189. Epirus declared free by 
the Romans. 

18. Philopcemen abrogates 
the laws of Lycurgus in 
Sparta. 



183. PhilopoBmen defeated and 
killed by Dinocrates, king of 
Messinia. 



Rome, etc. 



210. Scipio takes New 
Carthage, and conquers As- 
drubal. 

207. Nero and Livy defeat As- 
drubal at Metaurus — Asdru- 
bal killed. 

206. The Carthaginians driven 
out of Spain. 



204. Scipio carries the war 
into Africa. 



201. Scipio carries Syphax in 
triumph to Rome. 



197". Flaminius victorious in 
Macedon. 

195. C a t o in Spain. 



190. War with Antiochus, of 
Syria, who is totally defeat- 
ed by L. C. Scipio, and 

188. Syria is made a Roman 
province. 

187. Scipio Africanus banish- 
ed from Rome. 



183. Cato,the elder, censor. 
181. Plague at Rome. 

180. Death of Scipio Africa- 
nus. 

179. Numa's books found in a 
stone coffin at Rome. 



36 



THE world's progress. 

The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.)- 



B.C. 


Progress op Society, etc. 


The Jews. 


Asia. 






176. Heliodorus in Jerusalem. 








175. Jason obtains the high 








priesthood by corruption. 








172. Jason defeated by Mene- 


172. Antiochus IV. (Epipha- 






laus. 


nes) king of Syria. 
171 — declares war against Pto- 
lemy Philomater. 


172 


Paper invented in China. 


170. Jerusalem and the temple 


170. An irruption of Tartars 


169 


Polybius, historian of Greece 


plundered by Antiochus 


into China. 




and Rome. 


Epiphanes, who attempts to 






The comedies of Terence per- 


abolish the Jewish religion, 






formed. , 


and commits great cruelties. 




168 


An eclipse of the moon, which 
was predicted by Q. S. Cal- 
lus. 

The first library opened at 






167 


167. Matthias, High Priest. 






Rome, consisting of books 




166. Prusias, kirgof Eithynia. 




brought from Macedon. 








The Roman treasury is so rich 


165. Judas Maccabeus ex- 






that the citizens pay no 


pels the Syrians, and puri- 






taxes. 


fies the temple. 




162 


Hipparchus of Nice fixes the 
first degree of longitude and 














latitude at Ferro, whose 
most western point was 




164. Antiochus Epiphanes 
died. 




made the first general meri- 
dian — lays the foundation of 




162. Demetrius Soter, king of 
Syria. 

Mithridates Philopater, 
king of Cappadocia. 


161 


Trigonometry. 
Philosophers and rhetoricians 
banished from Rome. 


161. Judas kills Nicanor — is 




succeeded by Jonathan. 






First treaty with the Ro- 








mans. 








158. Jonathan compels the Bac- 








chides to withdraw— is mur- 




159 


The clepsydra or icater clock 


dered by Tryphon. 






invented by Scipio Nascia. 




157. Mithridates V., king of 
Pontus. 

153. Ariarathes VII., king oi 
Cappadocia. 


150 


Hipparchus, of Rhodes, astro- 


150. Jews take Joppa. 


150. Alexander Bala kills Dc- 




nomer. — Aristarchus, of 
Alexandria, grammarian. 




metrius,and takes the throne. 
149. Prusias, of Bithynia, kill 




' 




ed by his son Nicomedes. 



THE world's progress, 

184 years. — (Continued.) 



37 



174 



H6 



Cato's embassy to Carthage. 



Massinissa defeats the Cartha- 
ginians. 

Joint reign of Philomater and 
Physcon in Egypt. 



CARTHAGE TAKEN 

destroyed. 



178. Perseus, king of Mace- 
don. 



171. Third Macedonian War. 



168. Perseus defeated at Pyd- 
na, by Paulus Emilius.— 
Macedon becomes a Ro- 
man Province. 



165. Romans enter Achaia. 



155. Embassy of Diogenes, 
Camiades, and Critolaus to 
Rome. 



152. Andriscus usurping the 
government of Macedon, is 
conquered by Metellus. 



147. Metellus defeats the Ach- 
asans in Greece. 

146. Corinth taken and de- 
stroyed by Mummius. — 
GREECE becomes a RO- 
MAN PROVINCE under 
the name of Achaia. 



Rome, etc. 



170. Tibe rius and Caius 
Gracchus. 



167. Census 327,032. 



155. Romans unsuccessful in 
Spain. 



151. Defeat of Galba, 



149. Third Punic War. 



Con3uest of Carthage and 
of Corinth. 

Greece annexed to the 
Roman empire. 



38 



THE world's progress. 

EIGHTH PEKIOD.— (T^e Roman.)- 



B.C. 


Progress of Society, etc. 


The Jews. 


Asia. 


146 


Alexandria, the centre of C07n- 
merce. 






143 


Hipparchiis begins his new 








cycle of the moon. 


142. Simon, High Priest. 




140 


Toothed wheels applied to the 
clepsydra by Ctesibius. 






137 


Learning and learned inen 




137. Antiochus IV., (Sidetes,) 




liberally patronized by Ptol- 




king of Syrieu 




emy Physcon. 








Diodorus and Satyrus, peri- 
patetics ; Nicanaer. physi- 














cian and poet ; Lucius Ac- 


135. End of the Apocrypha. — 






cius, tragic poet ; Aristobu^ 
Ins, the Jewish peripatetic. 


Jerusalem besieged by An- 
tiochus IV. 


134. Antiochus invades Judea. 


133 


Equestrian order, a distinct 
class. 






130 


Revival of learning in China. 


130. John Hyrcanus delivers 


130. Antiochus IV. defeated 






Judea from the Syrian yoke : 


and killed in a war with Par- 






— reduces Samaria and Idu- 


thia. 






mea. 


129. Demetrius H. (Nicator) 

regains Syria. 
123. Mithridates the Great, 


120 


The theory of eclipses known 
to the Chinese. 




king of Pontus. 








116 


L. Ccdius Antipater, histo- 
rian ; Lucillius, the first 
Roman satirist ; Apollodo- 
rus, of Athens, clironologist ; 
Castor, of Rhodes, chrono- 
logist; Anthemon, philoso- 








pher. 




HI. Mithridates conquers Scy- 


110 


First sumptuary law at Rome. 




thia, Bo,?phorus, Colchis, 






108. Hyrcanus destroys Sama- 


&c. 






107. — succeeded by his son 








Aristobulus, who first as- 








sumes the title of king. 








105. Alexander Janneus at 








war with Egypt— takes Ga- 








za. — Rebellion excited by 








the Pharisees. 





THE world's progress. 

146 years. — Fall of Greece to the Christian Era. 



39 



B.C. 


Africa-. 


Roman 


Empire. 


146 


Commerce of the world cen- 
tres at Alexandria. 


In the East. 


In Europe. ■ 


145 


Ptolemy Physcon becomes 
sole king of Egypt by the 
death of Philomater. 




141. Numantian War. 






' 


140. The Picts from the north 
of England settle m the south 
of Scotland. 

135. Servile war in Sicily. 






133. PfiRGAMUS, a Roman 


133. Numantia destroyed by 






Province. 


Scipio : Spain becomes a 
Roman Province. 

Death of Tiberius Grac- 
chus. 


129 


Ptolemy Physcon driven from 
his throne for his cruelty. 






128 


Pestilence in Egypt. 






123 


Carthage rebuilt. 




123. Tribunate of Caius 


118 


Death of Micip^a, king of 


118. Dalmatia, a Roman 


Gracchus. 




Numidia, and the assassina- 


Province. 






tion of Hiempsal by Jugur- 
tha. 
Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of 






116 








Jugurthine War. 




113. First great migration of 


112 




the German nations. 








109. War of the Teutoni and 








Cimbri. 


107 


Alexander I., king of Egypt. 






105 


Jugurtha is defeated and sur- 




105. Numidia becomes a Ro- 




renders Numidia to the Ro- 




man province by the defeat 




mans, 




of Jugurtha. 

104. The Teutoni defeat 80,000- 
Romans on the banks of the 
Rhone. 

102. M a r i u s victorious 
over the Teutom and Ambro- 
nes at Aquse Sextae. 

101. Marius and Catullus de- 
feat the Cimbri. 

100. Marius buys his sixth con- 
sulate. 

Banishment of Metellua 









40 



THE world's progress. 



The Eighth Period. — {The Roman.) — 



B. c Progress op Society, etc. 



Libraries of Athens sent to 
Rome by Sylla. 



Decline of Agriculture 
Italy; corn supplied from 
the provinces. 

Posidonius calculates the 
height of the atmosphere to 
be about 800 stadia. 

Zeno, of Sidon, the Epicurean ; 
Apellicon of Athens ; Alex- 
ander Polyphistor,the gram- 
marian ; Photius Gallup, 
rhetorician ; Q. Valerius 
Anlias, Roman historian ; 
Q. Hortensius, orator. 

The cherry tree brought to 
Europe from Asia by Lu- 
cullus. — Terentius Varro 
writes three books on agri- 
culture. 

The Romans possess gold 
mines in Asia Minor, Mace- 
donia, Sardinia and Gaul ; 
and productive silver mines 
in Spain. 

The first water mill described 
near a dwelling of Mithri- 
dates. 

Ebony introduced at Rome by 
Pompey. 

Vikramaditya, king of Ozene, 
in India, patron of literature 
— at his court flourish Aine- 
ra Sinka, lexicographer ; 
Vararuchi, grammarian ; 
Kalidasa, poet. 



79. Alexandra, widow of Jan- 
neus, governs Judea. 



70. Hyrcanus II., High Priest, 
deposed by his brother Aris- 
tobulus. 

67. Aristobulus and Hyrcanus 
appeal to Pompey, who en- 
ters Judea and takes Jerusa- 
lem, and restores Hyrcanus 
to the priesthood. 



98. China still submits to the 
Han dynasty ; S e m a t - 
z i n , Emperor. 

97. Mithridates conquers Cap- 
padocia. 

95. Cappadocia declared free 
by Rome. — Ariobarzanes 
elected king. 

94. Antiochus, king of Syria, 
defeated ly Seleucus. 

93. Tigranes, king of Arme- 
nia. 



9. Pontus at war with Rome. 



86. Mithridates takes Bythi- 
nia and several Roman pro- 
vinces. 

83. Tigranes made king of 
Syria. 



75. By the death of Nicome- 
des Bythinia becomes a 
province. 



63. JUDEA A ROMAN PRO- 
VINCE. 



70. Dafnascus possessed by 

the Romans. 
69. Mithridates and Tigranes 

defeated by Lucullus. 
66. Mithridates defeated by 

Pompey. 

65. Antiochus XII. defeated 
by Pompey.— The race of 
the Seleucidse becomes ex- 
tinct. — Ariobarzanes II., 
king of Cappadocia. — An 
earthquake in Bosphorus 
lays in ruins several towns. 

64. Dejotarus, king of Galatia, 
seizes Armenia Minor. 

63. Pharmaces, king of Pontus. 



THE world's progress. 



41 



146 years. — (Continued.) 



By the death of Ptolemy 
Apion, Cyrene becomes a 
Roman province. 



Thebes destroyed. 
Alexander II., king of Egypt. 



Roman Empire. 



In Asia and Africa. 



97. Annexation of Cyrene. 



9. Mithridatic War; Sylla 
commands the Roman army. 

8. The Athenians seek as- 
sistance from Mithridates 
against Rome. 

6. Athens, reduced by famine, 
is taken by Sylla. 

S3. Second Mithridatic War. 
Revolt in Dpper Egypt. — 82. Sylla plunders the temple 



Ptolemy Auletes, king of 
Egypt. 



of Delphi. 



79. P o m p e y defeats Do- 
mitius in Africa. 



75. Bythinia a Roman 
Province. 



74. Third Mithridatic War 
under LucuUus. 



In Europe. 

99. L u s i t a n i a conquered 
by Dolabella, and becomes 
a Roman province. — Birth 
of Julius Caesar. 



66. Metellus subdues Crete. 
P n t u s becomes a 

Roman Province. 
65. Syria, a Roman 

Province. 



91. Social War in Italy. 



8. Sylla defeating the 
Marsi and Peligni, puts an 
end to the Social War. 

Civil War between Ma- 
rius and Sylla. 



82. Sylla defeats Marius, and 
is cxea.ted perpetual dictator. 

SO. JULIUS CAESAR'S First 
Campaign. 



77. Sertorius revolts in Spain 
and defeats Metellus and 
Pompey. 



73. War of Spartacus, the gla- 
diator. 

71. Spartacus defeated by Cras 
sus. 



70. Pompey and Cras 

BUS Consuls. 
69. Census 450,090. 



65. M. T. Cicero, Consul. 



63. Cataline's Conspi- 
racy detected and sup- 
pressed by Cicero. 



42 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



The Eighth Period. — [The Roman.) — 



B.C. 


Progress op Society, etc. 


The Jews. 


Asia. 


62 


Magnificent houses of the 
nobles; marble theatre of 
Scaurus, to hold 30,000 spec- 
tators. 






60 


Cicero, statesman and orator ; 
Sallust, historian; Lucre- 
tius and Catullus, poets; 
ApoUonius, of Rhodes, rhe- 
torician ; Aristomedes, of 
Crete, grammarian ; Andro- 
nicus, of Rhodes, peripate- 
tic philosopher. 






S5 


Iron chain cables used by the 
Veneti. 










53. Crassus plunders the tem- 


53. Parthian War.— The Ro- 






ple of 10,000 talents. 


mans defeated. — Crassus 
slain. 


60 


A water mill on the Tiber at 
Rome. 










48. Antipater, the Idumean, is 
made lieutenant in Judea by 

Caesar. 


49. The era of Antioch. 


47 


The Alexandrian library (400,- 




47. Battle of Zela.— Phamacea 


46 


000 vols.) burnt. 
The year of confusion — so 
called because the calejidar 
was altered by Sosigenes. 




conquered by Caesar. 


45 


Ccesar reforms the Calendar, 
by introducing the solar in- 
stead of the lunar year.— 
First Julian year. — Vitru- 


' 






vius, the greatest Roman ar- 
chitect. 
Cornelius Nepos, historian; 




44. A comet seen m China. 


43 


43. Judea oppressed by Cras- 






Diodorus Siculus, histo- 
rian. 


sus. 

Malichus poisons Anti- 
pater. 
40. Herod the Great, son of 


** 






Antipater, defeats his rival. 


39. The Parthians, under Par- 






Antigonus, and Parcorus, 


corus, defeated by Venti- 






the Parthian— takes Jerusa- 


dius. 






lem—marries Mariamne — is 


Darius, king of Pontus. 






made king by the Romans. 


38. Aiiobarzanes dethroned by 
Marc Antony. 



THE world's progress. 

146 years. — (Continued.) 



43 



58 



46 



Ptolemy goes to Rome, Bere- 
nice reigns in his absence. 



The African War. — Scipio 
and Juba defeated at Thap- 
sus. — Cato kills himself at 
Utica. — Ptolemy Bionysius 
drowned in the Nile. 

Ceesar rebuilds Carthage. 



Cleopatra poisons her brother 
and reims alone. 



Roman Empire. 



East. 



53. Crassus defeated and killed 
in Parthia. 



48. Thessaly becomes the seat 
of war. — The Athenians de- 
clare for Caesar against Pom- 
pey. 

Battle of Pharsalia: — Pom- 
pey, defeated by Cessar, flees 
into Egypt, and is slain there. 

47. CcBsar takes Alexandria, 
and conquers Egypt. — Cse- 
sar victorious at Zela, ir 
Asia. 

45. Corinth rebuilt by Csesar. 



60. First TriumviTate : — 
Pompey, Crassus, and Julius 
Ccesar. 

Sciold, first king of Den- 
mark. — Boh, a fierce son 
of Odin. 

58. Clodius procures the ban 
ishment of Cicero. — The 
Helvetii defeated by Julius 
Csesar. 

57. Cicero recalled. — S a 1 - 
lust expelled from the 
senate. — Gylf, king of Swe- 
den. 

55. Cffisar passes the 
Rhine, defeats the Ger- 
mans and Gauls, and In- 
vades Britain. 

54. Caesar's second invasion 
of Britain. 



ij^. Pompey, sole consul. 

51. Csesar completes the con- 
quest of Gaul, which be- 
comes a Roman province. 

49. Caesar passes the 
Rubicon, and in sixty 
days makes himself master 
of Italy— marches into Spain 
and forces Porapey's troops 
to surrender. 

48. Battle of Dyrrhachium. 



45. Caesar perpetual 
dictator — he subdues 
the two sons of Pompey, and 
acquires the sole power. 

44. Caesar assassinated in the 
Senate House. 

43. Second Triumvirate : — 
Octavius Csesar, Marc An- 
tony, and Lepidue. — Cicero 
proscribed and murdered. 

42. The Battle of Philippi ;— 
Antony and Octavius defeat 
Brutus and Cassius. 



44 



THE world's progress. 

The Eighth Pe)-iod. — {The Romans 



B. 0. Progress op Socibty, etc. 



Golden age of Roman litera- 
ture. 

The revenue of the empire 
amounts to about 40 millions 
sterling. — First standing ar- 
my in Rome. — Direct trade 
of'^Rome with India. — Silk 
and linen manufactories 
in the empire. 

Temple of Janus at Rome 
closed— there being now a 
general peace. 



Treasures of Egyptian art 
brought to Rome. — The Pan- 
theon built. 

Horace, Virgil, Tibullus, 
Propertius, poets; Varrus 
and Tucca., critics ; Livy, 
historian ; McBcenas, minis- 
ter of Augustus, patron of 
literature; Strabo, geogra- 
pher; JEmiitus Macer, of 
Verona, poet ; Agrippa, war- 
rior, and patron of tne arts. 

Worship of Isis at Rome. 

Pantomimic dances intro- 
duced on the Roman stage. 



Aqueducts constructed by 
Agrippa. 

Dedications of byiks first in- 
troduced. 



The Jews. 



30. Herod kills Mariamne. 



19. Tlie Temple rebuilt by 
Herod — he also builds Cy- 
pron, Antipatris, PharsaBUs, 
and the to"wer of Phasael in 
Jerusalem. 



The legions distributed over 
the provinces in fixed camps, 
which soon grew into cities 
— among them were Bonn 
and Mayence. 

The calendar corrected by 

Augustus. 
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, 
historian ; and Dionysius, 
geographer. 

BIRTH OF OUR SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 4 years be- 
I fore the Vulgar Era. 
3. Archelaus succeeds Herod 
with the title of Ethnarch. 



Cyrenius taxes Judea. 



34. Antony takes possession 
of Armenia, which becomes 
a Roman province — leads 
an inglorious expedition 
against Parthia. 



29. Ephesus, next to 
Alexandria, the chief place 
of trade in the Roman em- 
pire. 



20. Porus, king of India, soli- 
cits an alliance with Rome. 
Parthians defeated by Ti- 
berius. 



14. Polemon coiiquers Bos- 
porus. 



THE world's progress. 



45 



146 years. — (Continued.) 



34 



30 



Roman Empire. 



East. 



Cleopatra obtains from An- 
tony a grant of Phoenicia, 
Cyrene and Cyprus. 

— receives all Asia from the 
Mediterranean to the Indus. 

Cleopatra and Marc Antony 
defeated by Octavius, at 
AcUum. 



Alexandria taken by Octavius. 
— Antony and Cleopatra de- 
stroy themselves. 

Egypt becomes a Ro- 
man province. 



21. Athens finally subjected to 

Rome. 
20. CXCth Olympiad. 



8. Tiberius at Rhodes. 

5. Q. Varrus appointed gov- 
ernor of Syria, and Cyre- 
nius governor of Judea. 



West. 



36. Sextus Pompey defeated 
in Sicily. 



32. Antony quarrels with Oc- 
tavius. 

31. By the BATTLE OF AC- 
TIUM Octavius acquires 
the empire. 



30. THE REPUBLIC BE- 
COMES A MONARCHY. 



29. Octav tus s 3 days triumph 
at Rome. 

Temple of Janus shut. 
Rome contains 4,101,017 
citizens. 
27. The titles of Augustus and 
Emperor conferred on Octa- 
vius for 10 years. 



23. Agrippa in Spain. 



22. Conspiracy of Muraena. 

21. Augustus visits Greece 
and Asia. 

16. Lollius defeated by the 
Germans. 

15. Cantabria, Austria, RhcE- 
bia, Vindelencia and Mcesia 
become Roman provinces — 
being conquered by Dru- 
sus. 

13. Augustus assumes the 
title of Pontifex Maxiraus. 

12. Pannonia, conquered by 
Tiberius, becomes a Ro- 
man province. 

11. Germany subdued by Ger 
manicus. 



4. Cymbeline, king of Britaia 



PA]IT II. 

MODERN CHRONOLOGY, 

FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 



Epochas or Periods. 



1. From 
t 

u. 
m. 

IV. 
V. 

VI. 
VII. 

vni 

IX. 
X. 
XI. 



.. the Christian Era \ Period of the Ten Persecutions of 

the Reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 ) Christians. 



Northern Invasions. 
Justinian and Belisarius. 



The Crusades. 



Extinction of the Western Empire, " 476 \ 

Flight of Mahomet, " 622 S 

CrowningofCharlemagneatRome, " 800 ( " Saracen Empire. 

Battle of Hastings, " 1066 ( " New Western Empvra. 

Founding of the Turkish Empire, " 1299 \ 

Taking of Constantinople, " 1453 ( " Tamerlane,WiMiffe,and Huso. 

\ " The Reformation; Discoveries 

Edict of Nantes, " 1598 \ and Inventions. 

i" The English Commonwealth 
and Wars of Louis XIV. 

} " American and French Revohi- 

Battle of Waterloo, " 1815 \ tions. 

( " European Revolutions, Litem- 

present time, (1850.) \ ture and the Arts. 



48 THE world's progress. 

MODERN" CHRONOLOGY— PERIOD 1st.— (TAe Ten Persecutions.)— 



A.D. 


Pkogbess op Society, etc. 


Sacred. 








The BIRTH OF CHRIST :-(see p. 44.) 
Herod Antipas being at this time tetrarch 
of Galilee. 








8. Christ reasons with the doctors. 


9 


Celsus, the physician; Phcedrus, the fabu- 
list ; Vellius Paterculus, Roman histo- 






rian. 






26 
30 


The Druids in Germany. 

Pkilo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato. 
Seneca, moral philosopher. 


2.5. Pontius Pilate, governor of Judea. 

26. John the Baptist begins his ministry. 

27. Christ baptized by John 

23. —at the marriage in Cana. — Matthew 
called. 

29. Twelve disciples sent abroad, " two and 
two." 

30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, Fri- 
day, April 3, at 3 P. M. ; Resurrectioti. 
Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday, 
May 4. 


33 

37 


Valerius Maximus, historian. 

Appion, of Alexandria, grammarian, called 
the "Trumpet of the World." 


33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius. 

34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 

39. St. Matthew writes his gospel. 

40. The disciples first called Christians ac 
Antioch. 








41. Herod's persecution ; St. Peter imprisoned 


48 


A census being taken by Claudius, the em- 
peror and censor, the inhabitants of Rome 
are fo'und to amount to 6,900,000. — (Univ. 
Sist.)— [More than three times the number 


44. St. Mark writes his gospel. — Death of 
St. James. 

45. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus. 


50 


of London at present.! 
Columella, born in Spain ; left twelve books 
on husbandry. 


50. Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at Athens. 








52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem. 








55. Paul preaches at Ephesus, and at Caesa- 
rea. 








57. — pleads before Felix. 
59. —pleads before Festus, and appeals to 
Caesar. 



THE world's progress. 



49 



306 years. — From the Christia7i Era to the reign of Constantine. 



Roman Empire. 



East. 
Caius Caesar makes peace with the Parthians. 



26 



Germanicus conquers Cappadocia. 
Germanicus poisoned at Antioch. 



Thrace becomes a Roman province. 



Tiberius returns to Rome. 

3. Cinna's conspiracy detected. 

— Caius Cassar dies. 
6. Q. Varrus encamped on the Weser, gov- 
erns Lower Germany like a Roman pro- 
vince. 
9. The Germans, under jlrwizjizus, defeat and 
kill Varrus. 
Ovid is banished to Tomos. 
14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and is 
succeeded by 

Tiberius .^M 



9. The Jews banished from Rome. — The 
Marcomanni conquered by Drusus. 
'21 . The theatre of Pompey destroyed by fire. 



26. Tiberius retires to Caprsa. 



31. Sejanus disgraced and put to death. 

33. Conquest of Mauritania. 
S7. Tiberius dies, aged 78. 



-Caligula. 



(noted for his profligacy and folly.) 
41. Caligula assassinated by Chereas. 



Claudius" 



succeeds to the throne. 
43. — invades Britain with his general, Plau- 
tius. 

45. Vespasian, general in Britain. 
48. Census of 'the city, 6,900,000. 



51. Caractacus, the chief of the Britons, con- 
quered and brought to Rome. 



N e r ,^ 



a profligate and bloody tyrant. 

55. — poisons Britanicus. 

56. Rotterdam built. 

59. Nero's mother, Agrippina, put to death by 
his order. 



50 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Modern : Period I. — 306 years. 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Nero's golden palace built ; of great extent, 
inclosing fields, &c. The buildings in 
Rome more regular after the fire. 



Pliny, the elder, author of the first natural 
history ; Quintius Curtius, historian ; Per- 
sius, satirist. 

Josephus, the Jewish historian. 



The Coliseum of Vespasian. 



The Capitol rebuilt. 
Circumnavigation of Scotland. 
Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 



Very beautiful paintings in the Baths of 
Titus ; the group of the Laocoon: 

Quintillian, orator ; Valerius Flaccus, poet 
Martial, Epigrammatist; ApoUonius, Py- 
thagorean philosopher; Epicletus, stoic: 
Dio Chrysostom, Greek rhetorician and phi- 
losopher ; Philo ByHius ; Ignatius and Pa- 
pias, two of the fathers of the church. 



Tacitus, historian; Juvenal, satirist; Sta- 
tius, poet; Aul. Gellius, Latin gramma- 
rian ; Plutarch, moralist and biographer ; 
the younger Pliny. 



The Ulpian library; Public schools in all 
the provinces ; Jurisprudence flourishes ; 
the city adorned with the Forum ; Pillar 
of Trajan, and baths; bridge built over 
the Danube. 



Sacred and Ecclesiastical. 



59. Paul is shipwrecked on the Island of 

Melita (Malta). 

60. Paul imprisoned at Rome 

63. Paul set at liberty. 

64. The first persecution (if Christians by 

Nero. 

63 to 66. I'aul visits Jerusalem, and travels 
through tlie greater part of the known 
world. 

66. Pope Linus.* 

The Jews at war with the Romans, and 
Paul beheaded. 
St. Peter crucified. 

67. The Jews massacred by Florua. — Josephus, 
governor of Galilee. 

Pope St. Clement. — Gamaliei, 

68. Vespasian invades Judea. 



70. The destruction of Jerusalem, by T4ua. 



77. Pope St. Cletus 



83. Pope Anacletus. 



95. Second persecution of the Christians by 
Domitian. 

St. John writes his Gospel and Apoca- 
lypse, and is banished to the isle of Patmoa. 

96. Pope Evaristus. 



97. Timothy stoned. 

St. John returns from exile. 

98. Christian assemblies prohibited by Trajan. 



* The word Pope is used in accordance 
with the Roman Catholic usa^e, though the 
name was not adopted by their Pontiffs tili 
several centuries after. 



— Christian Era to Constantine.'] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



51 



Roman Empire. 



60 



East. 



Corbuli subdues Armenia. 



Tiridates placed on the throne of Armenia by 
Nero. 



Judea subdued and Jerusalem destroyed by 

Tiius. 
Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace, 

Cilicia, Byzantium and Samos. 
Revolt of the Parthians. 



61. Revolt of the Britons under queen Boa- 
dicea ; they burn London. The queen, de- 
feated by Suetonius, poisons herself. 

64. Nero sets Rome on fire, and accuses the 
Christians of the crime. 

— persecutes the Christians — Seneca, Lu- 
cian, and others put to death. 



68.- 



Galba,' 



reigns 9 months, and is put to death by 



69.- 



■O the ,' 



(2 months) defeated and killed by 
-V it e 1 1 i us, 



who is defeated by the army of 
70. Vespasian. ^§ 



77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in 
one day. 



79.- 



— Titus ,' 



(beneficent.) 
Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed 
by an irruption of Vesuvius. 
80. Julius Agricola, conqueror and governor 
of Britain, reduces Wales, enters Caledonia. 



81. • 



-Domitian, ^g 
( a cruel tyrant.) 



86. Dercebal, leader of the German hordes, 
defeats Domitian, and compels him to pay a 
vearly tribute. 

88! Capitoline and secular games. 
War with Dacia 15 years. 



96. Domitian put to death by Stephanus. 



N e r V i 



(well intentioned but enfeebled by age.) 



-Trajan,' 



(a ereat sovereign anda warrior.) 
The Roman Empire at its greatest exieiv 
J. Severus, general in Britain. 



52 



THE world's progress. 



[Modern : Period I. — 306 years. 



107 



132 



180 



Progress op Society, etc. 



The first credible historian among the 
Chinese. 



The great buildings oi Palmyra.- 

the Sun at Baalbec. 
The Roman mosaics. 



-Temple of 



Jurisprudence improved by the publishment 
of Adrian's perpetual code. 

Ptolemy, the celebrated Egyptian astronomer 
and geographer — Arriati, Appian, Maxi- 
7nus, Lysius and Pausanius., Greek histo 
rians ; Lucian, a satirical writer ; Hermo- 
genes, rhetorician of Tarsus. 



Tschan^ Heng. the Chinese astronomer. 



Galen, Greek- physician ; Athceneus, a gram- 
marian; Diogenes Laertius, Greek histo- 
rian. 



The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. 



Ecclesiastical. 



100. St. John dies at Ephesus, aet. 94. 



107. Third persecution of the Christians by 

Trajan. 
lOy. St. Ignatius devoured by wild beasts. 
Pope Alexander I. 



118. Fourth persecution of the Christiana by 
Adrian. 

119. Pope Sixtusl. 



126. Quadratus, bishop of Athens. 

127. Pope Telesphorus. 

130. Heresy of Prodicus, chief of the Ada- 
mites. 



134. Heresy of Marcion, who acknowledge? 
three Gods. 

135. Polycarp and Aristides, Christian fathers. 

139. Pope Hygenus. 



142. Pope Pius J. 

Heresy of Valentine. 



150. Pope Anicetus. 

Canon of Scripture fixed about this time. 

154. Justin Martyr publishes his apology for 
the Christians. 



162. PopeSoter. 



167. Polycarp and Pionices martyred in Asia. 



171. Pope Eleutherus. 

177. The Christians persecuted at Lyf ns.— 
Theophilus, Tatian., and Montajias. 



185. Pope Victor I. 
St, Irenceus. 



-C/irisL'aii Era to Cimstantine.l 



THE WOU-LDS PB-OGllESS. 



Roman Empire. 



102 



East. 



Pliny, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan his 
account of the Christians. — Great victories 
of Trajan. 



Trajan's expedition against the Parthians. 



Seizure of Ctesiphon. 

Armenia Major again governed by its own 
kings dependent upon Rome. 

Nicomedia and other cities destroyed by an 
earthquake. 



Adrian in Asia Minor for seven years. 

Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, under the name of 

.a^lia Capitolina, and erects there a temple 

to Jupiter. 
The rebellion of the Jews crushed after a war 

of five years. — The Jews banished from 

Judea. 



160 



168 



E'lnbassy sent by Antoninus to China. 



War with the Parthians, lasts 3 years. 



West. 



100. The Huns emigrate westward. 

101. Trajan reduces Dacia. 



115. Massacre of the Greeks and Romans by 
the Jews of Gyrene. 



120. — makes s progress through all the 

121. provinces -visits Britain, builds there 
a wall from the Tyne to Solway Frith. — A 
wall built from the Rhine to the Danube. 



13S. — Antoninus Pius, ^g 

(eminent for his virtues and love of peace.) 

140. LoUius Urbicus extends the Roman do- 
minion in Britain, and erects a second ram- 
part, called the Wall of Antoninus. 

145. Antoninus defeats the Moors, Germans, 
and Dacians. 

146. -^introduces the worship of Serapis into 
Rome. 

152. — stops the persecution of the Christians. 



161.— Marcus Aurelius, ^^ (Anto- 
ninus,) 
(the stoic philosopher.) 
Escape of the thundering legion. 
158. Plague over the whole known world. 



169. The Marcomanni at war with Rome. 



180. The emperor dies at Sirmium: 
ceeded by 



C m m o d ti s . 



(profligate and cruel ;) makes peace 

with the Germans. 
GOTHS in Dacia. 



54 



THE WORLD S PROGRKSS. 



[Mode7'ii : Period I. — 306 yccon. 



Progress op Society, etc. 



242 



Papinian, the greatest civil lawyer of aniv 
quily — Julius Africmius, chronologer. 



Caracalla grants the right of Roman citizen- 
ship to all the provinces, that they may be- 
come liable to the taxes, inheritances, &c. 



Ecclesiastical. 



Ammonius, founder of a new school of Pla- 
tonic philosophy at Alexandria. 
Dio Cassius, Greek historian. 



Censorius, a critic and grammarian. 



Herodian, Greek liistorian. 
Longinus, philosopher and critic. 



197. Pope Zephyrinus. 



20" Fifth persecution of the Christians under 
Severus. — Tertullian, an able defender of 
Christianity. — Clemens, of Alexandria, and 
Mi7iutius Felix, C. F.* 



217. Pope Calixtus I. 

The Septuagint found in a cask. 



228. Pope Urban I. 
2.34. Pope Pontianus. 

235. Anterus. 

Driven, C. F. 

Sixth persecution of the Christians, under 
Maximinus, in which Leonidtts, IrencBus, 
Victor, Perpetua, and Felicitas are mar- 
tyred. 



244. Gregory Tkaumalurgus, anH Dionysiuf. 
of Alexandria, C. F. 



250. Pope St. Cornelius. 

Seventh persecution of the Christians 

* Christian Father. 



— Christian Era to Constantine.] 



THE world's progress. 



55 



Roman Empire. 



1S9 



East. 
The SARACENS defeat the Romans. 



242 



PERSIA ; the new kingdom begun by Avtax- 
erxes ; (the dynasty of the Sassasidas). 

Parlhia tributary to Persia. 



Gordiaii defeats the Persians under Sapoi- 



West. 

189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by light- 
ning. 

191. Rome nearly destroyed by fire. 

192. Commodus assassinated by Martia and 
Laetus. 



193.- 



Pertinax, 



proclaimed by the Preetonan guards — 
murdered after a reign of 3 months. — Th^; 
empire bought by JOidiiis Julianas, whu 
is put to death by order of the senate. 

Septimus Severus ,^§ 

(governs with vigor.) 
— defeats his competitors, Niger and Albi- 
nus. 
194. — besieges Byzantium. 
202. ^lersecutes the Christians. 
203 — his sons Caracalla and Geta go to Bri- 
tain, where 50,000 Roman troops died o( 
plague. 

The wall of Severus between the Forth 
and the Clyde built. 

211. Severus dies at York, in Britain. 

Caracalla and Geta. ^g 

Caracalla murders Geta. 

212. — visits the provinces along the Danube. 
— Wars with the Catti and Alemanni. 

217. Caracalla is assassinated. 

M a c r i n u s , 



put to death by the soldiers. 

218. Heliogabalus,' 

(a monster of vice and cruelty.) 

222.- Alexander Severus ,^5 

(a beneficent and enlightened prince.) 
The Romans agree to pay an annual tri- 
bute to the Goths, to prevent them from 
molesting the empire. 
226. The victory of Severus over the Persians 
at Tadraor. 

235. Severus murdered in a mutiny of the 

army ; succeeded by 
M a X i m i n u s , ^M^ 



who defeats the Dacians and Sarraatians. 

286. Maximinus assassinated by his troops 
near Aquilea. 

■ Balbinus and Gordian, ^g ~ 
241. The FRANKS first mentioned in his- 
tory ; they invade Gaul. 
244. —are repulsed at Moguntiacum. 
Gordian put to death by 



-Philip ,^g (the Arabian,)- 



who makes makes peace with Sapor. 
247. The secular games restored. 



249, 



persecutes the Christians. 
250. —slain by the Goths, who invade the 
empire by crossing the Danube. 



56 



THE WORLD'Ei PROGRESS. 



[Modem .- P,eriod I. — 306 years. 



251 



270 



276 
277 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Plotinus. 

Odin in Scandinavia. 



Ecclesiastical. 



251. St Cyprian, bishop of Cartilage. — Mo- 
nastic life ori;;inates about this time. 

Dispute between the churches of Rome 
and Africa about baptism. 



Paulus, a Roman poet. 



Longinus at the court of Zenobia. 



Rome surrounded with a wall. 
Longinus dies. 



Porphyri/, the Greek philosopher and opposer 

ol Christianity. 
Extraordinary naval expedition of the Thra- 

cian Franks in t>3 Mediterranean and 

Northern Seas. 



Diocletian's Oriental form of government — 
the monarchy considered hereditary — nomi- 
nation of Ccesars as co-rulers. 

Diocletian's baths, containing 3,000 benches 
of white marble, while the walls were 
adorned with paintings. 



259. Pope Dionysius. 



262. Paul, bishop of Samosatia, deriea the 
divinity of Jesus Christ 



269. Pope Felix I. 

272. Ninth persecution under Aurelian. 



274. Pope Eutychianes. 

Manes originates the heresy of the Mani- 
chfeans — rejects all the sacraments ; refuses 
allegiance to temporal sovereigns, &c. 



283. Pope Caius. 

The Jewish Talmud and Targum com- 
posed. 

Paul, the Theban, the first hermit. ^Reli- 
gious ceremonies multiplied. — Pagan rites 
imitated by the Christians. 

286. Ilierax, chief of the Hieraxians ; asserts 
that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and 
denies the resurrection. 



— Ckristiaii Era to Co7istantine.'\ 



THE world's progress. 



57 



Roman Empire. 



East. 



HUNS on the Caspian Sea. 



260 
261 



264 



269 
273 



The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. 
Persia : — Sapor's victory over the Roman 

arms. 
The temple of Biana at Ephesus burnt. 
Sapor, the Persian, takes Antic ch, Tarsus and 

Caesarea. 

Odenatus, king of Palmyra— lie is succeeded 

by his wife. 
Z en ob i a, who reigns with the titles of 

' Augusta,' and ' Queen of the East.' 



Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Armenia, 

and Asia Minor. 
Zenobia defeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who 

destroys her magnificent capital, and carries 

her to Rome. 



The Persians iefeated by Probus. 



G a 1 1 u s 



purchases a peace with the Goths. — Con- 
federacy of the Franks between the Rhine 
and Elbe. 

— a great pestilence prevails in the empire. 



254.- 



Emilianus. 
Valerian. 



is successful against the Germans and 

Goths. 
256-69. Four great piratical expeditions of the 

Goths into Asia Minor and Greece. 
259. Valerian defeated and taken prisoner and 

flayed alive by the Persians. 

• G a 1 1 i e n u s . ^m 



Period of the 30 tyrants. 
The Persians penetrate to Ravenna. 
264. Alliance with Odenatus. 

267. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Goths 
and Scythians. 

268. Gallienus killed at Milan. 

-Claudius II. 



defeats an army of 320,000 Goths. 
269. —dies at Sirmium. 



270. Aurelian, ^§ 

(a great warrior.) 
271. —defeats the Goths and Alemanni. 



273. — reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist- 
ance, and takes queen Zenobia prisoner. 

274. France, Spain, and Britain reduced to 
obedience. 

The Temple of the Sun at Rome burnt. — 
Dacia given up to the barbarians. 

275. Aurelian killed near Byzantium. 
An interregnum of 6 rnonths. 

Tacitus, 



277.- 



(a descendant of the historian,) 
reigns with wisdom 6 months. 

Probus,' 



(a warlike prince.) 
— obtains several victories over the barba- 
rians.— The Franks permitted by Probus to 
settle in Gaul. 
282. Probus slain by his soldiers. 



C a r u s 



killed by lightning. 

Carinus and Numerianus," 

(effeminate and cruel.) 
288. Fingal, king of Morven, dies. 



Diocletian^ 



sends ambassadors to China. 
"The JEra of Diocletian," or of "the 
martyrs," Au£rust29. 
287. Britain usurped by Qarausius, who reigns 
7 years. The empire attacked by the north- 
ern barbarians, and several provinces 
usurped by tyrants.— Maximianus, a col- 
league of the Emperor. 



58 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Modern : Period I. — 306 years. 



290 



304 



312 



323 



330 



310 



357 



Progress of Society, etc. 



The Gregorian code. 



Gregory and Hermogenes, lawyers ; JElius, 
Spartianus, and Vopiscus, hislovia.'os; Tre- 
bellius Polio. 



Ecclesiastical. 



296. Monks in Spain and Egypt. 
Pope Marcellinus. 



303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians. 
30-1. Arnobius, of Africa, C. F., converted 
.•rom idolatry. 



The prmtorian guard broken up by Constan- 
tlne. 



MODERN: PERIOD SECOND.— 170 7jears,— 

306. Persecution of the Christians stopped by 
Constantius. 

310. Pope Eusebius. 
Arius excommunicated. 

311. Pope Malchiades. 

314. Pope Sylvester I. 

319. Toleration of Christianity by Constantine 
the Great. 



Foundation of Constantinople by Constantine 
the Great. — Celebrated dome of St Sophia : 
the splendor of the court so great tlrat it 
cost more than the legions. 

Constantinople becomes the seat of art and 
literature. 



Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed to 
have flourished about this time. 



Eutropius and Marcellinus, historians ; Jam- 
blicus and Eunapitis, Greek historian. 



325. The Council of Nice (from June 19th, 
325 to August 25th) consisting of 318 bishops, 
who condemn Kxia.n\sm.—Eusebiv^, bishop 
of Csesarea, C. F., and ecclesiastical histo- 
rian. — Lactantius, At/ianasius, Arius, 
Ephraim and Basil, C. F., flourish in the 
reign of Constantine. 

336. Pope Marcus. 

337. Pope Julius. 

Eleventh persecution. — Saints invoked, 
the cross reverenced, and incense used by 
the Christians. 



341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by 
Frumaintius. 

356. Pope Feta II. 

St. Hilary and Gregory Nazianzen, of 
Constantinople, an emment writer, C. F. — 
Elius Donatus, bishop of Carthage.— 
Cyril, bishop of Je rusalem. — Monasteries in 
Thebais. 



—Ckrisbian Era to Constantine.^ 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



59 



325 
328 

333 
334 

337 

340 
350 
354 

361 



Roman Empire. 



East. 



Narses, king of Persia, loses Armenia, Meso- 
potamia, and Assyria. 

Alexandria taken by Diocletian. 

Hormisdas, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus. 



From Constantine to Odoacer. 



The first general council at Nice. 

The seat of government removed to Constan- 
tinople, which was solemnly dedicated on 
May 11th, 330. 

Great famine and pestilence in Syria. 
Revolt of Sarmatian slaves, 300,000 are dis- 
persed over the empire. 
Death of Constantine, and the accession of his three sons, 

Constantius, Constans,and Constantino.^ 



West. 

291. The Franks make themselves masters of 

Batavia and Flanders. 
293. The Franks expelled from Batavia. 

296. Britain restored to the emperor. 



304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Em- 
pire to 

Constantius and Galeritis. 



306.— Constantine the Great, ^^ 

(first Christian emperor.) 
Licinius, Maximian, and Maxentius, his 
three colleagues. 
Constantine defeats the Franks. 
312. Maxentius defeated and killed. 
314. Civil war with Licinius. 
319. Constantine favors and tolerates Chris- 
tianity. 

321. —appoints the observance of Sunday. 

322. — deteats and banishes Licinius, and be- 
comes sole emperor. 

325. — abolishes the combats of gladiators and 
assemblies. 



331. Constantine orders all the heathen tem- 
ples to be destroyed. 



150 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an 

earthquake. 
Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an 

extensive empire. 
Gallus put to death by Constantius. 



Constantius dies at Tarsus. 

A disadvantageous peace with the Persians. 



340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and 

killed by Constans at Aquilea. 
350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius. 



357. Six German kmgs defeated by Julian at 
Strasburg. 



361. — Julian, the Apostate, ^g 

— attempts in vain to rebuild the temple 
at Jerusalem. 
363. — is slain in a war with the Persians. 



EASTERN EMPIRE 

extending from the lower Danube to the con- 1 
fines of Persia. 



364. Death of Jovian, and the accession of 
Valentinian and Valens, under whom the 
EMPIRE is DIVIDED : 

WESTERN EMPIRE, 
extending from the Caledonian ramparts 
to the foot of Mount Atlas. 



60 



THE world's progress. 



[Modern: Period II. — 170 years-. 



412 



425 



135 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Aurelius Victor, author of lives of celebrated 
Romans. 



Prudentius and Ausonius, Latin poets; 
Pappus and Theon, of Alexandria, mathe- 
maticians. 



Claudian, Latin poet. 



Macrubius, Platonic philosopher. 



Theodosius establishes public schools, and at- 
tempts the restoration of learning. 



The Theodosian code published. 



Ecclesiastical. 



373. The Bible translated into the Gothic lan- 
guage. 



379. The prerogatives of the Roman See much 
enlarged. 

381. The second general Council of Constan- 
tinople. 



384. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate 
for Paganism against St. Ambrose. 

385. Pope Syricius. 



392. St. Chrysostom, patriarch of Constan- 
tinople ; St. Ambrose, archbishop of Milan ; 
St. Jerome, St. Martin, and St. Augustine, 
' Christian Fathers.' 

Image worship. — The Christian hier- 
archy begins. 



401. Pope Innocent I. 



412. C)/n7, bishop of Alexandria ; Isidore waA 
Socrates, ecclesiastical historians ; Orosius, 
a Spanish disciple of St. Augustine ; and 
Pelagius, a British monk, wlio denied origi- 
nal sm, &c. 

416. The Pelagian heresy condemned by the 
African bishops. 

417. Pope Zozimus. 

418. Pope Boniface I. 

422. Pope Celestine I. 



429. Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, ac- 
knowledges two persons in Jesus Christ. 

431. Third general Council at Ephesus. 

432. Pope Sixtus III. 

St. Patrick preaches the Gospel in Ire- 
land. 
435. Nestorianism prevails in the East. 



440. Pope Leo I. (the Great). 

443. The Manichcean books burned at Rome. 
445. Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople. 



-From Constantvne to Odoacer,] 



THE world's progress. 



61 



376 



378 



Eastern Empire. 



HUNGARY, (ancient Pannonia,) invaded by 
the Huns, from whom it is named.— The 
Goths expelled by the Huns, are allowed by 
Valens to settle in Thrace. 

Valens defeated and slain by the Goths near 
Adrianople. 

Theodosius the Great, ^S 



a zealous supporter of Christianity. 



Theodosius defeats Maxiraus,the tyrant of the 
western empire. 



Western Empire. 



364. Valentinian I. ^^ ■ 

elected by the army. 
368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are de- 
feated by Theodosius. 



375.- 



G r a t i an 



gains a victory over the Germans; suc- 
ceeds to the eastern empire on the death oi 
Valens; Maximus is proclaimed emperor. 
— Gratian killed at Lyons. 



379. The LOMBARDS first leave Scandina- 
via, and defeat the Vandals. 



383.- 



Valentinian II. 



—is dispossessed by Maximus, hut is re- 
stoied by Theodosius; makes Treves his 
capital. 
384. —is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a 
Gaul, commander of the army. 



Theodo si us W 



becomes sole emperor of the East and West. 

Complete down fall of Paganism. 

Theodosius defeats Eugenius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul. 

Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius. 



A r c a d i u s . 



-Theodosius Il.^g^ — 
a ehild ; Athenius, minister. 



Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. 



Persian War. 



Armenia divided between the Persians and 

Romans. 
A great part of Constantinople destroys 1 by 

fire. 

Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum gained from 
the western empire. 



Honorius, 



401. Europe overrun by the VISIGOTHS. 

403. Alaric defeated by Stillicho. 

406. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain, 

Gaul, &c. 
410. Rome sacked and burned by the Goths 

under Alaric. 

412. Beginning of the Vandal power in Spain. 

413. Burgundian kingdom begun in Alsace. 

414. The Visigoths plant themselves in Tou- 
louse. 



417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by 

the Goths. 
420. FRANKS : — Pharamond, their 

first king, on the lower Rhine. 

424. — Valentinian III. 



426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 

427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns. 

428. .^Etius, the Roman general, defeated by 
the Franks and Goths. 

Franks :— Clodion, king, extends his con- 
quests to the river Somme. 

433. A 1 1 i 1 a , " The scourge of God," forms 
an immense empire from China to the At- 
lantic. 

437. .S;tius defeats the Goths. 

439. The kingdom of the Vandals in 
Africa, under G e n s e ri c , who 
takes Carthage and plunders Italy. 

441. The Roman territories invaded by the 
Huns, Persians and Saxons. 

445. Th9 famous embassy from Britain, soli- 
citing aid against the Picts. 



62 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Modern: Period II. — nO years 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Zozimus and Olympiodorus, Greek histo- 
rians. 



The pnnciple established that every accused 
person shall be tried by his peers, or equals. 



Legislation of the Visigoths in Spain — Eric 
being king, and founder of the Gothic mo- 
narchy. 



The tottering empire of the west was finally 
overthrown by Odoacer's sack of Rome, the 
great event which precedes the middle or 
'■'■dark ages." The form of the old 
Roman government remained — the senate, 
the consuls, &c. — but Italy, ravaged by a 
succession of wars, plagues, famines, and 
every form of public tyranny and domestic 
slavery, was nearly a desert. 



ECCLESIASTICAI.. 



447. Eutyches asserts the existence of only 
one nature in Jesus Olirist. 

449. Ibus, bishop of Edessa; and Eusebius, 
bishop of Doryleum, deposed. 

450. Sozomen and Theodoret, ecclesiastical 
historians. 

451. The fourth general Council at Chalcadon, 
at which Eutycheanism and Nestorianisra 
are solemnly condemned. 



461. Pope Hilarius. 
465. Pope Simplicius. 



Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Con- 
stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru- 
salem — all striving for the supremacy.— 
The church now begins to assume a politi- 
cal aspect. 



— F'rom Constatitiiic to Odoaccr.j 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



G3 



450 



Eastern Empire. 



M a r c i a n , ' 



457 



474 
475 



a Thracian, refuses to pay the annual 
tribute to the Huns. 



Leo I . , (the Thracian,) ' 



first emperor ever crowned by the patriarch. 
War with the Goths. 

Peace with the Goths ; Theoiloric is received 
from them as a hostage. 



Z en . 



a turbulent reign : debaucheries and conspi- 
racies. 
Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrogoths, 

and invades the empire. He ravages 

Thrace. 



Western Empire. 



448. Franks :— Merovosus 1st, king of the Me- 
rovingians. 

.ffitius defeats the Huns. 



451. The arrival of the Saxons 
in Britain, under Hengist and Horsa. 

452. The city of VENICE founded. 
455. Valentinian assassinated by 

Petronius Maximus. ^M 

A V i t u s . ^M 



-M a j o r i a n . 



458. P'ranks : — Childeric I., conquers as far 
as the Loire and takes Paris. 



461.- 



■ S e V e r u s . 



467.- 



-Athenius. ^^g ■ 

(The last three emperors slain by 
Ricimer.) 
68- Spain : — The Visigoths, under Eric, esta- 
blish their kingdom. ' 



O 1 y b i u s . 



Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constan- 
tinople. 



473. Glycerius. 

474. Julius Nepos 



475.— Romulus Augustulus. ^§ 
476. ROME taken by ODOACER, king of 
the Herulii : 

END of the WESTERN EMPIRE, 
1228 years after the building of Rome ; and 
commencement of the kingdom of Italy un- 
der Odoacer. 



64 



THE world's PROGUESS. 

MODERN : PERIOD IH.— 146 years. 



493 



498 



511 



513 
514 



533 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Rise of the feudal system in France, under 
Clevis. 



Theodoric introduces the architecture of 
Greece to improve the buildings of Italy. 



Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Ba- 
bylon. 

Burgundian laios published, being a collec- 
tion of the rights and customs of the Bur- 
gundians. 



The Salic law established in France. 



Boethius, the Roman poet and philosopher. 

Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan- 
tinople. 



The Christian Era proposed and introduced 
by JDionysius, a monk. 



The schools of Athens suppressed. 

The fables of Pilpay translated into Pers aji. 
Chess introduced into Persia from India. 

Justinian's pandects and code of laws. 



Architecture : the church of St Sophia built 

at Constantinople. 
Proclus, a learned Platonist. 



Ecclesiastical. 



483. Pope Felix III. 
—excommunicated by Acacius, bishop of 

Constantinople. 

484. Christians persecuted by Huneric, king 
of the Vandals. 



492. Pope Ge.asius I. 

494. The Roman Pi 

macy, 
496. Cnristianity introduced into France, 



494. The Roman Pontiff asserts his auprt 

macy, 
Chrii 



513. Christianity embraced by the Persian 
king, Carbades. 

514. Pope Hormisdas. 



519. The orthodox bishops restored by lustin. 



523. Pope John I. 

525. The Arian bishops deposed. 

526. Pope Felix IV. 

Extreme Unction introduced. 



.529. The Order of Benedictine monks in- 
stituted at Monte Cassino, near Naples. 
530. Pope Boniface II. 



533. Pope John II. 

535. Pope Agapetus. 

536. " Sylvester I. 

Separation of the Armenians from the Greek 

church. 
538. Pope Vigiliiis. 



THE world's progress. 65 

— Odcacer to Malwmet. [The " Middle or Dark Ages'' begin here.} 



480 
481 



Eastern Empire. 



An earthquake, lasting 40 days, destroys the 

greater part of Constantinople. 
Zeno makes Theodoric general and consul 



Anastasius I. 



The Green and Blue factions. 

The emperor's persecution of the Catlio- 
lics, and protection of the Manichaeans, oc- 
casions a rebellion headed by Vitalianus. 



The empire ravaged and the imperial army 
destroyed by Carbades, king of Persia. 

Long walls built to protect Constantinople 
from the Bulgarians. 

A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000 
killed. 



Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose 
fleet is consumed by the burniiig glass of 
Proclus. 

Anastasius killed by lightning. 



-Justin I . 



a peasant of Dalmatia. 
Brilliant period of the Byzantine empire. 



■Justinian I. 



celebrated for his code of laws and the 

victories of his generals, Belisarius 

and Narses. 

Belisarius defeats the Persians under Chos- 

roes. 



-quells a conspiracy in Constantinople. 

—defeats the Vandals in Africa. 
— subdues Sicily, 
—takes Naples. 

—takes Rome, defeats the Ostrogroths in 

Italy, 
—the Huns in Thrace, and 



Europe, generally. 



481. FRANCE :— C 1 o v i s I . ,^ founder 
of the French monarchy. 



484. Alaric IL, king of the Visigoths in Spain. 

485. France :— Battle of Soissons 
gained by Clovis. 

487. Britain :— The Saxons defeated by Prince 

Arthur and Ambrosius. 
490 : — Italy : — ravaged by the barbarians. 

Britain :— kingdom of Sussex. 
491. France :— Clovis subdues Thuringia. 



493. Italy ;— c onquered by Theo- 
d o r i c , king of the Ostrogoths.— Odoa- 
cer put to death. 



499. France :— Clovis concludes a peace with 
Theodoric in Italy. 

500. Burgundy becomes his tributary. 



507. Clovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers. 

510. France :— Clovis makes Paris his capital. 

511. France:— Clovis dies. 

■ Child ebert l.^m 

512. The HERULIl settle in Thrace. 



516. The Christian Era adopted. 

517. Getae ravages Ulyricuni, Macedon, &c. 

519. Britain :— Prince Arthur defeated at 

Charford by Cerdic, who begins the third 

Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 
522. Spain : — Amalaric, the first Gotliic king, 

who establishes his court in Spain— his capi- 

tal, Seville. 



530. Britain : — kingdom of Essex. 

531. Spain : — Theudis succeeds Amalaric. 

532. Burgundy conquered by Childebert. 



536. Vitiges, king of the Ostogroths, surren- 
ders his possessions in Gaul to the French 
king. 

537. Italy conquered by Belisarius. 



66 



THE WORLD S PflOGRESS. 



[Modern : Period III. — 146 years 



Progress op Society, etc. 



The manufacture of silk introduced from 
China by the monks. 



Procopius, a Roman historian — the last of the 
classic writers. 

The Saxon lams ; the liing's authority limit- 
ed by the WiUenagemnt. 

Three orders ; the noble, the free, and the 
servile. — Trial by ordeal. 



Christianity introduced among the Picts by 
Columbi. 

The old Roman municipal system in Italy 
overthrown by the invasion of the Lombards 
— and the feudal system established. 

Written laws compiled among the nations of 
German origin— first by the Visigoths in 
Spain. 

Semi-circular arches introduced in the archi- 
tecture of churches, with much grotesque 
sculpture. 



The Latin language ceases to he spoken in 
Italy, while it supersedes the Gothic in 
Spain. 

The origin of fiefs. 

The Roman Catholic faith established in 
Spam. 

Gregory of Tours, the father of French his- 
tory. 



Bretwalda, king of England, converted to 
Christianity. 

Asathus, a Grecian historian. 

G'ildas, the first British historian. 

Evagrias, ecclesiastical historian. — Cassiodo- 
rus, the historian of Ravenna, tutor to 
Theodoric. 

The Saxons, having conquered England, it 
relapsed, in a great measure, into the state 
of barbarism, from which it had been par- 
tially raised by the Romans. 



Ecclesiastical. 



540. The Monothelites, who acknowledged 
but one will in Jesus Christ. 



552. The Fifth general Council at Conslanti 

nople. 
555. Pope Pelagius I. 

557. The church of St. Germain de Pres, buill 
at Paries. 



560. Pope .John m. 

The Trilheisls acknowledge three Gods,, 
and deny the resurrection. 



573. Pope Benedict I. 

575. The first monastery founded in Bavaria. 
Great increase of miracles. 

578. Pope Pelagius II. 



590. Pope Gregory I. called The Great. 

The doctrine of purgatory first taught.- 
Mass introduced. 



598. St. Augustine, first archbishop of Can- 
terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain. 

601. Pope Sabianus, or Sabinian. 

(506. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head 
of the church by Phocas.— The title of Uni- 
versal Bishop assumed. 

The Waldenses refuse submission to 
Rome. 



•—Frovi Odoacer to Mahomet.'] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



67 



542 
548 
549 



552 
554 



558 



561 
562 
563 



574 
576 
578 
582 



570- 
6U0 



Eastern Empire. 



Vitiges at Ravenna. — North Africa, Cor- 
sica and Scirdinia, annexed to the Eastern 
empire. 

Plague at Constantinople — during three 
months from 5,000 to 10,000 die daily. 

The Lombards, settle in Pannonia. — The 
Turkish monarchy founded in Asia-. 

Siege of Petra. 



Narses defeats and kills Totila. ■ 
Italy governed by Greek exarchs. 



A plague extending over Europe and Asia, 
and lasting nearly 50 years. 



Belisarius disgraced by Justinian. 

" restored: — he quells a conspiracy. 
Great fire in Constantinople — the city nearly 

destroyed. 
Justinian dies. 

Justin II. ^M 



Belisarius dies in prison. 



The TURKS first mentioned in history. — 
They send embassies to Justin, and form 
an alliance. 

Tiberius associated with Justin in the gov- 
ernment. 

Justin defeats Chosroes, king of Persia. 

-Tiberius II.^& 



Maurice, the Cappadocian, king; under his 
reign the empire extends to the Araxes, and 
almost to the Caspian Sea. 



The Avars flourish under Baian— invade the 
Eastern empire, and spread over Hungary, 
Poland, and Prussia. 



■P h o c a s, ^^ — a centurion, elected king. 
The empire invaded by the Persians. 



Europe, generally. 



539. Italy : War, famine, and pestilence. 

The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths. 



542. Britain :— Prince Arthur murdered in 
Cornwall. 



550. POLAND a dukedom— Lech, its first 
duke and legislator. His brotiier, Zech. 
first duke of Bohemia. 

The Greeks form settlements on the 
Spanish coast, from the Straits to Valencia. 

550. Civil wars in France. 

558. France :— C 1 o t a i r e I . ^J 

559. Britain :— t he Saxon Heptar- 
chy commences. 

560. Britain:— the kingdom of Northumbria, 
formed by the union of Bernicia and Deira. 
— Ethelbert, king of Kent, subdues most of 
the Saxon kings. 

561. France :— C h a r i b e r t I . ^ 



565. Europe ravaged by a pestilence. 



568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, under 
Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia. 



571. Britain :— Bretwalda II., king of Wessex. 



575. " East Anglia formed into a king- 
dom, and called Angle-land, whence the ori- 
gin of the name England. 



-the Suevi subdued by the Visi- 



583. Spain : 
goths. 



France :— C 1 o t a i r e II. ^^ 
586. Britain :— the kingdom of Mercia founded. 
Spain : — Recared, king. 

588. The city of Paris destroyed by fire. 

589. Rome inundated by the Tiber. 

591. Britain :— Ethelbert, king of Kent, gains 
the pre-eminence, and becomes Bretwalda 
III. 

Italy : — the Lombards, under Autharis, 
successful against the Greeks and Franks. 
i95. Istria, Bo'hemia, and Poland invaded by 
the Sclavonians. 

596. France :— Thierry II., king of Burgundy. 

597. Britain :— Christianity introduced by St. 
Augustine. 

60O. Italy ravaged by the Sclavonians. 



007. Britain :— Supremacy of the Pope ac- 
knowledged. 



68 



THE world's progress. [Modem : Period III— 146 years 



Progkess OP Society, etc. 



The aristocracy acquire great power in 
France, somewhat restrained by the mayors 
of the palace. 

Riles and superstitions increase in all Europe. 
— Relics sought for, and worshipped. — Lita- 
nies addressed to the Virgin. — The burning 
of candles by day. — Exorcisms, &c. 

Hereditary fiefs. — Aristocratic class. 



Stcundus, historian of the liOmbards. 
Elhelbert publishes the _^rsZ corfe of laws in 
England. 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Isodorus, historian of Sjiain, grammarian and 
philosopher. 



Islamism, and the power of the Caliplis esta- 
blished in the East. In the Caliph.s were 
united the highest spiritual and regal autho- 
rity. 



Christianity introduced into China. 

In England, some improvement in ecclesiasti- 
cal architecture; circular arches intro- 
duced ; churches buiU at Canterbury, fJlas- 
tonbury, St. Albans, Winchester, &c. 

In civil architecture, forts and castles — Conis- 
borough Castle in Yorkshire; Castletown 
in Derbyshire, &c. 

University of Cambridge founded. 



Some of the monasteries of Europe continue 
to be tiie repositories of learning and the 
arts. 

Celibacy of the clergy enjoined. 



Ecclesiastical. 



606. Pope Boniface III. 

607. Pope Boniface IV. 

The Pantheon at Rome dedicated to God, 
the Virgin, and the Saints. 
609. The Christians massacred by the Jews at 
Antioch. 



618. Pope Boniface V. 



MODERN: PERIOD IV.— 178 years, 



Ecclesiastical. 



625. Pope Honorius I. He had a taste for 
splendid cathedrals and processions. 
Jlonks and monasteries increase. 



Africa and Asia, with the churches of 
Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch lost to 
the Christian world by the progress of Mo- 
hammedanism. 



6-10. Pope Severinus. 
640. Pope John IV. 



642. Pope Theodorus. He assumes the title 

of " Sovereign Pontiif." 
644. Pope Martin I. He ordains celibacy of 

the clergy. 

Separation between the Greek and 

Roman churches. 

654. Pope Eugenius. 

657. Pope Vitalian. Pie established the uni- 
versal use of the Latin language in the 
service of the church. 



672. Pope AdeodatUB. 



-Frovi Odoacer to Mahomet.'] 



THE world's progress. 



69 



A.D. 


Eastern Empire. 


Europe, generally. 






eOi. Britain :— St. Paul's Church founded by 






Ethelbert, king of Kent. 


610 


Heraclius takes Constantinople, kills Phocas, 
and makes himself king. 




612 


MAHOMET publishes his Koran. 


612. Britain : — Ethelfrith, king of Northum- 




Svria ravaged by the Arabs. 


bria, deleats the Britons, and destroys the 


614 


Jerusalem taken by the Persians. 


monastery of Bangor. 
615. War between Lombardy and Ravenna. 
617. Britain:— St. Peter's (now Westminster 


618 


Constantinople taken and pillaged by the 


Abbey) founded by Sabert, king of Kent. 




Avari. 


Britain :—Bretwald IV. 









— From, Malwmet to Charlemas:ne. 



[Dark Ages, co?itinued.\ 



Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. 



TheHEGIRA; or Mahomet's Flight from 

Mecca to Bledina. 
.Bra of the Mahometans. 
Heraclius defeats the Persians under Chos- 



Death of Mahomet. 

Abubeker succeeds him as caliph of the 
Saracens. 



Omar, caliph. 

" takes .Terusaleni, which is held 

by the Saracens 463 years. 
Omar takes Alexandria, and destroys 

another famous library. 



Constantine III. ^M — 

C onstans II. ,^g 

(11 years of age.) 



The Saracens become masters of Africa and 
Cyprus. 

The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the 

Colossus. 
Persia becomes a part of the empire of the 

Caliphs. 

The Saracens obtain peace from Constans, by 
agreeing to pay him 100,000 crowns yearly. 

Constans goes to Rome, and plunders the 
Treasury. 

Moawiah, caliph, makes Damascus his capi- 
tal. 

Constantine IV. ^Jinvades Sicily. 

Grand Cairo founded. 

Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens, 
whose fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire of 
Callinicus. The caliph compelled to pur- 
chase a peace of thirty year.'!, by paying a 
yearly tribute. 



Europe, generally. 



628. France : — D asobert I. ^p' He 

builds the church of St. Deny, ine burial 

place of the French kings. 
631. Samo, a merchant of France, makes 

himself king of Bohemia. 
633. Britain : — Bretwald V. ; he embraces 

Christianity. 



634. Britain :— Bretwald VI. 



638. France — C 1 o v i s II. ^^5 years old. 
The kingdom divided, Sigebert, (18 years 
old,) being king of Austrasia. 

642. Britain:— Bretwald VII. 

644. Britain :— The University of Cambridg6 
founded by Sigebert, king of E. Anglia. 

650. Britain : — Blercia converted to Chris- 
tianity. 

656. France :— C lotaire III. ^m 



660. France :— C h i I d e r i c II. 



663. Lombardy conquered by Grimoald, duke 
of Beneventura. 



672. The Saracens driven from Spain, by 
Wamba, king of the Goths. 



7U 


THE world's progress. 




[Modern : Period IV. 178 years. 


K.B. 


Progress op Society, etc. 


Ecclesiastical. 


674 


St07ie buildings and glass come into use in 
England. 










676. 


Pope Domnus. 




The abbey of Whitby, and the monastery of 




The popes become independent of the 




Gilling founded. 


Greek emperor. 




The Anglo-Saxons advance in civilization 


679. 


Pope Agatho. 




and power, by the introduction of Ckris- 


680. 


The sixth general Council at Constantino. 




tianity. 


Pl 


e, called by the emperor Constantine, who 




In France, the Teutonic language supersedes 


presides. 




the Latin. — National assemblies established, 


68^: 


Pope Leo II. He usurps iha right of in- 




though confined to the aristocracy. 


vestiture. 






684. 


Pope Benedict II. 




In Persia, the Magian religion gives way to 


685. 


" John V. 




the Mohammeria3. 


686. 


" Conon. 


687 


Severe persecution of the Jews in Spain. 


687. 


" Sergius. 


691 


Julian, of Toledo, historian and moralist. 






097 


The venerable Bede, Ecc. historian. 






698 


A king first elected in Poland. 

Adhelm, the first British writer in prose and 








verse. 


701. 


Pope John V .. 




Sclavonian republics in Bohemia. 


704. 


The first province ^iven to the pnpa. 






705. 


Pope John VII. 






708. 


" Sissinius (20 day.?). 




Christianity greatly extended among the Ger- 


708. 


" Constantine. 




man nations and other people in the north 








of Europe ; but almost exterminated in 








Africa, by tlie progress of Mohammedan- 








ism. 






709 












711. 


Custom of kissing the Pope's foot intro 






duced. 






714. 


Pope Gregory II. 


716 


The art of making paper brought from Sa- 

marcand by the Arabs. 
George Syncellus, a Grecian chronologist. 






718 


Glastonbury Abbey rebuilt by Ina. 




Leo (Eastern Emperor) attempts to pro- 






cure the assassination of the Pope. The 




1 


Romans defend him. 



-F^vm Mahomet to Chai-lcmag-nc] 



THE world's progress. 



7\ 



C8o 



(398 



711 



Eastern Empire, Asia, «fcc. 



673. France :— T h i e r r y I . ^ 

675. Spain: — Waniba gains a, naval victory 
over the Arabs, who attempt to invade his 
kingdom. 



The kingdom of Bulgaria founded. 
Yezid, caliph of the Saracen.s. 



iVIoawiah II., caliph. 
Abdallah, caliph. 

Justinian II, 



Abdulmelek, caliph. He discontinues the 
tribute to the Greek emperor 



Justinian II. deposed, and his ni.se cut olT by 

Leonitius, who is also deposed by 

Absimerus Tiberius. 

Armenia and the provinces between the Black 
and Caspian Seas subdued by Caliph Abdul- 
melek. 

Carthage rased7 and the north coast of Africa 
completely subjugated. 



Justinian II. restored. 

Syria recovered, 200,000 Saracens slain. 



Africa subdued by the Saracens. 



Justinian put to death by Philip Bardanes. 
who reigns under the name of Philippicus. 



-Anastasius II. 1 



Theodosius III. ^^ pro- 
claimed by the revolted army ol Anastasius. 



— Leo III., (the Isaurian,) ' 
of a shoemaker. 



Europe, generally. 



682. Spain :- 
monk. 



-Wamba abdicates and tunifl 



690. France :— P epin d'Heristel ,^^ 
mayor of the Palace and duke of Austrasia, 
Qefeats Thierry, and becomes king. 



691. France :— C 1 o v i s III .^- 
695. " — C hildebert II. 



698. Poland : — Cracow founded. — An elective 
monarchy established. 

Venice : — Luc Anafetto, first Doge. 

700. Britain:— Anglo-Saxon Octarchy. 

France : — Aquitaine, Burgundy and Pro- 
vence become separate dukedoms. 

705. Britain : — Alfred the Wise, in North- 
umbria. 



710. Spain: — Roderic, king 
last of the Goths.') 



711. France :— D agobert II. 



(the 



713. Spain conquered by the 
Saracens under Muca. By the mar- 
riage ol' Abdallah, the Moor, with the widow 
of the Gothic king, the two nations are 
united in interest. 

714. France :— Charles Martel, duke of Aus- 
trasia. 



715. France : 

716. Britain : 



-Childeric II. W- 
-Ethelbald, king of Mercia. 



718. Spain: — Pelagius founds the kingdom oJ 
Asturias. 



720. France :— T It i e r r y 1 1 .1 



72 



THE world's progress. ^ [3Iodern : Period 7F.— 178 years. 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Increasing 
power, 

spiritual 
and 

temporal 
of the 
Popes. 



Dark 

period 

of 

European 

literature. 



Winifred, an Anglo-Saxon, preaches the gos- 
pel to the Frisons. 

The venerable Bede dies — a grammarian, phi- 
losopher, historian, and theologian. 

The Abassidae, caliphs of the Saracens, en- 
courage learning. 



Fredegaire, a French historian. 

Virgilius, a priest, is condemned as a heretic, 
for believing in the existence of antipodes. 



An organ sent by Constantine to France. 

John of Damascus, a founder of the scholas- 
tic philosophy. 

Fredegaire conlinues the history of Gregory 
of Tours. 

The schools of Bagdad, Cufa, Alexandria, 
Fez, and Cordova, promoted by the Abas- 
sidae caliphs. 



Ignorance, profligacy, and misery, cliaracter- 
ized the age preceding Charlemagne. 



The first palm-tree planted in Spain. 



Golden period of learning in Arabia, imder the 
caliph Haroun al Ilaschid. 



Pleadings in courts of justice first practised. 
Foundation of schools in monasteries and 

cathedrals, by Charlemagne. 
The Gregorian chant. 
The Synod of Frankfort. 
George, the monk. 



Ecclesiastical. 



726. Image worship being forbidden by tho 
emperor Leo, causes great disturbance. 

727. Peter's pence first collected in England. 

728. Leo ordei-s the pope to be seized. 

730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor. 
The Iconoclasts, or image breakers. 

731. Pope Gregory III. 



736. The images throughout the empire de- 
stroyed by order of the emperor. 
Monks persecuted. 
741. Pope Zachary 



752. The Pope dethrones Childeric, kmg of 
France, by a papal decree. 

752. Pope Stephen III. at war with the Lom- 
bards, assisted by Pepin. 



754. —he journeys to Pepin to implore his 
protection. 

753. Commencementof the Pope's 
temporal power under the auspices 
of Pepin, who bestows on Stephen the ex- 
archate of Ravenna. 

757. Pope Paul I. 



768. — — Stephen IV. 

769. Council of the Lateran. 

770. The Eastern monasteries dissolved by the 
emperor. 

772. Pope Adrian I., on whom the Ecclesias- 
tical state is conferred by Charlemagne. 



770. Imposition of Tithes enforced by Char- 
lemagne, for the support of the clergy, 
churches, schools, and the poor. 

785. Forcible conversion of the Saxons by 
Charlemagne. 



787. The seventli general Council at Nice, in 
which the doctrine of the Iconoclasts was 
condemned. 



794. Pope Leo III. sends to Charlemagne for 
confirmation. 

Masses said for money. 



—From Mahomet to Charlemagne.'] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



73 



Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. 



The Arabs invest Constantinojjle by land with 
120,000 men, and by sea with 1800 ships. 
The city is saved by the Greek fire — the 
Aiub fleet being almost entirely destroyed. 

Leo confiscates Calabria and Sicily. 

The Greek possessions in Italy are lost in con- 
sequence of the edict forbidding image wor- 



Constantine V. (Copronymus). 



The Arabs defeated by Constantine. 
Cyprus, and Antioch captured. 



-Rhodes, 



Almanzor, caliph ; builds Bagdad and makes 

it his capital. 
Asia Minor ravaged by the Turks. 



Great victory over the Bulgarians. 
L e o I r .f^ 



Constantine VI. (Porphyrogenetus).^^ 
Irene (Queen mother) restores image worship. 
The empire is invaded by Hafoun al 

R a s c h i d , caliph of Bagdad. 
Constantine imprisons his mother, Irene, for 

her cruelty. 

Irene ^g puts him to death, 

and assumes the sole power. 
— proposes to marry Charlemagne. 
— is dethroned by Nicephorus. 
The Saracens ravage Thrace. 



Europe, generally. 



725. France :— Charles Martel crosses the 
Rhine, and subdues Bavaria. 

727. Britain :— Ina, king of Wessex, begins the 
tax called Peter's pence, to support a col- 
lege at Rome. 



732. France :— Charles Martel gains a great 
victory over the Saracens near Tours. 

740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re- 
covered by the Pope. 

742. France :— C h 11 d o r i c III. ^ 



752. France :— End of the Merovingian line 
of French kings. 



-Pepin le B r e f ,1 



first of the Carlovingian line. 
753. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a large 
army against the Lombards. 
Italy :— Ravenna a dukedom. 



756. Spain :— Separated from the Caliphate ; 
A b d e r h a m a . 



761. Spain :—Froila, grandson of Pelagius, 
builds Oviedo, and makes it the seat of his 
kingdom. 

768. France:— CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles 
the Great, reigns with his brother, Carlo- 
man, until 771 . 



774. Charlemagne invades Italy; defeats 
Didier, king of Lombardy, and annexes 
Iialv to his empire. 

End of the Lombard king- 
dom. , ^ . 

778. A part of Charlemagne's army defeated 
at Roncesvalles. . 

779. Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia, 
and the Saxons. 

Charlemagne conquers the Avari. 
—attempts to unite the Rhine and the 
Danube. 

787 Britain :— First recorded invasion of the 
banes :— The Sea Kings and Vikings. 



794. Charlemagne extirpates the Huns. 
Sweden conquered by Iva Viafamo. 



74 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



PERIOD. Y.—Tlie Middle Ages.— 2m yean, 



A.D. ' Prosress op Society. 



ECCLESIASTICAI.. 



Agriculture and horticul- 
ture encouraged by Charle- 
magne ; both flourish in 
Spain under the caliphs. 

Gold mines worked in Spain. 

Paul Warefredus (Diaconus) 
the historian. 

Haroun al Raschid, courting 
his alliance, presents Charle- 
magne with a striking clock. 
This clock was adorned with 
automaton figures, which 
moved and played on va- 
rious musical instruments. 

Fine Arabian breed of horses 
introduced into Spain. 

Alcuin, of York, a pupil of 
Bede, forms schools at Tours 
—patronized by Charle- 
magne. 

Transient revival of learning 
under Charlemagne. 

Eginhard, historian, secre- 
tary to Charlemagne. 

The reign of Mamun (caliph) 
is regarded as the Augustine 
age of Arabian literature. 



00. The Pope separates from 
the Eastern Empire, and 
becomes supretne Bishop of 
the Western. 



Charlemagne reforms the 
church. 



Many bishoprics founded. 
— Great increase of monastic 
institutions. 



St. Mark's Church at Venice 

built. 
Turpin, archbishop, to whom 

is attributed the famous 

"X)e Vita Caroli Magni et 

Rolandi." 



813. Insurrection at Rome 
against the pope. 



816. Pope Stephen V. 

817. " Paschal I. 

The College of Cardinals 
founded. 



824. Pope Eugenius II. 

Christianity in Denmark 
and Sweden. 

827. Pope Valentine. 

828. " Gregory IV. 
Missionaries sent from 

France to Sweden. 

831. Paschasius Radbertus, a 
monk of Corbey, father of 
the doctrine of trausub- 
stantiation. This doctrine 
disowned by the English 
Church. 

Ratram,us and Scotus Eri- 
gena, theologians, holding 
much the same opinions as 
Luther. 



New Western Empire. 



00. NEW EMPIRE of the 
WEST founded by Charle- 
magne, who is crowned at 
Rome, by the pope, king of 
Italy, Germany, and France. 



302. Charlemagne receives an 
embassy from Nicephorus, 
and from Haroun al Ras- 
chid. 



06. Charlemagne di- 
vides the empire be- 
tween his three sons. 

08. First descent of the NOR 
MANS upon France. 



813. Charlemagne dies, Jan. 
28. 

814. L o u i s I . ^M 

(Debonaire) an inglorious 
and turbulent reign. 

817. Louis divides the empire 

between his three sons. 
820. Invasion of the Normans. 



833. Lothaire, a fourth son of 
Louis, associated in the gov- 
ernment. 

840. — L o t h a i r e .^S — 

841. —defeated by his brothers, 
Louis and Charles, in the 
battle of Fontenoy. 

Division of the empire. 

France:— Charles l.^§ 
(the Bald). 

Gev. :— L o u i s I . ^m. 

— surnamed the Ger- 



Italy:— Lot hair e ^^ 
— ^-with imperial dignity. 

The Normans plunder 
Rouen, and advance to Paris. 



THE world's progress, 
(a. d. 800-1066.) — Charlemagne to WiUiam tlie Conqueror. 



rs 



Eastern Empire. 



The World, elsewhere 



— N icephorus .^g — 

The Saracens ravage Asia 

Minor, capture Cyprus, and 

compel Nicephorus to pay a 

tribute. 



— Michael I . ^g 

(Caropaltes) ; at war with 
the Bulgarl. 

'W <the 



Earthquakes, famine, iire, &c. 
ravage the empire. 



Michael 1 1 .^' 

(Balbus or the Stammerer). 

Constantinople besieged by 
the Saracens. The Bulga- 
rians raise the siege. Tlie 
Saracens obtain possession 
of Crete, and name it Can- 
dia. 



-Theophilus. 



—Michael III. 
(the Drunkard). 



813. Egbert, king of Wessex, 
defeats the Britons. 



827. The seven king- 
doms of the Hep- 
tarchy united by Eg- 
bert, icing ofWe'ssex, 
under the name of ENG- 
LAND, or the Land of the 
Angles. 

E g b e r t . ® 

Invasion of the Danes. 

838. — E t h e 1 w 1 f , ^— 
a weak prince. 

Scotland :— Kenneth, king 
of the Scots, defeats and ex- 
tirpates the Picts, and be- 
comes sole monarch. 

The Danes return, and 
ravage the country unmo- 
lested, and burn the city of 
London. 

Ethelwolf makes a pilgri 
mage to Rome. 



801. DENMARK become, a 
kingdom under Gotricaa 



818. Al Mamun (caliph) a pa- 
tron of learning. 

820. First dismemberment of 
the Arabian monarchy. The 
dynasty of the Taherites 
founded at Khorassan. 

826. The Danish prince, Ha- 
rold, is baptized at Ingel- 
heim. 



833. Motassim, caliph. Ho 
builds Sauniora, which ha 
makes the seat of govern- 
ment. 



76 THE world's progress. [Period F— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 yean. 



A.B. Progress of Society. 



872 



The aristocratic Feudal sys- 
tem in all its power. Here- 
ditary nobility, which, with 
the clergy, was the domi- 
nant order in the state. 

The barons independent of 
the king. Gradual intro- 
duction of the Roman and 
common law. 



Ecclesiastical. 



France, Spain, Germany. 



844. Pope Sergius III. (Bucca 
Porci). 

Ignatius, patriarch of 
Constantinople. 

Persecution of the Chris- 
tians in Spain. 
847. Pope Leo IV. 

850. Christianity propagated 
by Auscharius in Denmark 
and Sweden. 

855. Pope Benedict III. 



First inclosicre of lands at 
Spalding, where Richard de 
Rules does much to improve 
agriculture. 



Clocks brought to Constanti- 
nople from Venice. 



The Faroe Isles, and Iceland 
discovered in this century. 



858. Pope Nicholas I. 

First coronation of a pope. 

859. Eulogius, archbishop of 
Cordova, martyred. 

860. The schism of the Greeks 
begins. 



864. The Bible translated into 
Slavonian. 

867. Pope Adrian II. 

8th Council at Constan- 
tinople. — Photius, patriarch 
of Constantinople, deposed. 

872. Pope John VIII. 



855. Lothario retires to a mo- 
nastery and dies. 

New division of the em- 
pire at Mersen. 

856. Germ. : — Louis Il.^g 
has Italy with the im- 
perial dignity. 

— establishes his court at 
Pavia. 
858. France invaded by Louis 
the German, who is finally 
compelled to retire. 



882. Pope Martin II. 
884. " Adrian III. 

SS5. " Stephen VI. 



68. Lorraine annexed to 
France. 



877. Fr.:— Louis II.^_ 
(the Stammerer). 



879.- 



-Louis III. and 



Carloman 
reign jointly. 



884. France :— C h a r 1 e s^ 
the Fat, an usurper. 

885. Paris besieged by the 
Normans ; gallantly defend- 
ed by archbishop Goslin. 

886. Charles makes a disgrace- 
ful peace with the Normans. 

887. Germany : — A mold, 

emperor, ^§ (the im- 
perial dignity transferred 
from France to Germany). 

888. France :— E u d e s .@- 



■Charlemagne to William /.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



77 



867 
868 



Eastern Empire. 



Decline of the Caliphate be- 
gins. — .lews and Christians 
persecuted. — Frequent wars 
between the Greeks and Sa- 



Bazil I.^ 

(the Macedonian), defeats 
the Saracens. 



Crete and the Sicilies reco- 
vered from the Arabs. 



Basil commences the Mace- 
donian dynasty. 
Publication of the Basilica. 



Leo VI. 1 

(the philosopher). 



849. Alfred the Great, born. 



852. Ethelwolf defeats the 
Danes in the Isle of Thanet. 



857. E the 1 bald and Ethel- 
fa e r t ^g — reign jointly : — 
increase the influence of the 
clergy. 



. — E t h e 1 r e d .^g 

867. The Danes conquer Nor- 
thumberland. 



872. Alfred the Great^ 
— defeats the Danes. 



879. Alfred abandoned by his 
subjects, retires to the Isle of 
Athelney, but soon draws 
together his friends and con- 
quers the Danes. 



The World, elsewhere. 



8J5. The Normans plunder 
Hamburg, and penetrate into 
Germany. 

846. The Saracens destroy the 
Venetian fleet, and besiege 
Rome. 

849. —defeated by the Pope's 
allies. 

851. Sardinia and Corsica ra- 
vaged by the Saracens. 



856. The coasts of Holland 
plundered by the Normans. 



860. Gorm the Elder, (descend- 
ed from Odin,) unites Jut- 
land and the Danish Isles, 
and becomes king of Den- 
mark. 

861. Iceland discovered by the 
Normans. 

862. RUSSIA: — Ruric, first 
grand Prince, builds the city 
of Lagoda. 



868. Egypt throws off its de- 
pendence on the caliphs, un- 
der Ahmed. 

874. Iceland, a republic, found- 
ed by the Normans. 

875. NORWAY : — Harold 
Harfrage, first king. 



886. The Scythians seize Cro- 
atia. 



89. Hungary : — Arpad lays 
the foundation of the king- 
dom. 



78 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 yean. 



A.D. Progress of Society. 



890 



915 



929 



933 



939 



Oxford University found- 
ed. — Alfred the Great esta- 
blishes a regular militia 
and navy, and the mode of 
trial by jury ; institutes_/o»"S 
and markets. — Johannes 
Scotus Erigena, a learned 
philosophical writer. 

England divided into coun- 
ties, hundreds, and tithings. 
The county courts, held 
monthly, become the great 
safeguard of the civil rights 
of Englishmen. 

Hired troops substituted for 
the feudal. 



891. Pope Formosus. 
89(3. " Boniface VI. 
" Stephen VII. 
IS. " John IX. 

Veneration for saints and 
a passion for relics prevail. 



900. Pope Benedict IV. 
903. " Leo V. 
905. " Sergius III. 



912. The Normans in France 
embrace Christianity. 



914. Pope John X. 



The University of Cam- 
bridge founded. 



The Anglo-Saxon monarchy 
rises into importance. 



Azophi, Arabian astronomer. 



Printing invented among the 
Chinese C?) 



Cordova, in Spain, becomes 
the seat of Arab learning, 
science, industry, and com- 
merce. Its celebrated schools 
of geometry.astronomy, che- 
mistry and medicinej toge- 
ther with its equally cele- 
brated poets and philoso- 
phers, render it famous 
throughout the vvorld. 

Luitprand, the historian. 

Mints established in Kent or 
Wessex. 



Ecclesiastical. 



921. The Bohemians embrace 
Christianity. 



928. Pope Leo VI 

929. " Stephen VIII. 
Eudes, monk of Cluni. 

931. Pope John XI. 

Mere children elevated to 
the highest offices in the 
church. 



936. Pope Leo VII. 
939. " Stephen IX. 



943. Pope Martin III. 



France, Germany, &c. 



90. Arnold, emperor of Ger- 
many, takes Rome. 



98.Fr.:— Charles III.^ 
- — (the Simple). 

99. Ger.:— Louis III.^ 
Invasion of the Hunga-. 
rians. 

Contests between the no- 
bles and bishops 



912. France :— R o b e r t , duke 

of Normandy. 

The Normans, under 
R o 1 1 o , establish them- 
selves in Normandy. 

Ger. :— Conrad I.^g 

(the empire becomes 

elective). 



919 Ger. :— Henry I.^— 
(the Fowler), first ot the 
Saxon line. 

921. France :— Robert L de- 
feated and killed by his 
brother at Soissons. 

923. France :— Rudolph elect- 
ed duke. 

Italy : — Hugo, count of 
Provence, oppresses the aris- 
tocracy, who call to their aid 
Berenger. 

France : — Civil wars. 

929. " —Charles dies a 
prisoner at Peronne. 



936. Ger. :— O t h o I . 
(the Great). 



Fr. : — L o u i s IV, 
(the Stranger). 



940. Burgundy, a fief of the 
empire. 



— Charlemagne to William /.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



79 



Eastern Empire. 



Southern Italy subject to the 

Greek empire. 
War with the Bulgarians, 

Lombards, and Saracens— 

the latter take the island of 

Samos. 



Russian expedition under 
Oleg, against Constantino- 
ple. 



■Constantine Vll.^g- 
associates his four sons, so 
that there are five emperors. 



Constantinople besieged by the 
Bulgarians. 

Romanus, general of the fleet, 
usurps the empire, with his 
three sons, Christopher, Ste- 
phen, and 

-Constantine VIII.^P- 



&i2 
945 



Romanus gains a naval victory 
over the Russians, who, led 
by Igor, enter the Black 
Sea with 10,000 ships or ca- 
noes. 



Naples annexed to the empire. 

The empress Helen usurps the 
throne. 



891. Invasion of the Danes. 
The first larid tax. 



901. E d w a r d^ 

(the Elder), the first who 
takes the title of " Rex An- 
glorum." 

War with the Danes. 



924. —A t h e I s t a n . W— 



934. —by the victory of Bru- 
nanbursh, he becomes kinj 
of all Britain. 



The World, elsewhere. 



900. Scotland : — Constantine 
III. 

901. Italy :— The republics 
of Venice and Genoa 
founded. 



8. The race of Fatimites in 
Egypt. 

910. Spain :— Kingdom of Leon 
founded by Garcia. 

912. Spain :— Abderrahman III 
the greatest Arab prince of 
Spain— builds the splendid 
city and palace of Zehra. 

914. Spain :— Ordogno II., king 
of Oviedo, makes Leon his 
capital. 

Commencement of the 
heroic age in Spain. 



921. Poland: 



-Lesko IV. 
-Zemormysl. 



923. Spain :—Fruelai king of 

Leon. 
934. " — Alphonzo IV. 
927. " — Ramiro II. 



930. Denmark :— Harold VL, 
firs' Christian king. 

932. -Vrnolf of Bavaria, de- 
feated near Verona. 

933. Norway :— Eric, king— 
his cruelty leads the people 
to revolt. 



940. — E d m u n d I .^ 
brother of Athelstan. 



940. Spain :— Ramiro, king of 
Leon, defeats the Moors, un- 
der Abderrahman, in the bafc 
tie of Simancus. 



80 THE WORLD*S PRO-^RESS. [Period T.— (a. D. 800-1066.)— 266 i/ears. 



A.D. Progress op Society. 



The mercantile character 
raised by a law of Athelstan, 
that a merchant who made 
three voyages over the high 
seas with a ship and cargo 
of his own, should enjoy the 
rank emd privileges of a 
thane. 

The figures of arithmetic 
brought into Europe by the 
Saracens. 

Silver mines in the Hartz 
Mountains. 

Manufactories of linens and 
woollens in Flanders, which 
becomes the seat of western 
commerce. 



Geber, Arabian astronomer. 
Suidas, grammarian and lexi- 
cographer. 
Rhazes, Arabian physician. 



The Saxon fleet, consisting of 
360 sail, in three squadrons, 
makes the circuit of the 
island, under the command 
of king Edgar. 



Abbo, monk and astronomer. 



Albirunius, Arabian geogra- 
pher. 

Greenland discovered by the 
Norwegians. 



Almoin, historian. 



Dublin much frequented for 
trade, also many places on 
the Baltic. 



Ecclesiastical. 



946. Pope Agapetus II. 



955. Baptism of Olga, and con- 
version of Russia to Chris- 
tianity. 

956. Pope John XII. 
Quarrel with the emper- 
ors respecting investiture. 

959. St. Dunstan, archbishop 
of Canterbury, attempts to 
reform the church— enforc- 
ing clerical celibacy. 

The influence of the 
monks greatly increased. 



963. PopeLeoVIII. elected by 
Roman citizens. 



964. Benedict V. elected by a 
council. 

965. John XIII. 

Poland receives Christianity 
under Miecislus. 



972. Pope Benedict VI. 

973. Boniface VII. : deposed 
and banished for his crimes. 

974. Domnus II. 

975. Benedict VII. 



984. Pope John XIV. 
986. " John XV. 



989. Christianity propagated 
in Russia by Waldimir — 
they hold to the Greek 
church. 



France, Germany, &o. 



950. Germany : — Bohemia be- 
comes tributary to Otho. 

953. The Hungarians sub- 
dued. 

954. Fr. :— Lothaiie I.^ 
— confers the dukedoms of 
Burgundy and Aquitaine on 
Hugh the Great. 

957. Germany : — Otho defeats 
the Slavonians in Saxony. 



964. Italy united to the empire 
of Germany. 

Tuscany becomes a duke- 
dom. 



97.3. Ger. :— Otho 11.^ 
subdues the Bohemians. 



979. Otho at war with Lo- 

thaire. 



983. — O the III. , W — 

(3 years of age). 

936. Fr. :— L o u i s V . 

("the Slothful,") lastdTihe 
Carlovingian race. 

988.Fr.: Hugh Capet,1 

— founder of the third cr 
dapeiian line of French 
kings. 



— Charleviagne to Williani /.] 



THE world's progress. 



Eastern Empire. 



England, <kc. 



The World, elsewhere. 



959 



963 



9G7 
969 



975 



Constantine III. retires into a 
cloister. 



— R omanus II. ^^ — 
poisoned by his wife, Theo- 
phano. 



-Nicephorus II. 



—he recovers Cyprus and An- 
tioch from the Saracens. 

— is murdered by 

John Zimisces.^^ — 



946. E 1 d r e d^ 

governed by Dunstan, abbot 
of Glastonbury. 

952. Scotland : — Malcolm I.. 
kin?. 



955. Scotland :—Indulf, king 



955. 



-E d w y ' 



insulted by Dunstan, and 
deposed — his queen, Elgiva, 
put to death. 



959. E d g a r ^ 

marries the beautiful El- 
frida, after the violent death 
of Athelwold, her lover. 

960. Scotland:— Duff, king. 
Wolves expelled from 
England and Wales, in con- 
sequence of a reward being 
offered for the purpose by 
the king. 

Violent disputes between 
the monks and the clergy. 



Basil and Constantine 
VIII. ® 



Apulia and Calabria recover- 
ed and united to the empire. 



975. E d w a r d^— 

(the martyr), murdered by 
his stepmother, Elfrida. 



978. — Ethelred II.,W- 
(" the Unready.")— Dunstan 
still minister. — The people 
become discontented. 



985. Danish invasion, under 
Sweyn. 

The king purchases their 
retreat. 



950. Spain :— Ordono III., king 
of Leon. 



955. Spain :—Sancho I., king 
of Leon. 



958. Italy ;-- War between tht 
Normans and Saracens. 



961. Candia recovered from 
the Saracens. 

962. Poland :— Bliecislas esta- 
blishes Christianity. 



967. Spain:— Raniiro III., king 
of Leon. 

968. The Northmen devastate 
Galicia, but are defeated and 
almost exterminated. 



973. Hungary : — St. Stephen, 
first hereditary king, extends 
the kingdom eastward ; gives 
it a constitution and written 
laws. 

976. Spain :— Hixem, caliph 
of Cordova. 

Almansor, regent, obtains 
many victories over the 
Christians. 

980. Russia : — Waldimir I ; 
marries Anna, sister of the 
emperor Basil 11. 

983. Italy : — Venice distracted 
by violent commotions. 

985. Sweyn I., or Sweno, kmg 
of Denmark, invades Eng- 
land. 



82 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. 



A.D. Progress op Society. 



997 



1002 



Venice and Genoa carry on a 
flourishing trade between 
Asia and Western Europe. 

Stephen, duke of Hunga- 
ry, propagates Christianity 
among his subjects. 



i024 



Paper made of cotton rags. 



Spain, the seat of Arabian and 
Jewish learning. 



Churches first built in the 

Gothic style. 
Foundation of the House of 

Wisdom at Cairo. 
The French language first be 

gins to be written. 
Leo, the grammarian. 
The arts faintly revive in Italy 

— paintings in fresco and 

mosaic. 

Literature, the arts and sci- 
ences,and commerce flourish 
at Ghizni. 

Musical scale, con^ting of six 
notes, invented by Guido 
Aretino. 

Avicenna, a famous Arabian 
chemist and physician. 

Glaber Rod, historian. 

Campanes, of Navarro, astro- 
nomer. 

Hermannus Contractus, monk 
and mathematician. 



Ecclesiastical. 



993. First canonization of 
sai7its. 



996. Pope Gregory V. 

997. " John XVI. 



999. Pope Sylvester II. 



Hungary a fief of the 
Romish church. 



1003. Pope John XVIII. 



1009. Pope Sergius. 
1012. " Benedict VIII. 



Persecution of the Albi 
genses in Languedoc. 



Fkance, Germany, &c. 



996. Fr. : — R o b e r t II . , W 
— (the Wise,) succeeds Tna 
father Hugh. 



998. — is excommunicated by 
the pope for, marrying his 
cousm Bertha. 



1002. Ger. :— Henry II.,® 
— (duke of Bavaria). 

Italy :— Ardoin, margrave 
• of Ivrea, elected king. 



1004. Italy .-—Henry invited by 
the German parly.— -Ardoin 
loses most of Italy and re- 
signs. — Pavia burnt in a 
quarrel between the troops 
and people. 



1015. Germany:— The empe- 
ror receives an annual tri- 
bute from Poland. 



1024. Pope John XIX. He 
gained his election by bribe- 
ry. He was not of the clergy, 
but consul and senator of 
Rome. 



1033. Pope Benedict IX., (ten 
years old). 

" Peace of God," pub- 
lished by the bishops. 



1024. Ger. -.-Conrad II.W 
— <the Salic,) first of the 
Franconian line. 

1025. Expedition into Italy. 



1029. War with the Poles. 
1031. Fr.:— Henry I.^ 



1032. Burgundy annexed to 
the empire. 



— Charle7iiagne to William /.] 



THE world's progress. 



83 



1000 



■1018 



1028 



1034 



Eastern Empire. 



Basil drives the Bulgarians 
from Thessaly. 



Bulgaria again redu<"2i to a 
Grecian province. 



— Romanus III.,^§ — 
(Argyrus). 

— expels the Saracens from 

Syria, 
—poisoned by his wife Zoe. 



— M i c h a e 1 IV 



England, &c. 



The World, elsewhere. 



994. Scotland : — Constantine 
IV. slain by 

995. Kenneth IV., (the Grim). 



1002. Dreadful massacre of 
all the Danes in England — 
upon which Sweyn lands a 
large armament, and brings 
war and all its miseries upon 
the country. 

1003. Scotland :— Malcolm II., 
an able, renowned prince. 



1012. An annual tribute pro- 
mised to the Danes. 

1013. The Danes, under Svs'eyn, 
become masters of England. 



1016. —E d m u ii d 1 1 . , W— 
(Ironsides.) fights six battles 
Willi Canute, king of Den- 
mark, with whom he finally 
divides (he kingdom. 

1016.- Canute ^- 

the Great, patronizes litera- 
ture and the church. 



1027. Ireland : — Brian Boru. 
sole monarch. 



1031. Canute penetrates into 
Scotland — subdues Malcolm. 

1032. — performs a pilgrimage 
to Rome. 

1034. Scotl'd :— Duncan, king. 

103.5. -Harold I. ,W— 
(Harefoot^ cruel andun- 
popular — ruled by Earl 
Godwin. 



995. Norway :—01af I. 

Christianity introduced. 

997. Drontheim founded. 
Mahmud Sultan of Ghiz- 

ni, adds Transoxiania, Ca- 
bul, and part of India to hia 
dominions; patronizes litera- 
ture. 

998. Spain :— Division of the 
Mohammedan kingdom of 
Cordova. 

1000. Sancho III., (the Great,) 
king of Navarre, takes the 
title of emperor. 

1000. Savoy : — independent un- 
der Bervald, its first count. 

Poland : — Boleslas I,, 
(the Lion-hearted). 



1006. Pestilesice in Europe for 
three years. 

1012. Spain : — Suleiman, ca- 
liph. 



1014. Denmark :— Harold III., 
king. 

1015. Norway :—01af II. 

1016. Denmark: — Canute XL, 
(the Great). 



1019. Norway conquered by 

Canute. 

Venice, G';noa, and Pisa 

rise into importance. 
1025. Poland :— Miecislas II. 



1035. Spain :— Raniiro I., king 
of Arragon. 

1037. Ferdinand I., of Castile, 
in right of his wife succeeds 
10 Leon ; successful against 
the Mohammedans. 

1036. Denmark : — Hardica- 
nute IIL 

1037. Norway :— Magnus I^ 
Cthe Good). 



84 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 



-years. 



A.D. Peogress of Society, etc. 



Ecclesiastical. 



Fe dusi, the Persian Homer. 
Franco, mathematician. 
George Cedrenus, historian. 



Michael Psellus, a celebrated 
Greek philosopher and his- 
torian. 



English parents prohibited by 
law from selling their chil- 
dren. 



First age of scholastic philoso 
phy. 



1038. The Pope, for his scan- 
dalous conduct, driven from 
Rome, but re-established by 
the emperor, Conrad. 



1044. — again driven from the 
throne, and succeeded by 
Sylvester HI. After three 
months Benedict is restored 
by the Counts of Tusculum. 
But finding the people will 
not tolerate his crimes, he 
sells the papal chair to Gre- 
gory. 

— deposed for simony, by 
a council called by Henry 
III. 

1046. Pope Clement II. 

1048. Damascus II., 23 days. 
" Leo IX., the first who 
kept a regular army. 



1053. — is defeated and taken 
prisoner by the Normans. 

1054. The papal chair vacant 
one year. 

Excommunication of the 
Patriarch of Constantinople, 
and the Greeks. 



1055. Pope Victor 11. 

Hildebrand, the real 
head of the church from the 
time of Leo IX. The church 
improving in piety and dis- 
cipline. 

105". Pope Stephen IX. 

1058. Nicholas II. 
Benedict X.. (antipope). 
The election of pope 

transferred to a conclave of 
cardinals. 

1059. Quarrel between the 
popes and the German em- 
perors, respecting investi- 
tures and nomination to the 
Holy See. 

1061. Pope Alexander 11. 

1062. Berenger, a celebrated 
French ecclesiastic. 

Alexander forbids the 
massacre of the Jews. 

1066. Alexander deposes Ha- 
rold, and gives England to 
William the Conqueror, 
duke of Normandy. 



France, Germany, &c. 



1039. Ger. :-HenryIII.^ 

— defeats the Bohemians 
and Hungarians — clai&s the 
right of nominating to the 
papal chair. 



1046. France :— Dispute be- 
tween William the Con- 
queror and William of 
Arques, for the duchy o) 
Normandy. 



1053. Germany :— Henry III. 
causes his son, Henry, to be 
proclaimed king of the Ro- 
mans. This ti:le was ap- 
plied, for several centuries, 
to the king's eldest son. 



Ger. :-Henry IV. ^ 
—(the Great), aged six years, 
under tire tutelage of his 
mother. 
1058. Roger, duke of Apulia, 
becomes a vassal of the 
pope. 



1060. Fr. :— P h i I i p I .W— 



"Charlemagne to William /.] 



THE world's progress. 



85 



A.D. 

1038 

1041 

1042 
1042 

1043 



1054 
1054 
1056 
1057 



Eastern Empire. 



Earthquakes and famine at 
Constanlinople. 

M i c h a e 1 

(Calaphales). 

— Z oe&Theodora. 

— C onstantine X 

(Monomarchus). 
First invasion of the Seljuk 

Turks. 
Tlie Russians invade Tiirace 

vfith 100,000 men, and are 

repeatedly deleated by tlie 

Greeks. 




The o do ra,^g 

the last of Macedonian dy- 
nasty. 

The Greek church becomes 
independent. 

Michael VI. ,^ 

(Stra'iotichus). 

1 s a a c^^ 



(Comnenus). 



-C onstantine 
— (Ducas). 



England, &c. 



1039. -Hardicanute.W- 

Scot'd. :— Macbeth mur- 
ders Duncan, and usurps the 
throne. 

The Saxon line restored 
under ^.^ 

1042. E d w a r d^ 

(the Confessor). The coun- 
try prospers under his mild 
sway. 



1051. Rebellion of Earl God- 
win and his sons. 

William, duke of Nor- 
mandy, visits Edward. 

1053. The Dane-gelt abolished. 

Earl Godwin dies. 

The Welch and the Irish 
several times invade Eng- 
land, but are repressed by 
Harold, son of Godwin. 

1054. Macbeth defeated and 
killed at Langfanan, by 
Siward, earl of Northum- 
berland. 



1057. Scotland :— Malcolm III. 



1066. —Harold II., M- 
elected king; killed at the 
BATTLE of HASTINGS. 

— WILLIAM I ,W- 
duke of Normandy, styled 
" the Conqueror." 

End of the Anglo- 
Saxon dynasty. 

Edgar Atheling flies to 
Scotland. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1042. Denmark : — Magnus, 
(the Good,) of Norway, king. 



1047. Denmark :— Sweyn Es- 
tritson, or Suenon U. 



1050. The Pisans and Genoese 
take Sardinia and Corsica 
from the Saracens. 



1055. The Turks reduce Bag- 
dad, and overturn the em- 
pire of the caliphs. 



1059. Sweden: — Ineeldus or 
Ingo I., the first Christian 
king. 

1060. Robert Guiscard, the 
Norman, is created by the 
pope, duke of Apulia. 

1062. 70,000 Europeans are 
killed, or made prisoners by 
the Turks in Palestine. 

1065. Jerusalem taken by tha 
Saracens. 

1065. Castile and Leon:— Al 
phonzo, king. 



86 



THE world's progress. 

PERIOD. VI.— TAe MiddU J.^e5.— (Continued.)- 



A.D. Progress of Society, etc. 



Feudal System introduced in 
England by the Normans 



Surnames first used among 
the English nobility. 



Knights errant in Spain. 

Ingulphus, historian, secre- 
tary to William the Con- 
queror. 

Marianus Scotus. 

Booksellers first heard of. 



London Bridge and Westmin- 
ster Hall built. 



Lanfranc, archbishop of Can- 
terbury. 

Doomsday Book compiled by 
order of William the Con- 
queror. 



William of Spires, mathema- 
tician. 

A rigid police established in 
England. — The curfew. 

Norman French taught in all 
the schools, and made use of 
in all legal proceedings. 

Literature patronized in the 
East by Melek Shah. 



Fortress of Newcastle, and of 
Carlisle built. 



Ecclesiastical. 



Popery at the height 
of its power, claiming 
supreme dominion, tem- 
poral and spiritual, over 
all the states of Christen- 
dom. 



France, Germany, & Spain. 



1066. William, Duke of Nor- 
mandy, claims the crown of 
England, and makes war 
upon Harold to obtain it. 



1071. Philip engages in a 
war with Robert, count of 
Holland. 



1072. Henry IV. of Germany, 
summoned before the pope, 
for selling the investiture of 
bishops. Treats tlie man- 
date with contempt. 

1073. — summoned again by 
Gregory VH. 



1073. Pope Gregory VII., 
(Hildebrand,) who attempts 
to free all the clergy from 
the civil jurisdiction. He 
quarrels with the emperor. 

1074. Simony and celibacy 
forbidden. 

1075. The pope sends legates 
to the various courts of Eu- 
rope. 

1076. —sends an ambassador to 
to depose the pope — is excom municated by Gregory. Goes 
barefoot to his holiness, makes humble submission, and kisses 
his feet. 

1076. Tuscany and Genoa be queathed to the Holy See by 
the Empress Blatilda. 

1076. Spain :— The Cid. 

1078. The pope sets up Ru dolph, of Bavaria, as anti- 
emperor. Rudolph dies in 
1080. Ger. :— Henry IV. de- 
grades Gregory for his in trigues against him, and makes 
an expedition into Italy, and procures another pope to be 
elected. The war continues till 

1084, when Henry triumphs 
over Gregory, who flees to Sa lerno, and dies in exile in 1085. 



1084. The order of the Carthu- 
sians instituted by Bruno. 



1086. Pope Victor III. 



Urban 11. 



1085. Spain :— Toledo taken 
from the Moors, by Don 
Rodrigo, the Cid, assisted by 
Raymond, count of Tou- 
louse. 

1086. Spain:— The battle of 

1087. France : — War with 
England : Robert, duke o< 
Normandy, opposes Wil- 
liam Rufus. 



THE world's progress. 
1066-1299. — William the Conqueror to Othvimi I. 



87 



1071 



Eastern Empire. 



Eudocia.^^ — 



1074 



1078 
1081 



She marries 

Romanus III., ^^ 

(Diogenes.) He valiaiiily 
but vainly opposes the 
Turks — is defeated and 
taken prisoner by Alp Ars 
Ian, Emir of Omrah. 



Michael VII.,' 

(Parapinaces). 

Andronicus I. 




-Constantine XII, 



Syria and Palestine subdued 
by Melek Shah. 



Nicephorus, ^§ • 

(Botoniates). 

— Alexius 1.^5 (Com- 

nenus). The empire in- 
vaded by Robert Guiscard, 
ihe Norman, who defeats 
Alexius at Durazzo. 



England & Scotland. 



After the capture of Jerusa- 
lem, by the Turks, the Chris- 
tian pilgrims are insulted, 
robbed and oppressed, which 
gives rise to the crusades. 
— Great struggle between 
Christianity and Mohamme- 
danism. 



1066. —William I.,W- 

" THE CONaUBROR," first of 

the Norman line. 



1068. Edgar Atheling, heir of 
the Saxon line, takes refuge 
in Scotland. His sister, 
Margaret, marries Malcolm 
III. 

1070. The feudal system in- 
troduced by the king. All 
the offices of the got^ernment 
placed in the hands of Nor- 
mans. The Norman lan- 
guase introduced. 

Malcolm III. of Scotland, 
ravages Durham. 

1072. Peace between the Nor- 
mans and the Scots 



The World, elsewhere. 



1067. Poland : — Boleslas II., 
— he conquers Russia. 



1068. Poland : — Romanus Dio- 
genes. 



1070. Norway : — Bergen built. 



1076. Robert, the king's son, 
raises a rebellion in Nor- 
mandy . 



1087. William invades France, 
and is killed at Mantes. 

1037. —William II., @ 
(Rufus). 

Revolt of the Norman 
nobles. 



1074. Syria: — Melek Shah, 
(Emir,) extends his domin- 
ions from the Jaxartes to the 
Mediterranean. 

1076. Denmark :— Harold IV. 

Palestine invaded and 
subdued by Melek Shah. — 
Jerusalem taken. 



1077. Hungary: —Ladislas I. 

1079. Poland :— Stanislas, bi- 
shop of Cracow, murdered. 
The king excommunicated 
and dethroned. 

1079. Poland :— Uladislas I. 



1083. Italy : — Rome taken 
after a siege of two years, 
by Henry IV. 

1084. BOHEMIA erected into 
a kingdom by the empereor 
Henry IV. 



1090. Sicily conquered by 
Roger the Norman, after a 
war of thirty years with itg 
masters, the Saracens. 



68 



THE world's progress. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— 



A..D. Progress of Society, etc. 



1093 



1096 



1099 



1100 



1118 



Ecclesiastical. 



France, Germany & Spain 



1093. Conrad, son of the em- 
peror, rebels. 

The popes continue to struggle against the empire. 

1094. Spain :— Pedro I., k. 
— of Navarre and Arragon. 

The Crusades :— Peter, the Hermit, preaches against the Turks in all the countries of 
Christendom. i ' . 

I The Council op Clermont. 

The FIRST CRUSADE ;— P e t e r the H e r m i t , and Walter, the Pennyless, eel 
out with a vast rabble, 3(30, 000 of whom perish before the virarriors are ready to start. 

The chieftains of the first crusade were, 

I.Godfrey of Bcuillor 
or Boulogne. 

2. Hugh of Vermandois. 

3. R o b e r t of Normandy 

4. Robert of Flanders. 

5. Stephen of Chartrcs. 

6. Raymond of Toulouse. 

7. Bohemond. 

8. Tancred. 
600,000 warriors, 100,000 

cavalry. 



Nathan Ben Jechiel, learned 
Jew. 



Knights of St. John insti 

tuted. 
Anna Comnena, daughter of 

Alexius I., Eastern emperor 

historian. 
Witliatn of Poitouy first trou 

badour. 



Abelard, French scholastic. 
Jeffrey of Monmouth, histo- 
rian. 



The Knights Templars. 



Tograi, Hairi, and Abdallah 
Sharfaddin, Arabian poets. 

Scholastic Philosophy attains 
its highest point by the 
writings of Peter Abelard. 

Peter, the Lombard, (master 
of sentences). 



1099. Pope Paschal II. 



1118. Pope Gelasius II. 

1119. " Calistus II. 



U23. First Lateran, or ninth 

general council. 
1124. Honorius II. 



1104. Spain :— Alfonzo I., king 
of Navarre and Arragon. 

1106. Ger. :— H e n r y V .^ 
— maintains the right of in- 
vestiture. 



II08.Fr.:— Louis VI., ^ 
— Le Gros. Abbe Sugar, 
minister. 

1109. Germany: — Henry en- 
ters Italy, takes the pope 
prisoner, and compels him 
to crown him. 

1114. Henry V. marries Ma- 
tilda, of England. 



1118. Spain :—AJ£cnso I. cap. 
tures Saragossa. 



1120. Rivalry between Eng- 
land and France com- 
mences. 



1125. Germany: — Lothaire 

1 1 .^^ opposed by Fre. 

deric, and Conrad, duke of 
Suabia. 



1066-1229— Continued.] 



THE WOKLD'S PROGRESS. 



8y 



1099 



1109 
1111 



1118 



Eastern Empire. 



England & Scotland. 



Order, learning, and com 
merce revive. 

By the courage and talents of 
the Comneni, the empire is 
feared or respected by the 
nations of Asia and Europe. 

Invasion by tlie crusaders : 
great numbers pass through 
Constantinople. 



Battle of Dorylaeum, which 
secures the march of the 
crusaders through Asia Mi- 
nor. 



Acre taken by the crusaders. 



Tripolis taken by crusaders. 



Berytus and Sidon taken by the 
crusaders. 



— John I., ^^ (Comne- 

nus),a noble prince ; reforms 
the manners of his people. 



Tyre taken by the crusaders. 



1093. Scotland :— Malcolm III. 
invades England, and is 
slain near Alnwick Castle by 
Roger de Mowbray. 

1094. Scot. :— Donald Bane, 
king. 

William again invades 
Normandy. 

Sct'd. : — Duncan usurps 
the crown. 

William quarrels with 
Anselm, archbishop of Can- 
terbury. 



1098. Scotland :— Edgar puts 
out Donald's eyes and de 
thrones him. 



1100. William II. accidentally 
shot by Sir Walter Tyrel. ' 

— H e n r y I . ,^g — 

(Beauclerc,) grants the Eng- 
lish a charter, and marries 
Maud, a Saxon, thus uniting 
the "Norman and Saxon in- 
terests. 

1101. Robert, duke of Nor- 
mandy, invades England. 



1106. Henry invades Norman- 
dy; takes Robert prisoner 
at the battle of Tinchebrai. 

Scotland : — Alexander I. 

1107. Henry quarrels with An- 
selm. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1120. Shipwreck and death of 
Prince William and 140 no- 
blemen. 

1124. Insurrection in Norman- 
dy suppressed. 

Scotland :— David I. pro- 
motes civilization. 



1095. Hungary : — Coloman. 



1096. Egypt : — Mustali, tha 
eighth Fatimite caliph. Ha 
takes Jerusalem. 

1097. Baldwin founds the 
principality of Edessa. 



1099. Jerusalem taken by tha 
crusaders, under Godfrey 
who is elected king. 



1102. Poland :—Bolesla3 III. 



1 105. Denmark : — Nicholas. 

1106. Italy: — Venice, Genoa, 
and Pisa greatly enriched 
by the crusades. 



1109. Norway :—Segurd's ex- 
pedition to Palestine. 



1117. Persia :—Sanjar subdues 
Khorasan and Samarkand. 

1119. War between Pisa and 
Genoa. 

1120. Italy: — Rise of the 
house of Guelph. 

Zengi, governor of Mo- 
sul, a great prince. 



90 



THE world's progress. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.- 



A.D. Pro&ress op Society, etc. 



1137. 



1140 



1558 



Aristotle's logic comes into 
repute. 



Pandects of the Roman law, 
(Justinian,) discovered at 
Amalfi, and the study oi\he 
civil law revived. 



Gratian collects the canon law. 

William of Malmsbury, Eng- 
lish historian. 

Vacarius teaches civil law at 
Oxford. 

Otho, bishop of Friesengen, 
historian, introduces the pe- 
ripatetic philosophy into 
Germany. 

Benjamin of Tudela, a Jew, 
travels from Spain to India, 
by Constantinople, and re- 
turns through Egypt. 



The magnetic needle known 

in Italy. 
Suidas. lexicographer. 
£Jben Ezra, of Toledo, Jewish 

historian. 



Arnold, of Brescia, condemn- 
ed and burnt. 

Eustathius, co'pmentator on 
Homer and Dionysius Per. 



Banh of Venice established. — 
Pairs at Lcipsic. 

London contains 40,0(X) inha- 
bitants 



Poem of the Cid. 



College? of theology, philoso- 
phy and law at Paris. 

English commerce confined to 
the exportation of wool. — A 
woollen manufactoiy esta- 
blished at Worsted, and soon 
after at Norwich 



Ecclesiastical. 



France, Germany & Spmn. 



1127. — makes war against 
Roger, king of Sicily. 

1130. Innocent II. and Anacle 
tus, rival popes. 



1137. A pretended Messiah in 
France. 

1138. — another in Persia. 



1139. Second Lateran, or tenth 
general council. 



1143. Pope Celestin II. 

1 144. " Lucius 11. 

1145. " Eugenius III. 



1147.TheS e CO nd Crusade excited by St. Bernard, 
and joined by the emperor Conrad and his nephew Fre- 
deric Barbarossa, and Louis VII. of France. 

1149. France : — Louis divorces 
his queen, Eleanor, who 
marries Henry of Anjou. af- 
terwards king of England ; 
thus Guienne and Poitou are 
lost to France. 

11-50. Spain : — Sancho V., king 
ot Navarre. 

1152. Germany and Italy : — 



1112. Spain:— Alfonzo VIL, 
king, Leon and Castile. 



1134. Spain :— Garcia IV., king 
of Navarre. 

Ramiro II. , king of Arra- 
gon. 

1135. Lothaire in Italy— cap- 
ture of Amalfi. 

1137. Fr. :— Louis VII. ^ 

— (le Jeune). 
1133. Germany : — House 

of Suabia: 

— Conrad I.^J 

1139. Portugal becomes a king- 
dom. — Henry of Besancon, 
king. 
1141. Germany and Italy: — 
Dissensions of the G u e 1 fs 
and G h i b e 1 i n e s . 



11.53. Pope Anastasius IV. 

1154. Pope Adrian IV. (an Eng- 
lishman, Nicholas Breaks- 
peare). 



U59. Pope Alexander III. 
Victor IV., antipope. 
1160. Order of the Carmelites 
instituted. 

The Waldenses and 
Albigenses begin to ap- 
pear. 
1164. Pascal III., antipope. 

1167. Rome taken by Frederic Babarossa. 



116S. Calistus HI., antipope. 



Frederic I. 
(Barbarossa). 



1157. Spain : — Castile and 
Leon divided under Ferdi- 
nand II. and Sancho II. 

1158. Germany :— The empe- 
ror Frederic receives the 
title of king of Bohemia at 
the diet of Ratisbon: — con- 
quers Poland, and makes it 
tributary. 



1162, Frederic destroys Milan. 
Spain : — Alfonzc II., 
king of Arragon. 



1066-1229.— Continued.] 



THE world's PROGPvESS. 



91 



1155 
1156 



Eastern Empire. 



— Manuel Coinmenus. ^m — 



Edessa being retaken by the 
Turks, gives rise to the 
second crusade. 

The Normans, under Roger, 
arrive before Constantino- 
ple ; are repulsed by Manuel. 



The Greeks reduce Apulia 
and Calabria. 

Manuel forms the design of 
conquering Italy and the 
western empire, but fails. 



England & Scotland. 



Kelso, Melrose, and Holy- 
rood house founded. 
1127. Matilda, the king's 
daughter, marries Geoffrey 
Plantagenet. 



1135. Stephen^^ — 

of Blois. 

1136. Matilda asserts her right 
CO the throne ; 

David, king of Scotland. 
assists her. 
1138. — is defeated in the " bat 
tie of the Standard." 



1141. Stephen made prisoner 
at the battle of Lincoln. 



Civil war: Stephen and 
Matilda. 



1149. Henry Plantagenet in- 
vades England. 



1154. —Henry II. 
(Plantagenet). 



1158- Thomas a Becket intro- 
duced to the king's notice by 
Theobold, archbishop of 
Canterbury— becomes chan- 
cellor and preceptor of the 
prince. 

1159. Becket sent as ambassa- 
dor to France. 



1162. —made archbishop of 

Canterbury — opposes the 

king. 
1164. —resists the constitutions 

of Clarendon - — flies to 

France. 
1166. Scotland :— William. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1130. Sweden :— Ragwald I. 
1133. " Magnus I. 



1139. PORTUGAL becomes a 
kingdom, under Alfonso l.^g 

Sweden : — Suercher II. 



1147. Russia: — the city of 
Moscow founded. 



1150. Denmark : — The coasts 

infested with pirates. 
1150. Sweden :— Eric X. 



1157. Denmark : Waldemar I. 

1158. Venice a great maritime 
power. 



1162. Sweden :— Charles VII. 



1167. Italy :— League of the 
Italian cities to preserTe 
their liberties. 



92 



THE world's progress. 



\Pe)iod VI.— The Middle Ages.— 



A.D. Progress op Society, etc. 



1175 
1177 



1178 



1189 
1190 



1198 



Ecclesiastical. 



Foundation of the military 
order of Santiago. 

Circuit Judges appointed in 
England. 

117S. //iraocenMII., antipope. 

The pope Alexander, by a special act, relieves the clergy 
of Berkshire from keeping the archdeacon's dogs and hawks 
during his visitation. 

The Waldenses spread over the valley of Piedmont. They 
circulated the Sacred Scrip tures. They were the fore- 
runners of Protestantism. Con demned by the Eleventh Gene- 
ral Council, and severely per secuted. 

1179. Third Lateran, or Ele- 
venth General Council. 
Robert Wace, first French 
poet. Translation of his 
Mist, des Rois d' Atigleterre, 
by Layamon, the first Eng- 
lish composition. 

John Tzetes, Greek gramma- 
rian. 



Maimonides, of Cordova, one 
of the most learned of the 
Jews. 

Henry, of Huntington, and 
William, of Newbury, his- 
torians. 

Rainulph de Glanville makes 
a digest of laws and customs 
of England. 



Dreadful massacre of the Jews 
at the coronation of Richard 
I. 

Teutonic order instituted. 

Boahoddi Ibu Shadad, author 
of a Life of Saladin, in Ara- 
bic. 



The Jews become the princi- 
pal bankers of the world. 

Order of the Holy Trinity in- 
stituted in Germany. 



USl. Pope Lucius III. 



1185. Pope Urban III. 



1187. Pope Gregory VIII. 
1187. " Clement III. 



France, Germany, & Spain. 



170. France :— The Walden- 
ses. They derived their 
name from Peter Waldo, a 
merchant of Lyons. 



1174. Frederick's fourth expe- 
dition into Italy. 



1176. Frederick defeated at the 
battle of Legnano. 



1178. Henry, the Lion, duke 
of Saxony, deposed, and 
Saxony divided. 



1180.Fr.:— Philip II. 
(Auguste). 



1183. The Peace of Constance 
re-establishes the independ- 
ence of Italian republics. 



1188. Spain : — Alfonzo IX. 
king of Leon. 



1190. Third O r u s a d e led by Philip Augustus, of 
France, and Richard, of Eng land, and Frederick Barba- 



1191. Pope Celestinelll. 



1198. Pope Innocent III. 



J 190. Ger. :— H e n r y V I .'^ 
emperor and king of Italy 
and the Sicilies. 



1196. Richard Coeur de Lion 
seized and retained in cap- 
tivity. 

1198. Philip, of Suabia, and 
Otho, of Saxony, dispute the 
crown ; the former sup- 
ported by the Ghibelines, 
and the latter by the Gutlfs. 



1066-1299.— Continued.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



93 



1183 



1185 



Eastern Empire. 



-Alexius II.' 



Andronicus I. 



-Isaac II. 



(Angelus). 



The empire invaded by the 
Bulgarians. 



Iconium taken by Frederick 
Barbarossa, bu*. afterwards 
restored. 



— Alexius Angeltis,^ 
usurper and tyrant. 



England & Scotland. 



1170. Becket returns to Eng- 
land, and is murdered at the 
altar. 

1172. Henry conquers 
Ireland. 



1174. Treaty of Falaise, in 
which William agrees to do 
homage for Scotland. 

Henry makes a pilgri- 
mage to the shrine of Becket. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1189.— Richard 1.^ 

(Coeur de Lion). He en- 
gages in the third crusade. 



1171. Egypt :—Saladin, euI 
tan. 

— He extends his domi- 
nions in Egypt, and con- 
quers Syria, Assyria, Meso- 
potamia, and Arabia. 

1174. Poland :— Miecislaus III. 

1175. Portugal— a fief of the 
Holy See. 



1178. Poland :—Casimir, (the 
Just 



1182. Denmark :— Canute. 

1183. Saladin takes Aleppo, 
and deposes the sultan of 
Mosul. 



1185. Portugal :— Sancho I. 

1186. Saladin directs all his 
efforts against the crusaders. 



1187. — gains the victory of 
Tiberias, and takes Jerusa- 
lem, which leads to 

1190. The third crusade. 



1191. Kingdom of Cyprus 
founded. 

1191. Acre taken by the cru- 
saders. 



1193. Richard defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon ; but, 
abandoned by his associates, concludes a truce of ,hice 

years. 



1193. John attempts to seize 
the crown in the absence of 
Richard. 



1193. Saladin dies. 



94 THE world's progress. [Period VI.-~T/ie Middle Ages.— 



A,D. Progress op Society, etc. . Ecclesiastical. France, Germany & Spain, 



Ji06 



1222 



The power of the pope supre me — Rome mistress of the world, ami kings her vassals 



The University of Bologna 
contains 10,000 students. 



Ville Hardouin, historian. 
Saxo Grammaticus, \dsiox\a.n. 



University of Paris founded. 



The order of Franciscan fri ars instituted. 



1200. The pope excommunica tes Philip of France. 

1202. The fourth crusade by the French, Germans, and 
Venetians under the Marquis of Monserrat. They take 
Constantinople. 



1204. The Inquisition in Fran ce 



The works of Aristotle, im- 
ported from Constantinople, 
condemned by the council 
of Paris. 



Period of the Troubadours in 
France ; the Minstrels in 
England; and the Minne- 
singers in Germany. 



University of Padua founded. 



Stephen Langton, archbishop 
of Canierbui-y. 



Bitter persecution of the 

Albisenses. 



The doctrine of transub- 
stantiation and auricular 
conlession established. 



1215. Fourth Lateran, and 
twelfth General Council 
against the Albigenses, and 
all heretics. 

1216. Pope Honorius III. 

1217. The fifth crusade by 
Andrew 11., king of Huti- 
gary. 



1227. Pope Gregory IX. 



1229. The Inquisition at Tou- 
louse. 

The Scriptures forbid- 
den to all layinen. 



Normandy reunited to 
France. 



1210. Germany :— Otho place J 
under the ban of the pope. 



1212. — F rederickll.l 



Spain :— The Christians 
gain the battle of Navas de 
Tolosa. 



1215. Otho loses the battle of 

Bovines. 



1217. Spain-.— Ferdinand, king 
of Castile. 



1223. Fr. : Louis VIII. ^ 

(The Lion). 

Crusade against the Al- 
bigenses. 

1226. Fr. : Louis IX. ^ 
(Saint). 

1227. Germany :— Crusade of 
the emperor after being ex- 
communicated. 

1230. Spain : — Castile and 
Leon united by Ferdinand 
III., who takes Cordova., Se- 
ville, Cadiz, fee. from the 
Moors. 



1066-1299.— Continued.] 



THE world's progress. 



95 



1204 



Eastern Empire. 



England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere 



— Alexius IV. ^^ 

The crusaders plunder Con- 
stantinople. 
Baldwin, count of Flanders. 

Henry II. ^^ 



Richard, returning home 
in disguise, through Ger- 
many, is imprisoned. Is 
ransomed by his subjects for 
10,000 marks. 

— declares war against 
France. 
1199. Richard dies. 



1200. John, ' 

(Lackland.) 



1201. Prince Arthur supported 
by France. 



1221 



1237 



• Peter 



Robert ^M — 



— John of Brienne,^^ 

king of Jerusalem, and em- 
peror. 



1207. The kingdom laid under 
an interdict, 

1208. John excommunicated. 
London obtaiAs the right 

to elect its own Loi'd Mayor. 



1213. The pope declares John 
a usurper. John submits to 
hold his crown as a vassal of 
the pope. 

1214. Scotland :— Alexander II 



1215. Magna Charta signed at 
Runnymede. 



1216. —Henry 1 11.^ 

(4th Plantagenet.) 

Earl of Pembroke, pro- 
tector. 



1224. Henry's province of 
Poitou seized by the king of 
France. 



1229. First expedition of Henry 
into France for the recovery 
of his estates. 



123.3. First discovery of coal 1236. Dreadful invasior 
at Nevvciistle. Europe by the Mongol.*, 

der Batu Khan. 



1202. Denmark : — Waldemar 
IL 

Poland : — Lesco, (the 
white). 

Livonia : — Institution of 
the order of short swords to 
conquer the Prussians. 



1206. Genghis Khan 
subdues the north of China. 



1210. Italy :— First war of Ve- 
nice and Genoa. 



1213. Russia : — Jurje II. 



1214. Frederick cedes to Den- 
mark all the provinces be- 
yond the Elbe and Eiser. 



1216. Tartary :— Overrun by 
the hordes of Genghis Khan. 

1217. Norway :—Haco V. 



1222. Two Greek kingdoms in 
Asia, Nice and Trebizond. 

John Ducas, emperor of 
Nice. 

Hungary : — Charter of 
Andrewll. Foundation of 
the national liberty. 



1234. Italy :— Warof the Lom- 
bard cities with Frederick nl 
Germany. 



96 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages. 



A.D. Progress op Society, etc. 



RobertyOf Gloucester, the first 
English writer in rhyme. 



First war fleet in Spain at the 
conquest of Seville. 

Foundation of the Alhambra 
near Granada. 

St. Edmund, of Canterbury, 
dies. 

The University of Salaman- 
ca founded. 



Silk manufactory in Lucca ; 
woollen in Milan and Tus- 
cany. 

Peter, of Albano, astrologer, 
physician, and naturalist. 

Rubruquis travels among the 
Mongols. 



Private war and judicial com- 
bats suppressed in France 
by the laws of St. Louis. 



Parliament in England. 



The monastic orders, by their 
wealth, rigid discipline, 
and popular influence, be- 
come powerful aids to pon- 
tifical ainbition. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1241. Pope Celestine IV. 



1213. Pope Innocent IV. 

Continual struggles with 
the emperor Frederic. 

Sect of the Plag,ella7its. 



1254. Pope Alexander IV. 

The Jews every where 
persecuted. 



1261. Pope Urban IV. 

The popes claim the 
right of presenting to every 
benefice in the world. 



France, Germany & Spain. 



123S. Germany : — Frederic 
again excommunicated. 



1243. The Hanseatic 
1 e a g u e— the chief towns 
are Lubec, Cologne, Bruns- 
wick, and Dantzic. 

1246. Henry of Thuringia set 
up for emperor by the pope, 
and 

1247. William, of Holland. 

1248. France :— Louis sets out 
on the seventh crusade. 



1250. Germany: — 

Conrad IV.^g — 

1252. Spain: — Alfonso X. 
king of Castile and Leon. 



1261. France :— Burgundy falls 
to the crown. 



1265. The pope succeeds in his long struggle for the do- 
minion of Italy, and places CharlesofAnjou on the throne 

of Naples. 

1265. Pope Clement IV. 

1266. Henry of Castile, a Roman senator. 

1268. Pragmatic sanction- 
foundation of the liberties of 
the Gallican church. 



1268. No pope for about three 
years. 

1271. Pope Gregory X. 



1270. France :— Louis IX. sets, 
out on the eighth and last 
crusade, and dies before 
Tunis — succeeded by 

— Philip III.^ — 
(The Hardy). 



1066-1299.— Continued.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



97 



Eastern Empire. 



England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 



1260 
1261 



lass 



1240. Richard, earl of Corn- 
wall, heads the sixth cru- 
sade, and redeems Jerusa- 
lem. 



1342. Second expedition into 
France — defeated and com- 
pelled to make peace. 



1246. Henry marries Eleanor, 
of Provence. 



1249. Scot. : Alexander KI. 

— Repulses Haco, king 
of Norway — obtains the 
Scottish Isles. 



1241. Denmark :— Eric VI. 



— Michael Palaeologus.^^- 
recovers Constantinople. 



The Mongols in Asia Minor. 



The Mongols take Antioch. 



1258. Famous parliament at 

Oxford. Simon d e 

M o n t f o r t . 

1259. Peace with France. 



1265. First regular parlia- 
ment. — Civil war — the king 
made prisoner at Lewes— is 
released, and gains the bat- 
tle of Evesham. 



1270. Prince Edward joins the 
eighth crusade. 



1249. The Hanse towns cap- 
ture Copenhagen. 

1250. Egypt :— The Mame- 
lukes rule — take Damas- 
cus and Aleppo. 



1255. Nice :— Theodore Lasca- 
ris, emperor. 

1256. Hulaku enters Persia, 
becomes sultan — takes Bag- 
dad, and puts an end to 
the caliphate. 

1258. Italy :— Dreadful naval 
war between Venice and 
Genoa. 

1259. China:— Kublai Khan 
builds Pekin, and makes it 
his capital. 



1261. Norway ; — Iceland sub- 
jected. 

Italy :— Charles I. 

1262. — becomes a papal fief. 
Greenland tributai-y to 

Norway. 

Norway : 

Magnus 11.^^ 

1265. Abaka Khan of Persia. 



1266. Magnus, of Norway, 
cedes to Scotland the He 
brides and the Isle of Man. 



1270. Hungary: 

Stephen V, ' 



98 



THE world's progress. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— 



A.D. Progress of Society, etc. 



Marco Polo travels in the 
East as far as Pekin. 



First patent of nobility grant- 
ed to his goldsmith by the 
king of France. This was 
designed as an attack upon 
the feudal barons, and all 
the landed and hereditary 
aristocracy. 



Literature and science iiourish 
in Spain, under Alfonzo, the 
learned. 



Chivalry and the tournaments 
introduced into Sweden. 



University of Lisbon founded. 



Roger Bacon, of Oxford, the 
most learned man of the 
middle ages. 



Institution of the three great 
courts of law in England. 



Ecclesiastical. 



France, Germany, & Spaim. 



1272. Languedoc falls to the 
crown. 



1273. Ger. :-RodoIph.^ 

founds the house of 
Hapsburg. 



1274. 14th General Council at Lyons ; first re-union of 
the Eastern and Western Churches. 



1276. Pope Innocent V., 4 mos. 
" Adrian V., 1 mo. 
" John XXI., 8 mos. 



1277. Nicholas III., enriching 
his family at the expense of 
the church — he introduces 
Nepotism. 



1281. Pope Martin IV. 



1285. Pope Honorius IV. 



1288. Pope Nicholas IV. 



Nicholas IV. patronizes civil and religious literature, aad 
improves and embellishes Rome. 



Albert, the mathematician, and 
Provengal poet. 



1276 France at war with Cas- 
tile. 



1283. Germany Rodc.ph 

makes his son, Albert, duke 
of Austria. 



1285. Fr.:— Philip IV. 
(the Fair.) 



1286. Spain :— Alfonzo 111 
king of Arragon. 



1066-1299.— Continued.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



99 



1273 



Eastern Empire. 



-^^ Andronicas, 
(the Elder.) 



Union with the Latin church. 



Persecution of tlie Greeka. 



1281 



England & Scotland. 



1272. — Edward I. 



1276. War hetween England 
and Wales. 



Othman establishes an inde 
pendent rule, as chief of 
400 families, in the north of 
Asia Minor. 



1283. Edward has a son born 
at Caernarvon, from which 
the title. Prince of Wales 
descends to the eldest son of 
the king. 

Scotland :— Robert Bruce and 
John Balliol contend for the 
crown. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1272 Hungary: ■ 

— Vladislas VI. W — ■ 



1276. Sweden : — Magnus I. 



Russia : — Hanseatic set- 
tlement at Novogorod. 

1279. China :-KubIia Khan 
subdues the southern king- 
dom, and becomes the Great 
Khan. 

China visited by Marco 
Polo. ^ 

1279. Poland :— Lesco II.®— 

1279. Portugal :— Dennis,^^ 
the father of his coun- 
try. 

1280. Norway :— Eric II. ^g — 



1282. Sicilian vespers. 
1282. Denmark :— Parliament 
at Wurtemburg. 
First Handvesle. 



1286. Denmark :— Eric VI.' 



1289. Last payment of tiibute 1289. The Mongols invade 
to the pope. Hungary and Poland. 

1290. Hungary : —Andrew III. 



the Venetian. 

Poland : Wenceslas, 

king of Bohemia, takes Cra- 
cow, and becomes duke o 
Lesser Poland. 



100 



THE world's progress. 



[Period VI.— Tlie Middle Ages — 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Peter, of Albano, astrologer, 
physician, and naturalistT 



John Holywood. of England 
astronomer. 



Richard Middleton. 



Cimabue, the first of nmodern 
painters at Florence. 



Arnolf di Lapo, the father of 
modem Italian architecture 



Ecclesiastical. 



France, Germany & Spain. 



1292. Celestine V.— he abdi 

cates. 
1292. The papal chair vacant 

two years and three months 
Institution of the order 

of the Celeslines. 



1294. Pope Boniface VIII. 



1296. Struggles with France. 



1297. Canonization of Louis 
IX. 



The Influence of the 
crusades was great 

expanding the 

mind of Eur op e — r e - 
fining the general 
manner s — exciti ng 
a spirit of geogra- 
phical research and 
adventure — and pro- 
moting improvement 
in the arts and sci- 
ences — thus under mining instead of 
strengthening the 



First letters of marque grant- 
ed by Edward III. against 
the Portuguese. 



pow er of p ap alJlome, 
by adiiancing libe- 
ral ideas and fr e e - 
d m of thought. 



1291. Germany: 

— AdolphuE ,^J — 
of Nassau. 



Spain: — James II. k. of 
Arragon. 



1295. Spain : - Ferdinand IV. 
in Castile ar d Leon. 



Philip successfully in- 
vades Flanders. 



1298. Germany : — Adolphus 
deposed by a Diet, whic'j 
elects 

— Albert I.W — 
son of Rodolph.— Adolphus 
slain in the struggle which 



1066-1299.— Continued.] 



THE world's progress. 



101 



1299 



Eastern Empire. 



Capture of Acre by the Ma- 
melukes — end of the king- 
dom of Jerusalem. 

The Mongols drive the last 
sultan of Iconium from his 
throne. 



The Genoese obtain the trade 
of the Black Sea, and rise to 
great power. 



Othraan invades Nicomedia, 
and establishes the Ottoman 
empire. 



England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 



1291. Edward decides the 
Scottish dispute in favor of 
Baliol. 

1292. A piratical warfare be- 
tween England and France. 
— Philip gets possession of 
Guienne. 



1292. Hungary:— The pope 
sets up Charles Martel, 
crown prince ot Naples, as 
king. 



1294. China:— Tymui Khan. 



1295. Poland :- 



1296. Ball 1 defeated; 
mits to Edward. 



1297. Scotland :-S i r W i 1 
liam Wallace . — S i r 
William Douglas, 
Robert Bruce, and 
other chiefs head a rebellion 
against the English. 



1299. — they are defeated at 
Falkirk by king Edward I. 



— Premislas II. 



1296. Poland:— Leas II. W— 



1299. Foundation of the 
OTTOMAN or TURKISH 
EMPIRE in Bythinia, un- 
der Othman I. 



102 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



PERIOD YIL— The Middle Aires.~1299 to 1453.— 



A..D. Progress op Society, etc. 



University at Lyons founded. 
— Rapid advances in civili- 
zation. — Revival of ancient 
learning. — Improvements in 
the arts and sciences — and 
progress of liberty. 

The Mariner's Com- 
pass invented at Naples, 
by Gioia, native of Amalii. 

University at Avignon. 

Z)ante,\\ie father of modern 
Italian poetry, flourishes. 

Amid the struggles of the 
Guelfs and Ghibelines, 
Italy becomes the cradle of 
modern literature and im- 
proving civilization. 

University at Orleans. 



University at Perugia. 



University at Coimbra. 



Knights of St. John at 
Rhodes. 

Order of Knights Templar 
abolished. — The barons in 
England extort from Ed- 
ward II. a reformation of 
abuses. Parliaments are to 
be held every year, and to 
appoint to all impicrtant 
offices. 



Ecclesiastical. 



France, Germany, & Spain. 



1302. First convocation of the 
States-general in France. 

Guienne restored to Eng- 
land. 



1304. France at war with 
Flanders. 

Germany : — The Swiss 
towns rise into importance 
— oppressed by the House of 
Hapsburg. 



130.3. Pope Boniface VIII. 

Council of Paris. 

Bull unam sanctum. 

Pope Benedict XI. 

Vacancy in the papal 
chair nearly eleven monihs. 

— The papal power de- 
clines. 

1305. Pope Clement V. 

Seat of the popes transferred to Avig- 
non. 
1306. Persecution of the Jews 
in France. 

Germany - — Rudolf 



1311. General Council at Vien- 
na. 

Another vacancy in the 
papal chair of more than 
two years. 



1316. Pope John XXII. 

Taxes imposed upon all 
the countries of Europe, to 
enrich the treasury of the 
church. 



of Austria. 



the 



1307. Persecution of 
Knights Templar. 

Ger. : — William Tell 
shoots Gesler. 

1308. Germany : H e n r y 

of Luxemburg, ^g 

General insurrection in 
Switzerland. 

1309. Spain:— Ferdinand IV. 
takes Gibraltar. 



1311. Lyons united to France. 

1312. Spain :— Alfonzo XI. 
of Castile and Leon. 

1314. Fr. :— Louis X.^— 
(Hutin.) 

Ger. : — Louis of Bava- 
ria, and Frederick of Aus- 
tria, contend for the crown. 

1315. Fr. :— Edict for the eu- 
franchisement of slaves. 

BattleofMorgarten— ihe 
Austrians defeated by the 
Swiss. 

1316. Fr. :— P h i 1 i p V.^- 
(the Long.) He succeeds by 
virtue of the Salique law 
now first established. 



THE world's PllOGRESS. 
154 years.— Olhjiian to the Fall of the Eastern Evipire. 



103 



1303 



Eastern Empire. 



War of the Catalans, under 
Roger de Flor. 

Othraan increases his posses- 
sions ; abandons the pasto- 
ral life, and fortifies towns 
and castles. 



1310 



The Knights of St. John of 
Jerusalem, established at 
RhDdes. 



England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 



1303. Edward invades Scot- 
land. — Wallace betrayed 
and beheaded. — Scotland 
submits. 

Edward recovers Gui- 
enne. 



1306. Scotland : — R o b e r t 
Bruce proclaimed king 
— is obliged to flee ; but, 
Edward dying, resumes his 
position. 

l307.En?. rEdwardll.^ 
Scot. : — Bruce strength- 
ens himself by repeated ad- 
vantages and prudent con- 
duct. 



1314. Edward invades Scot- 
land, and is defeated at the 
Battle of Bannock- 
burn. 

The Scots invade Eng- 
land and Ireland. 



1301. Hungary : — Andrew, the 

Venetian. ^P 



Extinction of the house 
of Arpad. 

— Wenceslas III. of Bu 



1304. — Otto v., of Bava- 
ria. ^P 



1305. Polai il :— Vladislas IV., 
in Litile Poland, and 

Duke Henry, of Glogau, 
in Great Poland. 

Russia subject to the 
Khan of Tartary. 



1307. Switzerland: 

W m . Tell escapes from 

SWISS Republics 
founded, Nov. 7. 

1308. Hungary :— Carobert, of 

Anj ou, ^g 

1309. Poland united into one 
monarchy under Vladislas 
IV. 

Naples : — Robert, the 
Good. He aspires to the 
dominion of Italy. 

1310. Italy:— The Council of 
Ten established at Venice. 



1313. Italy;— MatteoVisconti. 

1314. Tunis made tributary to 
Spain. 



1316. Italy :— Castruccio, Lord 
of Lucca and Pisa. 

1317. Robert, the Good, a sena- 
tor of Rome, and 

1318. —lord of Genoa. 

1319. Final establishmen of 
the oligarchy at Venice. 



104 



THE world's progress. [Period VII.— The Middle Agei.- 



A.D. Progress op Society, etc. 



1321 



1323 



1325 
1326 



1334 
1335 

1337 
1310 



1347 



1.156 



Dante, dies. 



John de Maris introduces 
notes of dilTerent length into 
music — and the method of 
distinguishing them. 

Romance poetry of the middle 
ages flourishes. 

Mayronis commences the cele- 
brated disputations in the 
Sorbonne. 

Clock constructed on mathe- 
matical principles, by Rich- 
ard Valigfort. 

Linna, a monk, and astrono- 
mer of Oxford, constructs a 
map of the northern seas. 

Thomas,of Bradwardine, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. 



Giotto, a shepherd boy, the 
first who drew portraits 
from life. 

Greek literature revives. — 
Barlaam teaches Petrarch. 
— Leontiiis lectures on Ho- 
mer at Florence. 

First comet, whose course has 
been accurately described. 

GUNPOWDER in use at 
the battle of Creasy. 

Lippo Memmi Giotino, Flo- 
rentine painter. 

First bank at Genoa. 



Ecclesiastical. France, Germany, & Spain, 



1324. Contest of the popes 
with Louis of Bavaria. 



1328. Crusade preached againsi 
Louis, who sets up Nicholas 
V. as anti-pope. 



1334. Pope Benedict XII. 



1.3.39. Struggles in Rome be- 
tween the Colonna and the 
Ursini. 



1342. Pope Clement VI. 



Democracy at Rome, under Rienzi, the last of the Tri- 
bunes. 



Manufactures improve in 
England. — Commerce in- 
creases. 

Bartolus and Baldus, cele- 
brated jurists 



Merino sheep introduced into 
Spain, by Peter IV. of Ara- 
gon. 

Sir John Mandeville's Tra- 
vels, the first English book 
in prose. 



1352. Pope Innocent VI. 

1354. Rienzi killed.— Albemoz, 
cardinal legate, restores the 
papal dominion. 



1322. France : — C h a r 1 e a 

I V.^— (the Fair.) 

Germany :— Frederic, of 
Austria defeated and taken 
prisoner. 
1324. Germany : — Louis ex- 
communicated by John XII. 
— appeals to a general coun- 
cil. 



1328. France :— P h i 1 i p VI 
of V a 1 o i s .^M 



1332. France :— The Flemings 
revolt and acknowledge Ed- 
ward III. as king of France. 



1338. France :- War with Eng- 
land. 

Germany : — Declaration 
of the Diet of Frankfort, 
that the pope had no tempo- 
ral power in the empire. 

Louis sides with the 
English against France. 



1346. France: — Normandy 
overrun by Edward, with 
his son, the Black Prince. — 
French defeated at Cressy. 

Germany : — O h a r 1 e s 
IV., king of Bohemia. 

The empire otfered to 
Edward III., who declines. 

1350. France :— J o h n ,^g — 
(the Good.) 



1355. Germany : — Promulga- 
tion of the golden Bull. 

1356. France :— King John de- 
feated and taken prisoner at 
Poitiers. — Charles the dau- 
phin regent. 

Insurrection in Pans. 



1360. France : — John regains 
his liberty — cedes much ter- 
ritory to England. 



1299-1453 — 154 years. — Continued.] 



THE world's fROGRESS. 



105 



1320 



Eastern Empire. 



1326 
1328 



1341 



1348 



1355 



Disputes and civil war be- 
tween the emperor and his 
son, Michael. 



England & Scotland. 



1322. Lancaster executed. 

1323. Conspiracy against the 



Orkhan, sultan of the Turks, 
makes Prusa his capital. 



Andronicus, 

(the younger.) 



-John Cantacuzeue. 



War with the Genoese, defeat 
of the Greeks and Venetians. 



-John Palaeulosus.' 



Amurath I., Sultan of the 
Turks. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1320. Russia : — The grand 
duchy of Wladimir confer- 
red on Ivan Danilovitsch. 



1327. Peace between Scotland 
and England. — The inde- 
pendence of Scotland ac- 
knowledged. 

— Ed ward Ill.^g — 
1329. Scotland :— David 11. 

1332. Edward invades Scot- 
land. — Balliol crowned, but 
soon expelled. 

1333. Battle of Halidon Hill. 
— Balliol restored — does ho- 
mage to Edward. 



1338. Struggle for the French 
crown,which lasts 120 years. 



1340. The victory of Helvoet 
Sluys — gives spirit to the 
English navy. 

David, of Scotland, in- 
vades England. 

1346. Battle ofCressy. 

1347. Siege and capture of 
Calais. 



1350. Victory over the Spanish 
fleet. — Parliament divided 
into two chambers, lords 
spiritual and temporal. 



1356. Edward, the 
Black Prince, 
gains the battle of 
Poitiers. — John made 
prisoner.— Two years' truce. 
— Edward again invades 
Scotland — is obliged to re- 
treat. 

1358. — again invades France. 

1360. Peace of Bretigni. 



1326. Tartary : — Tamer- 
lane born at Kesh. 

1327. Italy :— Invaded by Louis, 
emperor of Germany. 



1333. Poland : — Casimir the 
Great. ^^ 



1339. Italy : — Simon Cocane- 
gra, doge of Genoa. 

1340. Denmark : — Waldemar 
IV. restorer of the kingdom. 

1342. Hungary : — Louis the 
Great. 

1343. Italy : Commercial 

treaty between Venice and 
the sultan of Egypt and 
Syria. 

1347. Italy :— R i e n z i , the 
last of the Tribunes, rules 
at Rome. 



1350. Italy : — Naval war be- 
tween Venice and Genoa. 

1353. Establishment of the Ot- 
tomans in Europe. 

1354. Italy :—Rienzi killed— 
papal flower restored. 

1356. First war between Hun- 
gary and Venice. 



1359. Hungary :— Conquest of 
the principalities lying on 
the Danube. 



106 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period VII.— The Middle Ages.— 



A.D. Progress op Society, etc. 



1365 



Petrarch and Boccacio. 



Charles V. founds a college of 
medicine and astrology at 
Paris. 



Foundation of the University 
of Vienna. 



Geof. Chaucer, father 
of English poetry. 



1380 



1383 



1390 



1392 



1402 



Mysteries played in France. 



Wickliffe's translation of the 
Bible. 



University of Heidelberg 

founded. 
Froissart's Chronicles. 
John Van Eyck, invented oil 

painting — founder of the 

Flemish school. 



The first mill in Germany for 
the manufacture of linen 



Revival of Greek literature in 
Italy. 



John Gower, English poet. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1362. Pope Urban V. at Avig- 
non—beautifies the city of 
Rome— presents the right 
arm of Thomas Aquinas to 
Charles V. of France, as an 
object of worship. 



1370. Pope Gregory IX. 



1378. " Schism of the West :" 
Pope Urban VI. ac- 
knowledged in the empire 
and England. 

Clement VII. acknow- 
ledged in France, Spain, and 
Scotland. 



1389. Pope Boniface IX. 
Rome. 

1391. The English clergy for- 
bidden to cross the sea for 
benefices. 

1394. Pope Benedict XIII. 



France, Germany & Spain, 



1364. Fr. :— Charles V. 
— -(the Wise.) 



1365. War with Navarre- bat- 
tle of Amoy. 



1378. Germany:— We nces- 
las, (king of Bohemia), 
emperor. 



1380. Fr. : CharlesVI.^ 
(the Maniac). 

1382. Battle of Rosbecq— the 
Flemings defeated — Arte- 
velde killed. 



1386. France :— Fruitless at- 
tempt to invade England. 



1392. —Charles seized with 
madness. 

1394. Germany :— The emper- 
or imprisoned by the people 
of Prague. 



1400. Ger. :— R o b e r t , 
(Count Palatine). 



1299-1453.— 154 2/e«rs.— Continued.] THE world's progress. 



107 



Eastern Empire. 



1373 



1389 
1391 



1402 



Treaty with Murad, the Otto- 
man emperor. 



Bajazel 1., sultan of the Turks. 



• Manuel II.' 



England & Scotland. 



The World, elsewhere. 



Victory of Nicopolis.— Sigis- 
mond, of Hungary, defeated 
by Bajazet I. 



Bajazet defeated and made 
prisoner by Tamerlane, at 
the battle of Angora. 



1362. The Black Prince aids 
Peter the Cruel, of Castile, 
to recover his throne. 



1369. A new war with France ; 
unsuccessful. 



1371. Scotland :— Robert II.— 

the House of Stuart. 
1376. Death of the Black 

Prince. 

1377.— Richard 11. @— 
First Speaker of the House 
of Commons. 



1378. Fruitless invasion of 
France. 

Insurrection of Wat Ty- 
ler. 



1382. The king marries Anne, 
daughter of Charles IV. 

1384. The Scots, assisted by 
France, invade England. 

1385. The English burn Edin- 
burgh. 



1388. Battle of Olterbourne. 

1390. Scotland : Robert III. 
Persecution of the Wick- 
lifites. 



1398. Henry, of Lancaster, 
banished. 

House of Lancas- 

1399. —Henry IV.^ — 
Richard II. deposed. 

1401. Rebellion of Owen Glen- 
dower, and 

1403. of the Percys, who are 
defeated at the battle of 
Shrewsbury. 



1362. Italy : — War between 
Pisa and Florence. 



1369. Tartary : — Tamerlana 
makes Samarcand the capi- 
tal of his new empire. 

1370. Poland :— Extinction of 
the royal race of Piasts. 



1378. Italy :— Silvester de Me- 
dici, gonfaloniere of Flo- 
rence. 



1380. Russia :— Dimitri Ivano- 
vitsch victorious over the 
Tartars, near the Don. 

1382. The Tartars sack Mos- 
cow. 

1384. Persia: — Invaded by 
Tamerlane ; Ispahan taken. 
— Pyramids of human heads. 

1385. War between Austria 
and Switzerland. 

1386. Battle of Sempach:— 
the Austrians defeated. 

1387. Denmark & Norway :— 

Margaret, ^^ the Semi- 

ramis of the north. 
1391. Italy :— Pisa falls under 
the yoke of the Visconti. 



1395. Tamerlane overruns 
Kipchak and Russia. 

1397. Union of Calmar, form- 
ing Denmark, Sweden, and 
Norway into a single mo- 
narchy. 

1399. Invasion of India by 
Tamerlane. 



108 



THE world's progress. [Pe?iod VII.— Tke Middle Ages.- 



A.D. Pkogress op Society, etc. 



1407 
1409 



Rodrigo, of Zamora, Spanish 
historian. 

University of Leipsic found- 
ed. 



Thomas a Kempis. 



John Suss. 
Jerome, of Prague. 



Ecclesiastical. 



First Portuguese colonies on 
the coast of Africa, Madei- 
ra, &c. 



George of Peurback, astrono- 
mer at Vienna. 



Peter d'Ailti/, theologian. 



The arts promoted in Italy by 
Cosmo de Medici. 



England increases her trade 
with the Mediterranean. 



Micliael Walhgemuth, Ger 
man painter, (teacher of 
Durer). 

Fra. Pilippo Lippi, painter. 



INVENTION OF PRINT- 
ING at Mayence. 

John MuUer Regiomontanus, 
German astronomer and 
mathematician. 



1404. Pope Innocent VII. 
1406. " Gregory XII. 



1409. The council of Pisa de- 
poses Gregory and Bene- 
dict, and elects Alexander 
V. ; — neither will yield, so 
that there are three popes at 
once. 

1410. Pope John XXIII. 



France, Germany, & Spain 



1414. Council of Constance. 



1416. John Huss, and Jerome, 
of Prague, burnt by the 
Council of Constance. 

1417. Pope Martin V. 



1429. Pope Clement VIII. at 
Avignon, resigns, and ends 
the "Schism of the West." 



1431. Pope Eiigenius IV. 
Council of Basle. 



1407. France : — Murder of 
Louis, Duke of Orleans. 

Spain:— John II., king 
of Castile. 



1410. Spain :— Ferdinand, king 

of Arragon. — Yussef III., 

king of Granada. 
1410. Fr. : — Civil war between 

the parties of Orleans and 

Burgundy. 

Germany : — Death of 

Robert. 
1111. S i g i s m u n d , (king 

of Hungary),^g empe- 
ror. 
L413. France: — The French 
defeated by Henry V., of 
England, at Agincourt. 

1416. Spain : — Alfonzo V., king 
of Arragon and Sicily. 



1419. Sigismund succeeds to 
the Bohemian crown. 



1422. France :— Death of Char- 
les VI — Henry VI. pro- 
claimed at Paris king of 
France and England. 

— Charles VII. ^ — 
at Poitiers. 

1427. Orleans besieged by the 
English. 

1429. — saved by J o a n of 
Arc. 

■: Charles crowned at 
Rheims ; makes a vain at- 
tempt to gain Paris. 

1431. Joan of Arc taken pri- 
soner and burnt as a witch. 

1431. Germany : — Sigismund 
visits Italy, and is crowned 
emperor by Pope Eugenius 
IV. 

1435. Peace of Arras, between 
France and Burgundy. 



1436. France : — Recovery of 
Paris. 



1438. Pragmatic sanction of Bruges, establishes the liber 
ties of the French church. 



1299-1453 :— 154 ymr^.— Continued.] THE world's progress. 



109 



Eastern Empire. 



Solyman I., Sultan of the 
Turks. 



England & Scotland. 



1406. Scotland :— James I. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1406. Italy : — Pisa conquered 
by Florence.— Subjugation 
of Padua and Verona by 
Venice. 



1413 Mohammed I., Sultan of the 
Turks. 



1438 



Amu rath II., Sultan of the 
Turks. 



John VII. ' 

peror. 



1413. —Henry V .^ — 

1414. — claims the French 
crown. 

1415. — gains the battle 
of Agincourt. 



1420. Treaty of Troyes.-Henry 
marries Catharine, daughter 
of Charles VI., and is de- 
clared heir to the French 
crown. 

1422. Death of Henry V. 

— Henry V I .^^ — 

1434. The Duke of Bedford 
defeats the French at Ver- 
neuil. 



The emperor visits Italy to 
obtain help against the 
Turks— submits to the pope. 



1427. —besieges Orleans. 

1429. The siege raised by the 
Maid of Orleans. 



1431. — she is taken prisoner 
and burnt. 



1435. Death of the Duke of 
Bedford, followed by the 
loss of all the English pos- 
sessions in France, except 
Calais. 

1436. War with Scotland. 

1437. Scotland :— James II. 



1412. Italy:— Sack of Rome 
by Ladislas, king of Naples. 
Denmark, Norway, &c. : 

Eric VII., of Pomerania.^^ 
1415. Conquest of Ceuta, by 

the Portuguese. 
1419. Bohemia : — Hussite war. 



1420. Discovery of Madeira 
by the Portuguese. 



1424. Bohemia :-Death of John 
Ziska, the Hussite leader. 

Italy :— War of the Duke 
of Milan against Florence. 



1429. Florence:— Cosmo di 
Medici, patron of the 
arts and sciences. 



1431. Italy :— Second war of 
Venice and Milan. 



1434. Poland :-Vladislas III. 



1436. Italy:— Third war be- 
tween Venice and Milan. 

1437. Portugal : — Expedition 
into Africa. 

1438. Portugal :— Alfonso V., 



king.® 



110 



THE world's progress. 



[Period VJI.— Tlie Middle Ages.- 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1446 



Leonardo da Vinci, sculptor, 
architect, and painter — dis- 
covers perspective. 



Pet. Perugino, founder of the 
Roman school of painting, 
teacher of Raphael. 



Library of the Vatican, found- 
ed. 



The Azores discovered. 
Alain Chartica. French poet. 



Flourishing period of Flan 
ders' trade. — All European 
nations have warehouses at 
Bruges and Ghent. — Boo/c 
trade at MoA/ence. 



1447. Pope Nicholas V. 



1448- Concordat of Aschaffen 
berg, by which the liberties 
of the German church are 
compromised. 



France, Germany & Spain. 



1438. Germany : —House 
of Austria: 

— Albert II.® — 
(king of Bohemia and Hun- 
gary.) 



1440. Ger. :-Frederic III 



France :— The dauphin, 
(Louis XL), rebels— but is 
pardoned. 



1444. — establishment of the 
companies of Archers, the 
first national standing army. 



1446. Germany :— War with 
Hungary, for refusing to 
give up the young prince, 
Vladislas. 



1451. Expedition of Frederic 
to Rome. 



1453. Austria made an heradi- 
tary duchy by Frederic. 

End of the French and 
English wars. 



1299-1453.— 154 years.— Continued.] THE world's progress. Ill 



1443 



1444 



Eastern Empire. 



Insurrection of Scandeberg — 
victory over the Turks near 
Nissa. 



Battle of Varna — Vladislas, 
king of Poland, defeated and 
killed by the Turks. 



1448 



1451 



1453 



— Constantine XII. ^m- 
(Palaeologus,) the last of the 
Greek emperors. 



Mohammed II., Sultan of the 
Turks. 



Siege and capture 
of Constantinople 
by the Turks: 

END OF THE EAST- 
ERN EMPIRE. 



England <fe Scotland. The World, elsevyhere 



1444. Truce with France.— 
Marriage of Henry to Mar- 
garet, of Anjou. 



1447. Gloucester arrested for 
treason— dies suddenly. 



1450. Insurrection of Jack 
Cat^e— calling himself Mor 
timer. 

Civil Wars of 
"the Roses:'' 

Richard, duke of York, 
claims the throne. 



Scotland :~StruggIes be- 
tween the king and aristo- 
cracy for power. 



1440. Hungary : — Vladislas 
chosen king.^g 

1441. Italy :— Peace of Marti- 
nego. 

1443. Alfonso V., of Arragon, 
unites the crown of the Two 
Sicilies. 



1445. Poland : Casimir IV. '^ 

1446. Tartaty : — Ulugh Beg, 
patron of astronomy and 
geography. 



1448. Denmark :— Christian I 
of Odenburg.^^ 

Sweden :— Charles V1II.@ 

1450. Italy :— Francesco Sfor- 
za, duke of Milan. 

Norway : Christian 

crowned at Drontheim.^g 

Delhi :— Behol Lodi en- 
larges the kingdom. 
1453. Poland : —Confirmation 
of the national liberty in the 
Diet of Petrikan. 



112 



THE world's progress. 



PERIOD Vin.— 1453-1598.— 



1460 



1464 



1466 



1470 



Pro&ress of Society, etc. 



1477 



1481 



1484 



Philip de Comines, French 
hiscorian. 



Wood engraving invented. 



Post-offices in France and 
England. 



Faiist dies at Paris, whither 
he journeys twice to sell his 
Latin Bible. 



Beerhard invents the pedal to 
the organ. 



Printing in England— Cax- 
ton. 



Printed musical notes. 

Hungary : — Mathias patroni- 
zes literature and the arts. 

Large library at O fen— 300 
copyists of manuscripts. 



German ballads— war songs of 
Veit Weber. 



TFa^cAes first made at Nurem- 

burg. 
Mikrond and Rondemir, great 

Persian historians. 



Lady Juliana Berners, one of 
the earliest female writers 
of England. 



Hans Holbein, painter. 



Franchino Gafurid, teacher in 
the first public school of 
music at Milan. 



Josquin de Prez, greatest mu- 
sical genius of his age. 



England. 



1455. Battle of 
St. Albans. 

House 
of York : 
1461. — -Ed- 
ward IV. 

^g — gains 
the battle of 
Towton. 



1469.Warwick 
banished. 



1471. Battle of 
Bamet :- 
Warwick 
slain— Hen- 
ry VI. dies in 
the Tower, 



1483. Ed- 
ward V 



Richard, 
Protector. — 
The king & 
his brother 
murdered in 
the Tower. 

— R i c h - 
ard III. 



1485. -Henry, 
earl of Rich- 
mond, lands 
at Millbrd 
Haven. 

Battle 
o f B o s- 
worth 
Field: 

Richard 

defeated and 
slain. 



Scotland. 



1460. 
III. 



James 



France. 



1479. War with 
England . — 
Conspiracy 
of the no- 
bles ; — they 
take the kinj 
prisoner. 



146]. Louis 

Civil war.— 
— Peace of 
Conflans. 



Spain and 
Portugal. 



1475. War be- 
tween Louis 
and Charles 
of Burgun- 
dy, 

1476. — who is 
defeated at 
Granson and 
Morat, and 

1477. —slain at 

Nancy. 

Artois and 
Burgundy 
united to the 

French 
crown. 



1483.— Char 
les VIII 



1454. Spain :— 
Henry IV. of 

Castile. ^M 



1469. Marriage 
ofFerdinand, 
of Arragon, 
with Isabel- 
la, of Cas- 
tile. 



1479. Union 
of Castile 
and Arra- 
gon under 

Ferdinand 
1 1 . and Isa- 
bella. 

1480.TheIn- 

qu isi tion. 
— X i m e - 
n e s , bishop 
of Toledo. 

1481. Port. :— 

John 11.^ 

1484. First au- 
da-fe at Se- 
ville. 



THE world's progress. 
Othman to the Edict of Nantes. 



113 



1462 



1469 



Germany. 



The emperor besieged in liis 
court at Vienna — delivered 
by G. Podiebrad, of Bohe- 
mia. 



Invasions of the Turks. 



University of Ingoldstodt. 



1477 Marriage of Maximilian and 
Maria of Burgundy. 



Ottoman 
Empire. The World, elsewhere. 



1455. Turks re- 
pulsed at Bel- 
grade. 



1454. Struggle 
between Cos- 
mod da Me- 
dici and the 
aristocracy. 

1458. The 
French rule 
in Genoa. 

Pope Pi- 
us II. 

1463. War of 
Venice with the Turks. 



1464. Pietro de 
Medici at 
Florence. 

Pope Paul 
11. 

1466. Galeaz- 
zo, duke of 
Milan. 

1469. L o r e n ■ 
zo de Me- 
dici, suc- 
ceeds Pietro. 

1471. Sixtus 
IV. pope. 

Power of 
the Medici 
increases. 

Learnin 
flourishes. 



1464. War with 
Hungary. 



1478. Conspi- 
racy of the 
Pazzi at Flo- 
rence. —Giu- 
lio, brother 
of Lorenzo 
de Medici, 
slain. 



1484. Innocent 
VIII., pope. 



of 



1454. Poland :— War with the 
Teutonic Order. 



1458. Hungary : Mathias 

Corvin,^g -.-aakes his 

country formidable to her 
neighbors. 

1462. Russia .-—Ivan I.@ — 
the Great — takes the tide of 
Czar. 

1466. Peace of Thorn.— East 
Prussia a fief of Poland.— 
West Prussia ceded to Po- 
land. 

1468. Uzun Hasan, master of 
all Persia. 



1470. —forms an alliance with 
the Venetians and the duke 
Burgun dy against the Turks— con- 
quers Bagdad. 

1472. Russia : — Ivan marries 
Sophia, niece of the Greek 
emperor. 

1474. —shakes off the Tartar 
yoke, and captures Novo- 
gorod. 

1477. Hungary — War with 
Frederic III. 



1479. Fruitless 
attempt upon 
Rhodes. 



1480. -capture 
and destroy 
Otranto. 

1481. Bajazet 




1481. Denmark :— John, W 
partially acknowledged 
Sweden. 



1488. Hungary : — — Mathiai 
takes Vienna. 



il4 



THE world's progress. 



[Period VIJI.~ 



Scot- _ Spain and 

A.D. Prooress OP Society, etc. England. land. France. Portugal. 



1490 



1493 



1497 

-8 



1498 



1499 
1502 



1515 



1517 



Martini Behaim, (Nurem- 
burg,) publishes a map of 
the world. 

DISCO VER Y OF 
AMERICA. 

First printing press at Copen- 
hagen. 

Tlie second voyage of Colum- 
bus. — A Spanish colony at 
Hispaniola. 

The discoveries of John and 
Sebastian Cabot. 

Third voyage of Columbus. 
He discovers Trinidad and 
the Continent. 

Lisbon, the great seat of trade. 
— Venice declines. 

Maritime enterprises greatly 
extended. 

Sir Thomas More's Utopia, 
published. 

Nicholas Machiavelli, states- 
man and historian. 

Amerigo Vespucius's voyage. 

Fourth voyage of Columbus. 

Raphael, Michael Angelo, Ti- 
tian, Corregio, painters. 

St. Peter's, and other magni- 
ficent churches built. 



The celebrated tapestry, after 
Raphael ; — Cartoons woven 
in the Netherlands. 

L UTHER, E I- SLsmtis, 
MelancthoB , and other 
reformers. 

Roger Ascham, tutor of queen 
Elizabeth. 

Hans Sachs, founder of Ger- 
man drama. 

Copernicus, discovers 
the true system of the Uni- 
verse — his great work, De 
Orbium Cffilestium Revolu- 
tionibus. 

First complete circumnavi- 
gation of the globe, by Ma- 
gellan 



House o ; 
Tudor: — 
— Henrv VII. 



1486. Imposture of 
Lambert Syranel. 
The Star Cham- 
ber established. 



1493. Perkin War- 
beck, pretends to 
be Richard, duke 
of York — defeated 
on Blackheath. 



1497. Cabot makes 
discoveries in A- 
merica. 

1499. Earl of 
Warwick, last 
of the Plantage- 
nets, executed. 



1509. H 6 n r y 

VIII .W — - 

joins the League 
of Cambray. 

1513. Invasion of the 
Scots. — Battle of 
Flodden — the king 
and chief Scots 
killed. 

1515. W o 1 s e y , 
chancellor and car- 
dinal. 

1520. The Emperor 
visits England. — 
Meeting of Henry 
and Francis at the 
•'Field of the Cloth 
of Gold." 

1521. The Reformed 
doctrines opposed 
by Henry, in his 
book on the Seven 
Sacraments — he 
receives the title 
of " Defender of 
the Faith." 



1487.:- 

James 

IV. 



1503. : - 
James 
marries 
Marga- 
ret, of 
Eng- 
land. 



1513.:- 

James 

V. 



1491. Bretag- 
ne united to 
the crown 
by the king's 
marriage 
with Anne. 

1494. Invasion 
of Italy. 



1498.— Louis 

XII.W— 




1500. Treaty 
with Ferdi- 
nand, of Ara- 
gon, for the 
conquest and 
partition of 
Naples. 



1510. The 
Council of 
Tours, to 
support the 
king against 
the Holy 
League. 



1515.— Fran- 
cis l.^m — 
— invades 

Italy— victory 
of Marigna- 
no — Genoa 
and Milan 
submit. 

1516. Concor- 
dat with the 
pope, instead 
of pragma- 
tic sanction. 

1521. First war 
with Char- 
les V. 



1492. C c ." - 
quest o { 
Granad a, 
by Gonzalo 
de Cordova. 

Discovery 
o f Ameri- 
ca, by Co- 
lumbus . 

1498. Vasco 
d e G a m a 
doubles the 
Cape of 
Good Hope, 
and reaches 
India. 



1506. Colum- 
bus dies at 
Valladolid. 

1507. Cardinal 
Xim,enes. 

Board ol 
American 
trade at Se- 
ville. 



1516.— Char- 
king ol all 
Spain, and 
the Nether- 
lands. 

1519. Con- 
quest o ( 
Mexico, 
by C o r t e 5 



1453-1598,] 



THE world's progress. 



116 



149.'; 



— M a X i m i 1 i a n I . 



502 



1508 



1517 
1518 

1519 
152) 



University of Wittenbui-g 



Maximilian enters Italy to be 
crowned by the pope. 

— ^joins the League of Cam- 
bray. 

— divides the empire into ten 
circles. 



Commencement of 
THE Reformation. 

Luther summoned before the 
diet of Augsburg. 

-Charles V .^^ — 
of Spain. 

The archduke Ferdinand, mar- 
ries Anne, sister of Louis — 
whence the accession of 
Bohemia and Hungary 
the House of Hapsburg. 

Diet of Worms. 



1492. Pietro II. 
succeeds his 
father, Lo- 
renzo, in Flo- 
rence. 

Pope Alex- 
ander VI., 
(Borgia.) 

1494. Expedi- 
tion of Char- 
les VIII. in- 
to Italy. 

1499. Amerigo 
Vespucius's 
voyage to 
America. 

1500. Partition 
of Naples 
between 
France and 
Spain. 

1502. Florence: 
Machiavelli, 
Secretary of 
State. 

1503. Naples 
annexed to 
the Spanish 
Crown. 

Pope Pius 
III. 

Pope Ju 
lius II. 
1508. League 
of Cambray 
against Ve- 
nice. 

1510. Holy 
League i 
expel the 
French. 

1511. Council 
of Pisa. 

1513. Pope 
Leo X . 
(de Medici,) 
patron of li- 
terature and 
arts. 

The build- 
ing of St. 
Peter's com- 
menced. 

1519. Cardinal 
de Medici 
holds rule in 
Florence. 

1522. Po.pe 
Adrian VI, 



Ottoman 
Empire, 



1493. Wars 
with Egypt, 
Hungary, 
and Venice, 



The World, elsewhere. 



1503. Peace 
with Venice. 

1505, War with 
Persia. 



1512. Selim I., 

thrones and 
puts to death 
his father 

1514. The Per- 
sians defeat 
ed at Kalde 
roon. — Me 
sopotamia 
and Kurdis- 
tan added to 
the empire. 

1516. Cairo 
taken by 
storm.— Ma- 
meluke do- 
minions an- 
nexed to the 
empire. 

1520. Soliman, 

Magnificent.) 

1521. Belgrade 
taken by 
storm. 

1522. Rhodes 
capitulates. 



1488. India :— Sekander Lodi, 

king of Delhi. 
1492. Poland:— John Albert. 



AMERICA discovered by Co- 
lumbus. 



1493. Spanish colony at His 
paniola. 



1499. Voyage of Amerigo Ves- 
pucius. — South American 
coast explored. 



1501. Poland :— Alexander. 



1 502, Ismail Shah Soofi makes 
himself sole sovereign of 
Persia. 



1506. Poland :—Sigismund 1. 
^J (the Great.) 



1509. Bohemia :— Louis,^g— 
3 years old. 

1510. America : — Settlement 
at Darien. 

1511. America :— C u b a con- 
quered, 

1512. America: — Florida 
discovered. 

1513. South Sea first reached 
by Balboa. 

1516. Hungary and Bohemia : 
—Louis II. ^g 

1517. India :— Ibrahim Lodi, 
king of Delhi 

1517. Xmenca.:— Fir St patent 
for importing Negroes — 
granted by Spain. 

1518. Corsairs in Algiers. 

1519. MEXICO conquered by 
the Spaniards, under Cor- 
tes. 



116 



THE world's progress. 



{Period VIII.- 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Xavier plants Christianity in 
India. 



Ariosto^ Italian poet. 



1^27 Albert Durer. 

F.fst work on military archi- 
tecture. 



Jorgens invents the spinning 

wheel for spinning flax. 
Rabelais, French humorist. 



Botanic Gardens at Padua. 



Ignatius Loyola founds the 
order of the Jesuits. 



Papal bull declaring the Ame- 
rican natives to be rational 
beings. 

The diving bell invented. 

Calvin founds the Univer- 
sity of Geneva. 

Pins first used by Catharine 
Howard, queen of England. 

John Knox, Scottish Refor- 
mer. 

A commercial treaty between 
Portugal and Japan. 



Needles first made. 
Vasalius's work on Anatomy. 



Revival of Stoicism, by Justus 

Lipsius. 
Palestrina, founder of Italian 

church music. 

Giacomo Carisimi. 

Orange trees introduced into 
Europe. 



1529. Sir Tfiomas 
More, Lord Chan- 
cellor. — Rise of 
Cranmer, archbi- 
shop of Canter- 
bury. 



1532. The king mar- 
ries Anne Boleyn. 



1535. Bishop Fisher 
and Sir Thomas 
More beheaded. 

Henry e.xcom- 
municated by the 
Pope 

1536. —marries Jane 
Seymour. — Sup- 
pression of the 
smaller monaste- 
ries. 



1543. Henry invades 

France takes 

Boulogne. 

1544. French fleet 
gain a victory over 
the English, ofl" 
the Isle of Wight. 

1547. — Edward 

Somerset invades 
Scotland — defeats 
the Scots at Pin- 
kie. 

Formal esta- 
blishment of Pro- 
testantism. 



Scot- 
land. 



1536. : — 
Spread 
ot the 
Refor- 
mation. 
—Pro- 
testants 
persecu- 
ted. 

1542. : — 
Mary. 



Earl of 

Arran, 

regent. 



Spain and 
Portugal. 



1525. Francis 
defeated and 
taken pri- 
soner at Pa- 



1527. Second 
war with 
Charles V. 

1529. Treaty of 
Cambray. — 
Great en- 
couragement 
given to arts 
and sciences. 
—The Lou- 
vre com- 
menced. 

1532. Calvin 
preaches. 
Third 
French war. 
— Siege of 
Marseilles. 



1538. Truce of 
Nice— for 10 
years. 

Attempt to 
recover pow- 
er in Italy; 
hence the 

1542. Fourth 
French war. 



1544. Peace of 
Crespy. 
France gives 
up Italy. 

1547. Henry 

' The fa- 
mous Catha- 
rine d e 
Medici, 
queen. 



1536. Acquisi- 
tion of Mi- 
lan. 



1540. Portu- 
gal : — Lis- 
bon,the mar- 
ket of the 
world. 

1542. Com- 
mercial trea- 
ty between 
Portugal and 
Japan. 



1453-1598.J 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



117 



1525 



1526 



1529 



1543 



1545 
1546 



1547 



General insurrections of the 
peasantry, under Thomas 
Miinzer. 



Charles marries Isabella, of 

Portugal. 
Death of Frederic, of Saxony 

The Turks invade Germany 
— Diet of Spires.— Luther- 
ans first called Protestants. 

League of Smalcald. 



Ottoman ^ 

Italy. Empire. The World, elsewhere. 



Congress of Nice between the 
Emperor, the Pope, and the 
king of France. 



War m alliance with England 
against France. 



Diet of Worms. 

War of the Smalcaldists. 



Duke Maurice, elector of Saxo- 
ny. 



1523. Clement 
VII. , pope. 



1525. Spain ac- 
quires the 
ascendency 
by the victo- 
ry of Pavia. 



1527. The Me- 
dici expelled 
from Flo- 
rence. 



1530. Medici 
restored. — 
Charles V. 
crowned at 
Bologna. 



1534. Paul IIL, 
pope. 



1537. Cosmo 
de Medici, 
duke of Tus- 
cany. 

1540. Investi- 
ture of Mi- 
Ian confer- 
red by Char- 
les V. on 
Philip. 



1545. Council 
of Trent. 



1526. Invasion 
of Hungary. 



1529. Invasion 
ofGermany. 
— Siege of 
Vienna. 

The Otto- 
man na vy 
formidable 
under the 
command of 
Barbarossa : 



1535. —who 
seizes Tu 
nis. — The 
emperor, 
Charles V., 
restores the 
Moorish 
king. 



1541. Destruc- 
tion of an ar- 
mament, led 
by Charles 
V. against 
Algiers. 



1523. Sweden :— Revolt under 
Gustavus Vasa . — Tlie 
Danes expelled. — Union of 
Calmar dissolved. 

Denmark and Norway : 

—Frederic I.^^ 

1525. Albert, duke of Prussia. 



1547. The 
Turks in- 
vade Persia, 
and capture 
Ispahan. 



1530. Malta givec to the 
knights of Rhodes 



1532. Union of Norway and 
Denmark. 



1533. Conquest of Pe- 
r u , by Cortes. 



Russia:— Ivan IV., (the 
Terrible). 



1536. Cortes discovers Califor- 
nia. 



1543. First standing army in 
Sweden. 



1545. South America :— Mmes 
of Potosi discovered. 



1548. Poland :— Sigismund H. 
^g (Augustus). 



118 



THE world's progress. 



[Period VIIL— 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Scaiiger, Philologist. 
Montaigne, French Essayist. 



Cardan, Italian philosopher. 



1558 Sealing wax comes into use 
in Europe. 



Foundation of Jesuit Colleges 
in opposition to Protestant 
Schools. The first at Co- 
imbra, in Portugal. 



Only two carriages in Paris — 
horses and litters generally 
used. 



1560 Snuff first brought into France. 
— Knives first made in Eng- 
land. 



Torquato Tasso, Guarini. 
poets. 



Camoens, Portuguese poet. 



Thomas Talti's, English mu- 
sician. 



England. 



1549. The English 
Liturgy comple- 
ted and establish- 
ed by act of Par- 
liament. 

1553. Northumber- 
land intrigues to 
settle the crown on 
Lady Jane Grey, 
his daughter-in- 
law. 

— Mary .^g — 

Catholicism re- 
stored. 

1554. The queen 
marries Philip, of 

Spain. — Lord Dud- 
ley and Lady Jane 
Grey executed. 

1555. Bloody perse- 
cution of Protes- 
tants. 

1557. War with 
France to support 
Spain.— Calais 
lost. 

1558. — Eliza- 
beth. ^M 



Cecil, Lord 
Burleigh, Secreta- 
tary of State. 

Protestantism 
established. 

The Puritans 
begin to rise. 



1568. —Mary, queen 
of Scots, takes re 
fuge in England— 
and is imprisoned. 

1570. Civil wars of 
the Desmonds in 
in Ireland. 



Scot. 

LAND. 



1560. Ca- 
tholic- 
ism abo- 
lished 
by par- 
liament. 
1565. : — 
Mary 
marries 
Lord 
Darn- 
ley. 

1565. : — 
Revolt 
of Pro- 
testants 
1567. : — 
Darnley 
murder- 
ed — the 
queen 
marries 
earl of 
Both- 
well — is 
dethron- 
ed and 
impri- 
soned at 
Lochle- 
ven. 

James 



1570. :— 
Lennox 
regent. 



1552. Fifth war 
with Char- 
les V. 



1557. The 

French defeat- 
ed at St. 

Quentin. 

1558.— at Gra- 
velines. 

1559. Peace of 

Chateau — 

Cambresis. 

F r a n c i s 

Duke of 
Guise, min- 
ister. 
1560.— Char - 

lesIX.^ 

1562. Religious 
liberty grant- 
ed 10 the Hu- 



First civil 
religious war 
—Huguenots 
supported by 
England — de- 
feated at 
Dreux. 
1567. The se 
cond war. — 
Huguenots 
defeated i 
St. Denys. 



1569. — routed 
at Jarnac- 
C o n d e 
killed. 



Spain and 
Portugal. 



1554. Ccvcar.; 

in India, lost. 

1556. Charles 

abdicates — 

Philip n.^ 



1557. 



Portu- 
— Sebas- 



tian. ISSf — 



1564. Acquisi- 
tion of the 
Philippines. 



1567. Duke o{ 
Alva, gover- 
nor of the 
Netherlands. 



1570. War 
with the 
Turks.— Na- 
val victory 
at Lepanto. 



1453-1598.] 



THE world's progress. 



119 



Treaty of Passau secures reli- 
gious liberty to the Protes- 
tants. 

Fruitless siege of Mentz. 



Charles abdicates. 



— F erdinand I .^g — 
king of Hungary and Bohe 
mia. 

Coronation by the pope relin- 
quished. 



— M aximilian II. ^^— 



^ Ottoman 

Italy. Empire. The World, elsewhere. 



1550. Julius 
III., pope. 



1555. Marcel- 
lusII.,pope. 
Paul IV., 
(Caraffa) 
pope. 



1559. Pius IV. 
(Medici) 
pope. 

Peace of 
Chateau — 
Cambresis 
terminates 
the French 
wars in Italy. 
Tranquil- 
lity for ee 
years. 

1562. Council 
of Trent re- 
assembled. 

1566. Pius v., 
pope. 

1569. Florence, 
a grand du- 
chy. 

Cosmo 
d e Medi- 
c i , declared 
grand duke 
of Tuscany, 
by Pius V, 



1551. Tripoli 
taken from 
the Maltese 
knights. 

1552. Invasion 
of Hungary. 

1553. War with 
Persia. 

Building of 
t he mosque 
of Solyman 
yah, at Con 
stantinople. 



1559. Naval 
victory of 
Galves, gain- 
ed by Dra- 
gut. 

Military 
power of 
the Turks at 
its greatest 
height, un 
derSoliman 



1565. Unsuc- 
cessful siege 
of Malta. 

1566. Beath of 
Soliman 
the siege of 
Sigeth. 

Selim II, 



1570. 



War of Venice with 

the Porte. 
Cyprus reduced by the 
I Turks. 
I Batile ofi 

Lepanto. 



1553. New Mexico discoveied 
by the Spaniards. 



1456. India:— Jelaleddin Ak- 
bar, a patron of science and 
literature, aided by his min- 
isters, Abu Fazl and Sheikh 
Faizi. 

—raises the Mogul em- 
pire to its greatest splendor. 



1559. Denmark and Norway : 

— Frederic 11.^^ 

Decrease of the influence 
of the Hanse towns. 

1560. Sweden :— Eric XIV. W 



1562. War with Russia and 
Poland.— An English am- 
bassador in Persia. 

1564. Coligny sends a colony 
of Huguenots to Florida — 
destroyed by the Spaniards. 

1568. Prussia :— Albert Frede 



Sweden .-—John III.^^— 



1270. Peace of Stetin, between 

Denmark, Norway, and 

Sweden. 
1571 Russia devastated by the 

khan of Crim Tanary — 

Moscow burnt- 



120 



THE world's progress. 



[Period VIIL- 



ScoT- Spain and 

A.D. Progrkss of Society, etc. England. land. France. Portugal. 



Cervantes, author of Don 

Quixotte. 
Titian, and Paolo Veronese, 

painters. 



Sir Francis Drake's voyage 
round the world. 



Sir Philip Sydney's Arcadia. 



Gregorian Reformation of the 
Calendar. 



Greenland discovered by Sir 
- Francis Drake. 



Tobacco first brought lo Eu- 
rope. 



First newspaper in England. 



Telescopes invented by Jan 
sen, a German. 



Tasso, Italian poet. 
The Carracci, celebrated pain- 
ters. 

In England -.—Spenser, 
Shakspeare, Beau- 
mont & Fletcher, Ben Jon- 
son. — Napier invents loga- 
rithms. 



Lord Bacon, celebrated phi- 
losopher. 

Lope de Vega, dramas and 
novels. 

\ Kepler, Tycho Brake, astro- 
I nomers. 



1578. The queen 
sends help to the 
revolted Nether- 
lands. 



1583. Levant Com- 
pany chartered. 

1584. Raleigh's co- 
lony in Virginia. 

15S5. War with 
Spain. 

1586. Sir Philip 
Sidney killed at 
Zutphen. 

1587. The Queen of 
Scots beheaded. 

1588. The Spanish 
armada destroyed. 

1589. Alliance with 
Henry II. in aid 
of Protestantism. 
— Troops sent to 
France. 



1593. Act for reli- 
gious conformity. 

159-1. Sir John Haw- 
kins's Voyages. 



1596. Cadiz taken, 
and the Spanish 
fleet burnt, by the 
earl of Essex. 
Sir Robert Cecil, 
minister. 



1599. Troubles in 
Ireland : — Revolt 
of O'Neill, earl of 
Tyrone. 



1581. :— 
Gow- 
rie's 
conspi- 
racy 
against 
the kins 



1590. :— 
The 
king 
marries 
Anne, of 
Den- 
mark. 



1572. Massacre 
of St. Bar- 
tholomew. 

1573. Peace of 
Rochelle. 

1574. — H e n - 

rylll.® 
Fifth war 
with the Hu- 
guenots. 

1576, The Ca- 
tholic 
League. 

1577. Sixth re- 
ligious war. 



1588. Revolt of 
Paris. 

1589. House 
of Bour- 
bon: 

— H E N R Y 

1590. Siege of 
Paris, raised 
by the Spa- 
niards. 

1593. Henry 
abjures Pro- 
testantism. 

1594. Jesuits 
banished. 

1595. War with 
Spain con- 
tinued. 

1598. Peace of 
Vervius. 

Ministry of 
Sully: — 
restoration 
of order. 
Edict op 
Nantes 
— granting 
toleration to 
Protestants. 



1578. Port. :- 

Henry, ^g- 

1580. Portugal 
falls under 
Spanish do- 
minion. 



1588. Defeat of 
the Spanish 
armada. 

1589. English 
volunteers 
under Drake 
and Norris, 
repulsed 
from Lisbon. 



1598. Philip 

m. W — 



1453-1598.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



121 



1576 



Germany. 



— R d 1 p h II .^ — 
king of Bohemia ami Hun- 
gary. 



The imperial authority disre- 
garded by the princes of the 
empire, who wage war 
among themselves. 



Union of Protestants at Heil- 
hronn. 



Ottoman ^ T,r , , 

Italy. Empire. The World, elsewhere. 



1572. Gregory 
Xlll., pope. 

1573. Cyprus 
yielded to 
the Porte ; 

1574. Florence: 
— Frances Ma- 
ria succeeds 
Cosmo. 



1580. Charles 
Emmanuel, 
duke of Sa- 
voy. 



1585. Sixtus 
v., pope, 
active and 
energetic — 
corrects 
abuses in 
the church ; 
I'estores the 
Vatican li- 
brary. 



1500. Urban 
VII., pope. 

Gregory 
XIV., pope. 

1591. Innocent 
IX., pope, 
two months. 

Clement 
VIII., pope. 

1592. The Ri- 
alto and Pi- 
azza di San 
Marco built 
at Venice. 



peace with Ve- 
nice. 
1574. — Murad 



1576. War with 
Persia. 



1580. War with 
the Druses 
in Syria. 

1583. First 
trade with 
England. 



1589. Predato- 
ry incur- 
sions of the 
Cos.^acks. 

Revolt of 
the Janiza- 
ries. 

1593. War with 
the Empire 

. in Hungary. 

1594. Tlie" 
Grand Vi- 
zier takes 
Raab. 

1595. Moham- 
med III.^ 

Turkii^h 
power in 
Hungary de- 
clines ; de- 
feated at 
Gran — re- 
volt of Wal- 
lachia. 
1597. Moham- 
med leads his 
troops, and 
defeats the 
Germans at 
Agria. 



1574 Poland :— Henry, of Va- 

1575 Poland : — Stephen Ba- 



1578. Alliance of Sweden and 
Poland against Russia. 

iy79. Commencement 
of the Republic of 
HOLLAND, by the union 
at Utrecht: 

William, Prince 
of Orange, stadthol- 
der. 

1584. North America: 
— First English colony found- 
ed in Virginia, by Sir W. 
Raleigh. 

1585. Persia acquires power 
under Abbas the Great. 

Holland : — Maurice, of 
Orange, stadtholder. 

1586. Battle of Zutphen: death 
of Sir Philip Sidney, 

1588. Denn:iark : — Christian 



1592. Sweden : — Sigisniund, 
king of Poland. 

India : — Mizam Shah, re- 
pulsed from Choul, by the 
Portuguese. 

1.594. The Falkland Isles dis- 
covered by Hawkins. 

1595. The Dutch first in India. 
Sweden : — The regent as- 
sumes independent autho- 
rity. 



1598. Russia: — Boris Godii 

nov,^g begins a nevii 

dynasty. 

Sigismund lands in Swe 
den, to re-establish his pow- 
er — but is defeated, and re- 
turns lo Poland. 



122 



THE world's progress. 



PERIOD IX.— 120 years,- 



Frogress op Society, etc. 



1624 
LtJ2o 



English East India Compa- 
ny IbundeJ. 



Exportation of Eng.ish wool 
prohibited. 

Conference at Hampton Court. 

NeiB Trnnslation of the Bi- 
ble begun; (published 1611). 

Dr. Gilbert discovers the pow- 
er of electricity, and of con- 
ductors and non-conductors. 



Telescopes invented by Gali- 
leo. 



Coffee at Venice. 
Tobacco in Virginia. 

Bacon's Inductive Philoso- 
jphy. 

Harvey discovers the circula- 
tion of the blood. 

Thermometers invented by 
Drebel. 

Inigo Jones, celebrated archi- 
tect. 

Martin Opitz, German poet. 

Negro Slavery co'ijmenced in 
Virginia. 



Peter Paul Rubens, painter. 

Massinger, the dramatist. 

Kepler's " Astronomia Nova 
Celestis." 

Torricelli invents the barome- 
ter. 

The Parian marbles brought 
to England by the earl of 
Arundel. 



Gazettes first published in 
Venice. 



1604. — Acadia co- 
lonized by the 
French. 



1605. — Discovery 
of Hudson's Bay. 

1607.— E n g 1 i s h 
se ttleme nt a t 
Jamestown, 
(1st permanent 
one in N. Ame- 
rica.) 

1608. — auebec 
founded. 

1609. — Jesuit mis- 
sions in Para- 
guay. 



1616.— The Tobac- 
co plant introdu- 
ced into Virgi- 



1620.— Negro 
slaves first im- 
ported to Virgi- 
ni.a. 

Emigra- 
tion of Pu- 
ritans to 
New Eng- 
land. 

1621. —John Car- 
ver, 1st Gover- 
nor of N. E. 

1624. New Am- 
sterdam set- 
tled by the Dutch. 



1627. Boston found- 
ed. 



1629. Wouter Van 
Twiller, gover 
nor of New Am- 
sterdam. 



1601. Earl of Essex be- 
headed. 

1603.— James I.^— 
Union of the 
English and 
Scotch crowns. 

1605. The Gunpowder 
Plot. 



1612. English factories at 
Sural. 



16i£. Ministry of Villiers, 
duke of Buckingham. 

1617. Sir Francis Bacon, 
lord chancellor. 

1618. Sir Walter Ra- 
leigh's unsuccessful 
voyage to America — 
he is beheaded on his 
return. 



1625. — C harles 1.^ 

, Buckingham, prime 
mmister. 



France. 



1610. Assassi- 
nation of 
Henry IV., 
by Ravail- 
lac. 

Louis 

XIII, .W 

(9 years old). 
Mary de Me- 
dici, regent. 

1614. Last as- 
sembly of the 

States-gene- 
ral. 

1615. The king 
marries 
Anne, of 

Austria. • 

Civil war :— 
C o n d e 
heads the 
Hugue- 
nots. 



1624. Ministry 
of Cardinal 
Riche- 
lieu. 



1627. War with France, in support ol 
the Hugue- 
nots. 

Roehelle 

1629. No parliament for reduced by 
eleven years. famine — af- 

1630. Peace with France. ter a siege o< 
ten mon'hs. 



THE world's progress. 123 

1598-1718. — Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden. 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



Expul- 
sion of 

the 
Moors. 

War of 

the 
Mont- 
ferrat 
succes- 
sion in 
Italy. 



Dutch 
war.— 
Spain 
sup- 
ports 
Austria . 
Philip 

Defeat 
of Span- 
fleet off 
Lima, 
hy the 
Dutch. 
Naval 
war 
with 
Eng- 
land. 
Peace 
with 
Eng- 
land. 



1606. Truce of Co- 
morra, for twenty 
years, with the 
Porte. 

1608. Protestant 
union, under Fre- 
deric, the elector 
palatine. 

1610. The Catholic 
League, under the 
duke of Bavaria. 

1612. Matthias. 



1615. Truce of Co- 
morra confirmed. 

1618. The Thirty 
Years' War 
begins. 

1619.— Ferdinand 

1620. Victory of the 
White Mountain, 

near Prague. 

Massacre of 
Prague.— The Pro- 
testant religion to- 
tally suppressed. 



1626. Victory of Til- 
ly over Christian 
IV., of Denmark, 
at Lutter. 

1628.Wallen stein 
recovers all the 
shores of the Bal- 
tic, except Stral- 
sund. 

1629. Gustavus Adol- 
phus lands in Ger- 
many. — Diet of 
Ratisbon. — Wal 
lenstein dismissed, 
succeeded by Til 
!y, 



Italy. 



1605. Leo XI., 
pope. 

Paul v., 
pope. 



1609.Tuscany : 
— Cosmo II. 



Leghorn, 
tlie empori- 
um of the 
Levant trade. 



1618. Conspi- 
racy of Bed- 
mar, the 
Spanish en- 
voy, to re- 
duce Venice 
under sub- 
jection to 
Spain. 

1621. Gregory 
XV., pope. 
Tuscany : — 
Ferdinand II. 

162.3. The fa- 
mous library 
of the Pala- 
tine at Hei- 
delberg, sent 

- to Rome. 

1623. General 
Italian war 
on the death 
of the duke 
ofMantua. 



Ottoman 

Empire. 



1605. Revolt in 
Syria and 
Caramania, 
under the 
pasha of 
Aleppo. 

1606. Com- 
mercial 
treaty with 
France and 
Holland. 

Tobacco 
first brought 
to Turkey. 



1617. — Musla- 
pha 1.^5 — 

1618. — Osman 

Great Per- 
sian victory 
at Shibli. 
1620. War with 
Poland, and 
unsuccess- 
ful invasion 
of Poland. 

1623. Miirad 

restores tran- 
quillity. 

1625. Truce 
with the em- 
pire renew- 
ed. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1604. Sweden : Charles IX. 



1605. India : — Jehangir, sul- 
tan. 



1609. India :— Arrival of Haw- 
kins, first English envoy 
from the East India Com- 
pany. 
Sweden : — G u s t a v u s 

A d 1 p h u s . ^M 

16U. Sweden : — War with 
Denmark.— Calmar and Ris- 
by lost.— Axel Oxenstiern, 
minister. — Russia devasta- 
ted by Poles and Tartars. 

Russia : — Michael Ro- 
manoff, czar. 

1615. Denmark :— First stand- 
ing army. 

1616. India :— Sir Thomas Roe, 
ambassador from James I., 
of England. 

Sweden predominates in 
the north. 
1618. The Synod of Dort— 
Arniiniiis condemned. 

Settlement of Tanquebar, 
in Coromandel. 

1621, Dutch West India Com- 
pany incorporated. 

1622. Persia :— Ormuz gained 
from the Portuguese by the 
help of the English. 

1625. Netherlands : — Henry 
Frederic— Breda, taken bj 
Spinola. 

1627. Persia :— Shah Soofi I. 
1629. Peace of Lubeck. 



124 



THE world's progress. 



[Period IX.— 



1630 
1631 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Lotteries for money first men- 
tioned. 

Calico first imported into Eng- 
land. 



Edward Coke, the great ju- 
rist. 

1636 Pedro Calderon de la Barca, 
Spanish dramatist. 

Flourishing period of flower 
trade in the Dutch cities. 



Rembrandt, Van Dyke, pain- 
ters. 



1638 The Jansenists, founded by 
.Jansenlus, bishop of Ypres. 

1639 Printing in America. 

First Swedish manufactories. 
Persin, Caspar, Daghet, and 

Claude Lorraine, French 

painters. 



1641 



1643 



Coffee brought to England by 
Nat. Conopius. 



The Dutch sole 
masters of Bra- 
zil. 
1632. Maryland 
settled by a colo- 
ny under Lord 
Baltimore. 



1635. Connecticut 
settled. — Guada- 
loupe and Mar- 
tinique, by the 
French. 



1637. Maine and 
New Hampshire 
colonized. 

Harvard Col- 
lege founded. 



Conde and Turenne, the great- 
est generals of the age. 



1639. First print- 
ing office in Ame- 
rica, at Cam- 
bridge, by Sam. 
Green. 

1640. Whole num- 
ber of emigrants 
to New England 
previous to this, 
21,000. 



1643. Confedera- 
tion of the colo- 
nies of New 
England, for 
mutual defence. 



1630. Wentworth, earl of 

Strafford, minister. 
Laud, archbishop of 

Canterbury. 
1633. The king visits 

Scotland — is crowned 

at Edinburgh. 



1637. Trctbles in Scot- 
land, caused by Char- 
les's plan to overthrow 
the Scotch presbyterian 
church, and enforce 
episcopacy. 

1639. War with Scotland. 

1640. Parliament assem- 
bled — dissolved with- 
out effecting any thing. 

The Scotch invade 
England— take posses- 
sion of Newcastle. 

The Long Parlia- 
ment, Nov. 3. 
Impeachment of Straf- 
ford and Laud. 



1641. Strafford beheaded. 
— Courts of Star Cham- 
ber and High Commis- 
sion abolished. — Rebel- 
lion of Roger Moore in 
Ireland. — Massacre of 
Protestants by Irish Ca- 
tholics. 

1642. C i V i 1 W a 1 and 
Revolution .- 
Rise of Roundheads 
and Cavaliers, both of 
the popular party. — 
Battle of Edgehill, inde- 
cisive. 

1643. Royalists victorious 
at Carlsgrane — defeated 
at Newbury. — Solemn 
league and covenant be- 
tween the Scotch and 
English parliaments. 



1631. Treaty 
with Swe- 
den and the 
popular prin- 
ces against 
the emper- 
or. 

1635. Alliance 
With Holland 

against Spain, 
for the par- 
tition of (he 
Austrian Ne- 
therlands. 

1636. Alliance 
with Sweden 
against Aus- 
tria. 

Invasion of 
Oascony by 
the Span- 
iards, and of 
Picardy, by 
the Impe- 
rialists, who 
threaten Pa- 
ris. 
1638. Invasior 
of Spain, 
siege olFon- 
tarabia. 

1640. Turin ta- 
ken by the 
French. 

The first 
Louis d'ors 
struck. 

1641. Alliance 
with Portu- 
gal against 
Spain.— Ca- 
talonia and 
Rousillon re- 
volt, and sub- 
mit to France. 

1642. Cinq 
Mars and de 
Thou be- 
headed. 

1643. -L o u 1 s 

XIV.^— 
(the Great.) 

Anne, of 
Austria, re- 
gent. 

Victory of 
Roscroi over 
the Span- 
iards, by 
Conde. 

Ministry ol 
Cardinal Ma 
zarine. 



1598-1718.] 



THE world's progress. 



i25 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



1631. Sack of Mag- 
deburg, by Tilly. 
— Gustavus Adol- 
phus takes Blay- 

1632. Defeat and 
death of Tilly, at 
Lech. — Gustavus 
takes Munich. — 
Wallensiein again 
in command. — Bat- 
tle of Lutzen. — 
Victory and death 
of Gustavus Adol- 
phus. 

1635.Peace of Prague 
with Saxony. 

1636. Swedes victo- 
rious atWittstock. 

1637.— Ferdinand 

Galas successful 
against the Swedes. 
163s. Bernhard. of 
Saxe Weimar, de- 
feats the Imperial- 
ists at Bheinfield — 
takes Brisac. 

1639. Battles of Ol- 
nitz and Brandiez, 
gained by the Swe- 
dish general, Ban- 
ner. 

1640. Prussia' — Fre- 
deric William. 



1642. The Swedes de- 
feat the Austrians 
at Leipsic. 



1643. —invade Hol- 
stein, and compel 
the Danes to desert 
Austria. 



Italy. 



1631. Peace of 
Chierasco. — 
The influ- 
ence of France 
. increases. 



Ottoman 

Empire. 



1634.Muradin 
vades Per 
sia — takes 
Falreeze. 



1636. Peace 
with Poland 
renewed. 

1637. Troubles 
on the Tar- 
tar frontier; 
Azoph taken 
by the Cos- 
sacks. 

Bagdad ta- 
ken by ihe 
Turks. 
All the con- 
questsof Ab- 
bas recover- 
ed. 



1640. Ibrahim. 



1642. Recap- 
ture of Azoph 
from the Cos- 
sacks. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1632. Sweden : — Christina, 

queen. ^^ 

1632. Sweden : — Oxenstiem, 
regent. 

Russia : — War with Po- 
land ; twc years' siege of 
Smolensko. — Russian army 
capitulates, and the Polish 
king advance.s to Moscow. 

1634. Peace of Wiasma, disad- 
vantageous to Russia. 



1639. Holland. —Great naval 
victory by Van Trmnp, over 
the Spanish fleet in tiie 
Downs. 



1640. India :— Madras founded 
by the English. 



126 



THE world's progress. 



[Pe? iod IX. — 120 yeai s.— 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Des Cartes, French philoso- 
pher. 



Air gujis invented. 



Engraving iti mezzotinto, im- 
proved by Prince Rupert. 



Railroads with wooden rails, 
near Newcastle. 



Jeremy Taylor, Alger. Sid- 
ney, English writers. 



Le Seur and Le Brun, French 
painters. 



Air pumps invented. 



About this time flourish Mo- 
Here, La Fontaine, Cor- 
neille, Madame de Sevig- 
ne, Rochefoucault, Racine. 
Boileau, and Pascal, in 
France. 

Velasquez and MuriUo, Span- 
ish painters. 



1646. Thomas 
Mayhew, preach- 
er to the Indians, 
shipwrecked. 

1647. Peter Stuy- 
vesant, governor 
of New Amster- 
dam. 



1648. Cambridge 
platform adopt- 
ed. 



1649. J. Winthrop, 
governor of Con- 
necticut. 



1650. Settlement of 
North Carolina, 



1652. John Cotton 
died. 



1655. E. Winslow 
died. 



Great Britain. 



1644. Battle of Marston 
Moor — royalists defeat- 
ed. 

1645. Battle of Naseby. 

1646. The king seeks re- 
fuge in the Scottish 
camp. 

1647. — is delivered up to 
parliament for £400,000. 



164S. Cromwell routs the 
Scotch, under Hamil- 
ton. The Presbyte- 
rians expelled from 
parliament, which re- 
ceives the name of" the 
Rump." 

1649. Trial and execution 
of the king. 

The Commonwealth. 

1650. Cromwell subdues 
Ireland. 

The Scots proclaim 
Charles II. He 

1651. enters England — is 
defeated at Worcester, 
and escapes to France. 

1652. Naval war with 

Holland. Blake, 

A s c o u g h , and 

P e n n , English ad- 
mirals. 

1653. Long parliament 
dissolved by Crom- 
well. — " Barebone's par- 
liament" summoned. 

Oliver Crom- 
well, Lord Pro- 
tector. 

Milton, private secre- 
tary to Cromwell. 

1654. Peace of Westmin- 
ster. Alliance with 

Holland. 



1655. War with Spain. — 
Jamaica conquered by 
Penn. 

1658. Death of Cromwell. 
— R ichard Crom- 
well, Protector. 



1645.: — Mar. 
shalTurenna 
takes Treves. 



1648. Factions 
of the Fron- 
de ; dissen- 
sions foment- 
ed by Cardi- 
nal d e R e t z . 

1649. Court re- 
moves to St. 
Germains. — 
Siege of Pa- 
ris. 

1650. Conde, 
C o n t i , and 
Longue- 
ville, im- 
prisoned. — 
Turenne 
flees to the 
Spaniards. 

165a. Maza- 
rine retires 
to Sedan. 
Cond6 flies 
to Spain. 

1653. Mazarine 
enters Paris 
in triumph. 



1659. Peace of 
the Pyre- 
nees. — Mar- 
riage of Lou- 
is XIV. to 
Maria The- 
resa, of Spain. 



1598-1718.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



127 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



1654 



Brazil 
recover- 
ed from 

tlie 
Dutch. 
War 
with 
Eng- 
land. 



1644. Invasion of 
Hungary, by Ra- 
coezi— ilie empe- 
ror forced to yield 
to the demands of 
the protesiants. 



1648. Peace of 
Westpha- 
lia, signed at 
Munster, between 
France, tlie em- 
pire, and Sweden. 
— The principle ol 
a balance of' poiv- 
er in Europe first 
recognized. 



1657. —Leopold 



1644. Innocent 
X., pope. 



1646. Revolt of 
Naples, mi 
der Mas 
saniell o, 



1655. Alexan- 
der VII., 
pope. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



1645. War with 
Venice. 
Candia, the 
theatre of 



1648. Moham- 
med IV. 



1650. Moham- 
med Riopri- 
li, grand vi- 
zier. 



1653.Naval de- 
feat by the 
Venetians in 
the Archipe- 



Thb World, elsewhere. 



1644. Naval victory of the 
Swedes over the Danish 
fleet. 

1645. Sweden: — Peace of 
Briinisebro with Denmark. 



1647. Netherlands:— William 
II. 

China: — The Taruir; 
place a prince of their own 
on the throne — the first nl 
the present dynasty of Tsing. 

1648. Poland:— Tlie Ukraine 
Cossacks revolt, and cut the 
Polish army to pieces. 

— John Cassimir.^g — 



1657. War with 
Racoezi, for 
aiding Swe- 
den against 
Poland. 



1653. Holland : — J o h n d e 
Witt, Grand Pensionary ; 
D e R u y t e r , admiral. 



1654. Defeat and death of 
Tromp. 

Sweden :— Christina re- 
signs. — Charles X., 1st of 

the House of Deux Ponts.^g 
Poland : — War with Rus- 
sia. 

1657. Denmark :— War against 
the Swedes, who overrun 
Denmark, and menace Co- 
penhagen. 

1658. Denmark : — Naval vic- 
tory over the Swedes. 

Denmark :— Peace of Ros 
kilde. 



128 



THE WOR^d'; PROGRESS. 



[Period IX. — 120 years.— 



Peogress op Society, etc. 



Logwood first cut in the bay 
of Honduras. 



Salvalor Rosa, landscape 
painter. 



Huygens, Dutch astronomer. 

Persecution of Janscnists in 
France. 

Chain shot invented by De 
Wilt. 

Canal of Languedoc, from the 
Mediterranean to the Atlan- 
tic. 



Gobelin tapestry manufactory 
in Paris. 



Bayonets invented at Bay- 
onne. 

Orrery invented. 

Foundation of the Academy 
of Architecture, and the 
Hotel des Invalides, at Pa- 
ris. 

Cassini, Italian astronomer 
and mathematician. 

D'Herbelot, Pascal, Bour- 
daloue. La Bruyere, Mai- 
branclie, French writers. 

(Christopher Wren, architect, 
commences St. Paul's. 

Ruysdael, celebrated Dutch 
painter. 

William Temple, historian. 

Butler, Waller, and Dryden, 
English poets; Henry 
More, Leighton, Baxter, 
Boyle. 

Mansart, architect ; Giradon, 
sculptor, of France. 




1663. Canada made 
a royal colony. 

1663. Elliot's In- 
dian Bible prin- 
ted. 

1664. New York 
occupied by the 
English. 



1667. — ceded to 
them by the 
peace of Breda 



1670. Conclusion of 
the ' American 
treaty ' between 
England and 
Spain. 



Enqland. 



1675. King Phi- 
lip's War in 
New Ensland. 



1677. M a i n e pur- 
chased by Massa- 
chusetts. 



1659. Ricliard resigns. — 
Kump parliament call- 
ed, but soon expelled. 

Restoration of 
the Stuarts. 

1660.— Charles II. i 
Hyde, earl 
Clarendon, chancellor 
and prime minister. 

1661. New parliament. — 
Alliance with Portugal. 

1662. Marriage with Ca- 
therine, of Portugal. 

Act of Uniformity. 
Dunkirk sold to 
France. 

1664. War with Holland. 

1663. Naval victory by the 
duke of York. 

Great Plague in 
London. 

1666. Great Fire in Lon- 
don. 



1667. Peace of Breda. — 
New York ceded to 
England. 

Banishment of the 
earl of Clarendon. 

166S.Triple league— Eng- 
land, Sweden, and Hol- 
land, against France. 

1670. The Cabal min- 
istry.— Secret treaty 
with France. 



1672. War with Holland 
in conjunction with 
France. 

1673. Ministry of Danby. 
Test Act pas.sed. 

1674. Peace with Holland. 



1678. The Popish Plot. 



France. 



1661. Death oi 
Mazarine. 

Colbert, 
comptroller- 
general of 
finance. 

Lyonne. 
Le Tellier. ' 

1662. Disputes 
with the pope. 

—6000 troops 
sent against 
the Turks in 
Hungary. 
1664. Frencli 
East India 
Company. 

1666. Acade- 
mie des Sci- 
ences Louvois. 

1667. War with 
Spain. Lou- 
is claims 
Spanish Ne- 
therlands for 
his wife — in- 
vades Bel- 
gium. 

1668. Peace of 
Aix la Cha- 
pelle with 
Spain. 

1672. War with 
Holland. 

1673. French 
ambassador 
at Ispahan. 

1674. The 
Dutch de- 
feated at the 
battles of 
Sinsheim 
and Mulhau- 
sen.— Tu- 
renne rava- 
ges the Pala- 
tinate. 

1675. Death of 
Turenne ai 
Sasbach. 

Influence 
of Pere la 
Chaise, the 
king's con- 
fessor. 

1677. Victory 
over the 
Prince of 
Orange at 
Mont-Cassel. 

1678. Peace 
of Ni me- 
guen with 
Holland and 
Spain — re- 
stores tran 
quillity to 
Europe. 



1598-1718.] 



THE world's progress. 



129 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



Invasion 
of Por- 
tueual. 



Victory 
of the 
Portu- 
guese 
over the 
Span- 
iards at 
Estre- 
mas. 
Spain : - 
Charles 



Portu- 
gal : — 
Revolu- 
tion at 
Lisbon. 
King de- 
posed. 
Pedro 

Peace of 
Lisbon 
with 
Spain. 
Nitard, 
the Je- 
suit, dri- 
ven 
from 
Spain. 
War 
with 
France 
to pro- 
tect Hol- 
land. 



Italy. 



1663. The Diet per- 
manent at Ratis- 
bon. 

1664. Montecuculi 
victorious over the 
Turks at St. Go- 
thard. 



1665. The Tyrol uni- 
ted to Austria. 



1673. War of Austria 
.nnd France. 

1675. Turenne and 
Montecuculi op- 
posed on the 
Rhine. — Victory 
of Consarbriick 
over the French, 
under Crequi. — 
Treves taken. 

1676. General revolt 
of Hungarians un- 
der Eraeric. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



1661. War 
with Aus- 
tria. 



1662. Invasion 
of Hungary. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1667. Clement 

IX., pope. 
1669. Candia taken from Ve- 
I nice by Kio- 
prili. 

Peace with the Porte. 



1670. Cosmo 
III., grand 
duke of Tus- 
cany. — War 
between Ge- 
noa and Sa- 
voy. 

Clement X., 
pope. 

1674. Revolt of 
Messina in 
favor of 
France. 

1676. Messina 
blockaded by 
the Dutch 
and Spanish 
fleets. 

Death of De 
Ruyter. 
Innocent XI. 
pope. 

Death of the 
atheist, Spi- 
noza. 



1672. The Sul- 
tan invades 
Poland. 

1673. —defeat- 
ed by Zo- 
briski, at 
Choezim. 



1676. Peace of 
Zurawno 
with Poland. 



1678. First war 
with Russia, 
on account 
of the Cos- 
sacks. 



1660. Demark : — Peace of Co- 
penhagen. — The Swedes 
restore Bornholm, and Dron- 
theim. 
Revolution in Denmark. 

Sweden .'—Charles XI. ^^ 

Peace of Oliva. 

Prussia acknowledged in- 
dependent. 
1660. Poland :— Great victory 
of Marshal John S o - 
b i e 3 k i over the Tartars. 



1667. Holland :— Peace of Bre- 
da : loss of New Nether- 
lands. 

1668. First embassies from 
Russia to France and Spain. 

India :— Rise of the Mah- 
ratta power.— Sevajee taKcs 
and sacks Surat. 

1670. Den. :— Christian V. W 



1672. Sea iight between the 
Dutch ileet, under De Witt 
and De Ruyter, and the 
English and French fleets- 
Dutch defeated. 

Den. :— William III.® 

1674. Poland:— John Sobies- 



1675. The Swedes invade 
Brandenburg. 

1677. Battle of the Lund, be- 
tween the Swedes and Danes. 



130 



THE world's progress. 



[Period /JC— 120 years.^ 



1681 
1683 



C86 
16S7 



1690 



1692 



1693 
1692 



1693 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Bernini, Italian sculptor. 

Museum for Natural History, 
at London. 

Jardin des Plantes, at Paris. 

Penny post established in Lon- 
don. 

Kempfer's travels in Japan. 

John Bunyati,, " Pilgrim's 
Progress." 



Otto Von Guerickz, inven- 
tor of the air-pump and 
electrical machine, died. 

Telegraphs invented. 

Newton's Principia, publish- 
ed. 

G. Batt. Lulbj, from Flo- 
rence, founder of French 
opera music. 

Arch. Corelli, celebrated vio- 
linist and composer at Rome. 

White paper first made in 
England. 

Leibnitz, German philoso- 
pher, founds the Academy of 
Sciences at Berlin. 

First opera in London. 

Purcell, English musician. 

Bank of England. 

Telescopes, first reflecting 
one made on the principles 
of Sir Isaac Nevi'ton. 



1686. Sir Edmund 
Andros, governor 
of NewT England. 

1688- General sup- 
pression of char- 
ter governments. 

1689. Montreal de- 
stroyed by the 
Five nations. 

Leisler usurps the 
government of 
New York. 

1690. The English 
settlements of 
Schenectady, N. 
York, Casco, Me. 

and Salmon Falls, 
N. H., destroyed 
by a party of 
French. 

Port Royal, No- 
va Scotia, redu- 
ced by Sir Wil- 
liam Phipps. — 
Expedition against 
Canada, unsuc- 
cessful. 

1691. Schuyler 
defeats the French 

at La Prairie. 



Witchcraft superstition in New-England. 



John Locke and Sir Isaac 

Newton in England. 
Boileau, Fenelon, and Bayle, 

in France. 
Bank of England. 



Phosjikorus discovered. 



1692. New Hamp- 
shire purchased 
by Allen. 

N. York : Leis- 
ler executed. 

1693. N. York:— 
Episcopacy in- 
troduced. 

William and 
Mary's College 
founded. 
1697. Kidd's pira- 
cies. 



1699. French colo- 
ny in Louisiana. 
— Gold mines in 
Brazil. 



Great Britain. 



Rise of the names of 
Whigs and Tories. 



1683. « Ryehouse Plot." 
Execution of Lord 
Russel and Algernon 
Sydney. 

In this reigir the Roy- 
al Society of London 
was instituted by Wil- 
kins, bishop of Chester. 
— Bombay ceded to 
England. 

1685. — James II .^a 

Rebellion of Mon- 
mouth, in England, and 
Argyle, in Scotland, 
both defeated and exe- 
cuted. 
Judge Jeffries. 

1686. The king favors the 
Catholics. 

1687. — re-establishes the 
Court of High Com- 
mission. 

1638. "Revolution 
F 1683."— The Whigs 
and Tories unite in ap- 
plying to the Prince of 
Orange, who lands in 
England with 15,000 
men — the king flees to 
France. 

1689.— William III. 

and Mary II .^J— 
War with France. 
James II. lands in 
Ireland— besieges Lon- 
donderry. 

1690. William in Ireland. 
— Battle of the Boyne. 
James defeated, returns 
to France. 

1691. Limerick taken, and 
William acknowledged. 

1692. Invasion of Eng- 
land undertaken by the 
French in favor of 
James. — Naval victory 
by the Dutch and Eng- 
lish. 

1693. Bank of England in- 
corporated. 

1694. Death of queen 
Mary. 

1697. General peace 
1698.First partition treaty, 
between France, Eng- 
land, and the Empire to 
dispose of the crown of 
Spain. 
1699. Visit of Peter the 
Great. 



France, the 
most formi- 
dable power 
in Europe. 

1683. Invasion 
of the Span- 
ish Nether- 
lands. 

1684. Truce of 
Ratisbon for 
twenty years 
with Spain. 



1685. Revo- 
cation of 
the Edict 

of Nantes. 



1688. War ol 
Spain — the 

Empire, Hol- 
land, Savoy, 
and England 
against 
France. 

1689. Grand al- 
liance against 
France, head- 
ed by Wil- 
liam III. 

1690. Naval 
victory over 
the Dutch 
and English 
off Dieppe. 
Victory of 
Luxemburg; 
at Fleurus. 

1692. Marshal 
Luxem- 
burg de- 
feats William 

at Steenkirk, 
and 

1693. —at Ne- 
uvinden. 
Institution of 
the order of 
St. Louis. 

of Ry s wick 
— between 
France and 
the allies. 



1598-1718.] 



THE world's progress. 



131 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



1680. Great part of 
Alsace seized by 
France. 

1683, Turkish war, 
siege of Vienna by 
the Turks— victory 
of tliG Germans 
and Poles, under 
Charles, of Lor- 
raine, and John 
Sobieski. 

Treaty of the 
Hague against 
France. 



1686. League of 
Augsburg against 
France. 

1686. Buda taken af- 
ter being held by 
the Turks 145 
years. 

1687. Decisive victo- 
ry of Mohaez : 
Croatia and Tran- 
sylvania subdued. 

Joseph I. crown- 
ed king of Hun- 
gary. 
1689. Grand alliance 
ratified at Vienna. 
The Palatinate 
desolated by the 
French. 



1690 Joseph \. elect- 
ed king of the Ro- 
mans by the Diet 
of Augsburg. — 
Victori/^s over the 
Turks. 



Revolt 
of Cata- 
lonia in 
favor of 
France. 



Incur- 
sion of 

the 
French 

into 
Aragon. 



Peace of Ryswick. 

In- 
trigues 1697. Victory over 
for the the Sultan Musta- 
succes- pha at Zenta, by 
sion. the Prince Eugene 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



1682. War with 
Austria. 

1683. Total 
rout before 
Vienna. 



1684. Alliance of Venice with 
Poland, and the Empire 
against the Porte. 



1689. Alexan- 
der Vlll., 
pope. 



1691. Innocent 
XII., pope. 



1693. Battle of 
Marsaglia — 
the allies in 
Italy defeat- 
ed by the 
Marshal Ca- 
tiriat. 



1686. Russia 
declares war. 

1687. Revolu- 
tion in Con- 
stantinople, 
Mohammed 
dethroned. 

Solyman 



1689. Defeat at 
Nisa. 

1690. Musta- 
pha Kiopri- 
ii drives the 
Austrians 
across the 
Danube — re- 
covers Bel- 
grade. 

1691. Ahmud 

Deleat and 
death ofKio- 
prili. 

1694. Chio ta- 
ken by the 
Venetians. 

1695. Musta- 

phall.^g — 

1696. — leads 
his own ar- 
my. — Victo- 
ry of Olach. 

1699. Peace of 
Carlowiiz. 

The Otto- 
man po\Yer 
broken. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1680. Sweden :— Diet of Stock- 
holm. 

1682. Russia:— Ivan and Pe- 

ter,^P their sister, So- 
phia, regent. 

1683. Denmark :— The Code of 
king Christian published. 



1686. India : — The Dekkin con 
quered. 
Golconda and Besapore. 



1087. —The English factories 
in Bengal suppressed— after- 
wards restored. 

1688. Prussia :— Frederic IIL 



Russia : — Ivan resigns — 
Sophia is confined in a con- 
vent : 
1689. Petbe the 

Great .^§ 

1692. Russia: — First trade 
with China. 

India : — Height of the Mo- 
gul power, annual revenue 
£32,000,000. 

China: — Great influence 
of Jesuits. 

1693. Sweden :— The king de- 
clared absolute. 

1695. Holland : Bombard- 
ment of Brussels by the 
French, under Villeroi. 

1696. Poland :— Death ol So- 
bieski — succeeded by 

1697. — Frederic Augustus I. 
Sweden :— C h a r l e s 



XII.l 



-(15 years old.) 



Russia :— Introduction of 
various manufactures — 
equipment of a fleet, etc. 

1699. Den. :— Frederic IV. ^g 

Alliance of Denmark, Rus- 
sia, and Poland, against 
Charles XII. of Sweden. 



132 



THE world's mOGllLBS. 



[Penod IX.— 120 years.— 




First manufactories in Russia 
and Denmark. 

Fenelon, Bossuei, Masillon, 
in France. 

National Deb: of England 
commenced. 

Godfrey Kneller, English 
painter. 

First Russian newspaper. — 
St. Petei-sburgli founded. 



Flourishing period of French 
literature. — Great splendor 
in the B'rench court. 

A newspaper in America. 



Incorporation of the United 
British East India Com- 
pany. 

Prussic acid discovered by 
Diesbach. 

A post-office in America. 



The famous bull •■ Unigeni- 
ius " against lire French Jan- 
senists. 

Rise of commerce in Austria ; 
first manufactories.- 



Laic's bank at Paris. 



The monastery of Mafra, ' the 
wonder of Portugal,' built. 

Prior, Steele, De Foe, Addi- 
son, fliiurish in England. 

First standing army in Eng- 
land. 

The coffee tree brought from 
Java to Surinam. 



1701. Yale College 
founded. 

1702. Rice intro- 
duced into Caro- 
lina from Mada- 
gascar. 

17U3. Apalachian 
Indians subdued. 
Maine ravaged 
by French and 
Indians. 
1704. Captain 
Church's expe- 
dition against the 
Indians. 
Boston News- 
Letter, first Ame- 
rican periodiccd. 
170t). Carolina in- 
vaded by the 
French and Span- 
ish. 



1707. Unsuccessful 
expedition against 
Port Royal. 

1708.The Saybrook 
platform, form- 
ed. 

1709. First paper 
■money in New- 
Jersey. 

1710. First post- 
office at New 
York. 

Fruitless expe- 
dition against Ca- 
nada. 
1713. "Queen 
Anne's War " 
closed by the 
treaty of Utrecht. 



1715. Indian virar in 
South Carolina. 

1717. New-Orleans 
settled by the 
French. 



Great Britain. 



1700. A British fleet sent 
to assist Charles XIl. 
of Sweden. 

Foundation of the 
national debt in this 
reign. 

1701. War of the Spanish succession. 

1702. The French invade Holland, un- 
der Boufflers — repulsed by Marl- 
borough. 



— ■ — Anne .^M 

1703. Methuen treaty of 
commerce with Portu- 
gal. 

1704. Marlborough enters 
gains the battle of 

Gibraltar taken by 
Rooke. 
170B.Tr e atyofunion 
with Scotland. 

Battle of Ramillies, 
feated. 

1707. Victory of Almanza 
lish and Portuguese. 

The f i r s t United 
Parliament of 
Great Britain 
meets. 

1708. Battle of Oudenarde, 
feated. 

Sardinia and Minor 
the English. 

Unsuccessful attempt 
of the Pretender to land 
in Scotland. 
1710. Victory of Vendome 
Dr. Sacheverell's trial. 
— Collision of Whig 
and Tory principles. 

1713. Peace of Ut 
Perpetual separation 

of France and Spain — 
quires Newfoundland, 
Hudson's Bay, also Mi 
braltar. The Rhine is 
between Germany and 

1714. Factions at court — 
disgrace of Harley, 
cbancellor of the exche- 
quer. 

Death of the queen. 
— H ouseolHano- 
y er: — 

George I .^g — 

Robert Walpole, pre- 
mier. 

1715. Insurrection of Ja- 
cobites. — Battles of She- 

riff'miiir and Preston. 
War against Sweden. 



I71S. Qu adr uple al 
Emperor, England, Ho 
France against the desi 



1702. Revolt o( 
the Hugue- 
nots suppress- 
ed by Mar- 
shal Villars. 
Germany, 
Blenheim. 



Villeroi de- 
over the Eng- 



— French de- 
ca captured by 

atVillaviciosa. 



r e c h t . 
of the crowns 
England ac- 
Acadia, and 
norca and Gi- 
the boundary 
France. 

1714. Peace of 
Radstadt : the 

Emperor ac- 
knowledges 
Philip on 
the cession 
of Lorabar- 
dy, Naples, 
and Sardinia. 

1715. Louis 

Duke of 
Orleans re- 
gent. — Du- 
bois, minis- 
ter. 
1 i a n c e : tlw 
Hand, and 
gns of Spain. 



THE world's progress. 



133 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



Death of 
the king, 
who 
names 
the duke 
ol'Anjou 
as his 
success- 
or. 
Philip 

The 
arch- 
duke 
Charles 
lands at 
Lisbon, 
and en- 
ters 
Spain. 
Barcelo- 
na taken 
by the 
allies. 
Port. :— 
John V. 



English 
and Por- 
tuguese 
enter 
Madrid. 



Charles 
leaves 
Spain on 
becom- 
ing Em- 
peror. 



Barcelo- 
na taken 
by Ber- 
wick. 
Albero- 

ni, 
prime 
minis- 
ter of 
Sixain. 



1701. Grand alliance 
between England, 
the Empire, to pre 
of France and Spa 

1702. Battles of Stul- 
hafen, Hochsledt. 
and Spires, gained 
by the French. 



1705. — J s e p h 



1710. Treaty of the 
Hague between 
England. Holland, 
and the Empire. 

1711. — Charles 

Ministry of Count 
Linzendorf 

1713. Pragmatic 
sanction, vesting 
the succession to 
Austria in the 
daughters of Char- 
les. 

1714. Peace of Ras- 
tadt and Baden 
with France. 



of the Hague, 
Holland, and 
vent the union 
in. 

1702. Victory 
of Luzzace 
gained by the 
Fiench over 
the Impe- 
rialists. 



1706. French 
driven from 
Italy by 
prince Eu- 
gene. 

1707. All the 
Spanish pos- 
sessions in 
Italy aban- 
doned to the 
allies. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



1703. 
HI. 



1709. Charles 
XII. takes 
re luge at 
Bender — 
hence war 
with Russia. 



1718. Quadru- 
ple alliance 
against Spain. 



1714. War of Venice with 
the Porte. I 



1715. Corinth taken by the 
Turks — the Emperor joins 
Venice — sie ge of Corfu 
raised on the news of their 

1716. defeat at 
the battle of 
Peterwar- 
den. 

1717. Defeat of 
Crusca — loss 
of Belgrade, 

1718. Peace of Passarovvitz, 
between the Porte, Venice, 
and Hunga ry. 



The World, elsewliere. 



1700. Russia :— Peter the Great 
invades Ingria — defeated by 
Charles XII., at Narva. 

War of the Northern 
Powers. 

1701. PRUSSIA erected into a 
kingdom under 

Frederic I.^S— 

Charles XII. invades Po- 
land — is victorious at Riga. 

1702. —enters Warsaw— takes 
Cracow. 

1703. Victory of Pultusk - 
Poland :— The throne ds- 

clared vacant, and 

1704. Stanislas Leetzinski 

elected king.^g 

1706. The Swedes victorious 
over the Saxons and Rus- 
sians at Traverstadt. 



1707. Russia :— Revolt of the 
Cossack Mazeppa. 

1708. Charles invades Russia, 
crosses the Dnieper, and is 

1709. defeated at Pultowa. 
Sweden at war with Den- 
mark. ' ♦ 

Poland :— Frederic Augus- 
tus re-ascends the throne. 

1712. Victory of the Swedes at 
Gadebusche. 

1713. Prussia :— Frederic Wil 

liam I.^S — 



1714. Russia :— Naval victory 
over the Swedes. — Aland and 
Finland conquered. 

17 1 5. Netherlands Barrier 

treaty of Antwerp with Aus- 
tria. 

Sweden :— Return of Char- 
les—Prussia and Englanci 
join the alliance against him. 



1718. Charles XII. invades 
Norway ; is killed at the 
siege of Fredericshall. 

Sweden:— Ulrica Eleo- 



134 



THE world's progress. 



PERIOD X.~97 years.— 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Cotton Mather, "Magnolia" 
and Increase Mather, Hist, 
of War with Indians. 



Inoculation introduced by 
Lady INIontague. The same 
year introduced into Boston 
by Dr. Boylston. 



Academy of Sciences at Peters- 
burg. 



The " Appellants," in France, 
headed by the Cardinal de 
Noailles, appeal from the 
bull '"Unigenitus," to a ge- 
neral council ; but without 
effect. 



Behring's Strait discovered. 



Balloons invented by Gusmac. 

In England : i In Fratice : 
Pope, Swift, J. B. Rous- 
Young, seau, Le 

Thompson, Sage, Rolliti, 
Watts, Lord Montesquieu. 
Bolinf broke. 
Doddridge, 
Chesterfield. 



Halley, astronomer. 

First Lodge of Freetnasons in America, at Boston. 



1719. First Philadelphia news- 
paper. 



1721. First New-York news- 
paper. 



1723. Vermont settled. 

Increase Mather, died. 



1724. Trenton, N. J., founded. 



1727. Great eartliquake in 
New-England. 



1728. Cotton Mather, died. 

Discovery of diamond 
mines in Brazil. 



1729. The Carolinas separated. 



1732, Birth of Washington. 

1733. Savannah founded. 



Irish linen manufactories, 
and English steel and cutlery 
flourish. 



L,. Holberg, Danish drama- 
tist. 



1740. Tennessee first e.\-plored. 



1742. Invasion of Florida by 
Indians and Spaniards— re- 
pulsed. 



1719. Unsuccessful attempt lo 
invade Scotland by the Span- 
iards. 

"The South Sea Scheme." 

1720. "Bursting of the South 
Sea bubble." 

1721. Sir Robert Walpoie'a 
ministry continues. 



1725. Leajt e of Herrenhausen, 

1727. George I. dies at Osna- 
burg. 

George II .'@ 



1728. Pesie of Pardo wiiii 
Spain 



1729. Ireaty of Seville, be 



1731. Treaty of Vienna with 
Holland and the Empire. 



1739. War with Sspaln. 

1740. Porto Bello taken by Ad- 
miral Vernon, — Anson's voy- 
age round the world, and 
capture of the Manilla gal 
leon. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



135 



1718-1815.— Death of Charles XII. to Battle of Waterloo. 



1726 



1731 
1740 



1743 



The king assumes 
iha government. 

Duke de Bourbon, 
minister. 



Congress of Cam- 
bray 

between England. 
Francs, Prussia! 
and Holland. 

Ministry of Cardi- 
nal F 1 e u r y . 



Congress of Sois- 
sons dissolved, 
without effecting 
any thing. 

tween England, 
France, and Hol- 
land. 



War of the Polish 
succession : 
France, Spain, 
and Sardii lia. 

Conquest of Lor- 
raine. 

War of the Aus- 
trian succession 
— Marshals Belle 
isle and Broglio : 



— defeated by the 
allies at Dettin- 
gen. 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



Germany. 



1725. :- . 
Alliance of Vienna, Spam, 
1734. :— dnd Austria. 
Con- 
quest of 
Naples 
and Sici- 
ly by 
Don 
Carlos. 



1733 War of the Po- 
lish succession ; 
Austria, Russia, 
and Denmark. 

1735. Preliminaries 
of Vienna:not con- 
cluded till 1738. 

1740.War of the Aus- 
trian succession. 
Maria The- 
resa succeeds to 
the hereditary 
States. 

1741. The French, 
Saxons, and Bava- 
nn.-\s, overrun Aus- 
tria, take Prague, 
and crown Charles 



1739. :— 
War 
with 
Eng- 
land, for 
infrac- 
tions of 
the A si- 
en to 
treaty. 



VI. emperor.^g^ 
Ti'eaty of Bres- 
lau with Austria. 
1743. The French 
driven across the 
Rhine. 



The World, elsewhere. 



the 



-Sicily invaded by 

-Tranquillity 



1719. Italy : 
Spanish. 

1720. Peace of Stockholm. - 
restored in the ncrth. 

Sweden : — The queen abdicates in 
favor of her husband. 

1721. Italy :— Innocent Xlll., pope. 

Frederic, ^g 

Peace of Nystadt with Russia. 
Russia: — Peter assumes the title 
"Emperor of all the Russias." 
1721. Turkey : — Mahommed Effendi, am- 
bassador to Paris. 
1723. China: — Christians expelled. 
1723. Italy :— John Gaston, (de Medici), 
grand duke of Tuscany. 

1723. Turkey :— The Turks and Russians 
attempt to dismember Persia. 

1724. Italy :— Benedict XIII., pope. 

1725. Russia: — Catharine I., widow of 

Peter. ^ 

1725. Turkey :— Partition treaty for seiz- 
ing the north and west provinces of 
Persia. 

1726. Russia :— Alliance with Austria. 

1726. Turkey :— First printing press 
brought from Paris to Turkey. 

1727. Russia :— Treaty with China. 

Peter II.® 

1727. Turkey :— Peace of Bagdad. 

1728. Denmark :— Fire at Copenhagen, 
destroys the public library. 

—colony of Danes in Greenland. 

1730. Denmark :— Christian VI. ^5 

1730. Italy — Clement XII., pope. 

Russia :— Anne.^^ 

1733. Poland :— Frederic Augustus 11.® 
The diet elect Stanislaus, but are 

compelled by the Russian army to elect 
Frederic. 

1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, es- 
capes to Koningsberg. 

1734. Turkey :— Turks diiven from Per- 
sia by Nadir Shah. 

1736. —war with Russia and Austria. 

1737. Italy :— Francis, of Lorraine, grand 
duke of Tuscany. 

1739. India :— Invaded by Nadir Shah, 
who takes and plunders Delhi. 

1739. Turkey :— Turks defeated near 
Choezim. 

1740. Italy :— Benedict XIV., pope. 
Turkey :— The Turks invade Persia 

— are repulsed by Ashraf 
-peace of Belgrade. 



136 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESb. 



[Period X. — 97 ytars.~ 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Frederic the Great makes 
great improvements in ■mili- 
tary tactics — introduces^y- 
ing horse artillery. 

Durante and Leo, celebrated 
musicians. 

Handel, and Seb. Bach, musi- 
cal composers. 

■Indigo first produced in Caro- 
lina. 



Mosheim, ecclesiastical histo- 
rian. 

Dr. Franklin's discoveries in 
electricity. 

England introduces the "New 
Style " Calendar. 

British Museum founded. 



British. 
Allan Ram- 
say, 
Shenstone, 
Gray, 
Collins, 
Akenside, 
Churchill. 



Helvetius, Fr. 
Racine, Fr. 

Gellert, Ger. 
Winckle- 
inann, Ger. 



John Rysbrach, sculptor. 
Hogarth, Wilson, S^ Joshua 

Reynolds, painters. 
Potatoes first planted in 

France, by Turgot. 
Niebuhr's travels in Arabia. 

Wesley Sj- Whitefield preach. 
Philadelphia Me"dical School, 

first in America. 
Wallis and Carteret's voyage 

of discovery in the South 

Seas. 



Great Britain. 



1745. Louisburg and Cape 
Breton taken from France 
by the English. 



1747. David Brainerd and 
Benjamin Coleman, died. 



1744. Naval victory over the 
French and Spanish fleets in 
the bay of Hieres. 

1745. Scotch rebellion — Char- 
les Edward lands in Scot- 
land. 

1746. he is defeated at Cul- 
loden. 
1747. Victories over the French 
ofl" Belle-isle and Cape 
Finisterre. 



1749. English settlement in 
Nova Scotia. 



1752. Hostilities between Eng 

1754. Washington's mission to 
the French. 

1755. Defeat of Braddock. 

1756. Oswego and Ft. Granby 
taken by the French. 



1757. Fort Wm. Henry cap- 
tured. 

I75S. Repulse of Abercrombie 
at Ticonderoga. 
Fort Du Qup.sne taken. 

1759. Invasion of Canada — 
death of Wolfe — Q,uebec 
taken. 

Capture of Niagara, 
Crown Point, and Ticonde- 
roga. 



1763. End of the " Old French 

War." 
1765. " American Stamp Act " 

resisted in Massachusetts 

and Virginia. 
First Colonial Congress at 

New- York. 



1748. Peace ofAixla 
mutual restitution of con 



1752. The new style intro- 
duced ; the year hereafter 
commences Jan. 1. 

land and France on the boun 



1756 "Seven Years' 
Subsidiary alliance with 
Prussia. 

Ministry of W i 1 1 i a m 
Pitt, the elder. 
1757. Victory of Plassey, in 
India. 



1759. Naval victories over the 
Lagros, and off Brest. 

Surat, in India, taken 
from the Dutch. 

1760.— G eorge III -Wt— 

1761. Earl of Bute, premier. 

1762. War with Spain. 
Conquest of Havana, 

Trinidad, and Manilla. 

1763. Peace of Paris 



1765. Bengal ceded to the East 
India Company by the 
treaty of Allahabad. 



1718-1815.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS 



137 



1744 

1745 
1746 



War declared 
against England 
and Austria. 

Battle ol" Fontenoy, 
allies defeated. 

The French victo- 
rious by land, 
but unsuccessCul 
by sea. 

War with Holland. 



daries of Nova Sco- 
tia. 
1753 Influence of Ma- 
dame de Pompa- 
I dour. 
War." 
Capture of Minor- 
ca from the Eng- 
lish. 



1757 
1758 



1760 
1761 



Invasion of Hano- 
ver. 

Defeat at Crefeldt. 
on the Rhine. 

French off Cape 

Attempt to invade 
Ireland. 

Loss of all Canada. 

The Bourbon Fa- 
mily Compact. 

Siege and capture 
of Belleisle, by 
the English. 



between France, 
Spain and Eng- 
land. 

1764 Expulsion of the 
Jesuits. 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



1745. Charles dies at 
Munich. 

House of 
Lorraine: 

— F r a n c i s I . ^g 
husband of Maria 
Theresa. 



1748 
pelle ; 
the on 



Peace of Ai.x la Cha- 
Spain, and Prussia 
ly gainers by the 
war. 

1756. Seven Years' 
War of Austria 
and Prussia. 

Invasion and 
conquest of Saxo- 
ny, by Frederic II. 

Alliance with 
France. 

1757. Prussians vic- 
torious at Prague, 
Rossbach, Lessa, 
and Breslau. 

The French take 
Verdun and Bre- 
men. 
175S.French defeated 
at Crefeldt, 

1759. and at Minden, 
Victory at Max- 
en over the Prus- 
sians. — Dresden re- 
taken. 

1760. Great victory 
at Torgan, by Fre- 
deric. 

1762.Prussians victo- 
rious at Freiburg. 

1763. Peace of Hu- 
bertstrug. 

1765. Joseph II. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1740. Prussia :— F rederic II .^^ 
(the Gi-eat.) Prussia increases in im- 
portance.— War with Austria. 

Russia : — Ivan V. 

1741. Sweden : — War wilh Russia. 
Swedes driven out of Finland, 

Russia :— Elizabeth. ^^ 

1743. —Peace of Abo with Sweden. 

1743. Turkey :— War with Persia. 
—Defeat near Erivan. 

1744. India :— Hostilities between French 
and English. 

1744. Italy :— Savoy occupied by French 
and Spaniards, who take 

1745. —Parma, Milan, and Placentia. 

— Genoa bombarded by the English. 

1746. —French and Spaniards driven from 
Lombardy. 

1746. Denmark :—l''rederic V.@ 

1747. Netherlands :— William IV. 
Persia :^Revolution: Nadir. 
Shah murdered. 

1751. Holland :— William V. stadtholder. 

Denmark :— Ministry of Count Bern- 
stnriT. 

Sweden :— House of Holstein Got- 
torp : — 

Adolphus Frederic. ^M 

•1754. Italy : — The Corsicans, under Paoli, 

revolt against Genoa. 
17.54. Turkey :— Othman HI. 

1755. First Prussian embassy to Constan- 
tinople. 

1756. India : —Calcutta taken by the Na- 
bob of Bengal. 

1757. Turkey :— Mustapha III. 

1757. Prussia :— Russian invasion. 

1758. —victory of Londorf 

1758. Italy :— Clement XIII., pope. 

1759. Prussia :— The king defeated at 
Kunnersdorf. 

1760. —Battle of Liegnitz.— Berlin taken. 
India:— Shah Alim II. 

Sie^e and capture of Pondicherry, 
by the English. 

Kingdom of Mysore founded by 
H y d e r A 1 i . 

1762. Russia: Peter III.® (six 

months). 

C a t h a r i n e II .^S 

1764. Poland :— Stanislaus Poniatowski. 

1765. India ,— Treaty of Allahabad. 
—Establishment of a British empire 

1765. Italy :— Peter Leopold, grand duke 
of Tuscany. g|b, 

1766. Denmark :— Christian VII. W ■ 

1766. Power of the Mamelukes iiHEgypt 

revived under Rodvan and Ali Bey. 



138 



THE world's progress. 



[Pej iod X. — 97 years. — 



:-«3 



1769 
1770 



Progress of Society, etc. 



:774 
1774 

1774 



Fii^t spinning machine in England. 

Cook's first voyage of discovery. 

Bruce discovers the source of the Nile. 

Royal Academy of Arts in England ; Joshua 
Reynolds, first president. 

Letters of Junius. 

Whitefield dies at Newburyport. 



Captain Cook discovers New California. 

The Spinning- JENNY, invented by Robert 
Arkwright. 

The Improved Steam Engine, by Watt 
and Bolton. 



In England. 

Goldsmith, 

Warburton, 

.Johnson, 

Littleton, 

Lowth, 

Garrick, 

Hume, 

Robertson, 

Blackstone. 

Adam Smith, 

Home Tooke. 

Priestley, 

Horsley, 

Burke, 

Pitt, 

Fox, 

Cooper, 

Sheridan, 

McPherson, 

Burns. 

Kaimes, 

Reid. 



France. 
Voltaire, 
Rousseau, 
Diderot, 
Condillac, 
.Jussien, 
Lavoisier, 
La Harpe, 
Barthetemy, 
Butfon. 



Ger. Mosh- 

eini, 
Zimmerman, 
Kant, 

Klopstock, 
Lessirig, 
VVieland, 
Herder, 
Goethe, 
Schiller, 
Sw. Linnaeus, 
It. Metastasio. 
Rus. Kheras- 

kov, 
Kostrov. 
Deerhavin, 
Bogdanovich, 
Khemnitzee. 



United States. 



1768. Boston occupied 
by the British troops. 



1769. Daniel Boone ex- 
plores Kentucky. 



1772. Hancock, S. 
Adams, and P a • 
trick Henry, 
promote the revolu- 
tion. 

1773. Tea destroyed at 
Boston. 

1774. Continental Con- 
gress at Philadelphia. 



177.5. AMERICAN 
WAR: 

April 19, Skirmish at 

Lexington. 
.June 17, Battle of Bun- 
ker's Hill 

Prescott, Put- 
nam, &Warren. 
WASHINGTON, 
commander-in-chief. 
Montgomery 
Montreal, and falls at 
1776. The British troops 
evacuate Boston. 



Moultrie de 
Sullivan's Island. 

DECLARA- 
TION OF IN- 
DEPENDENCE, 
July 4. 

Americans (Sul li- 
V a n) defeated at 
Flatbush. Aug. 

Battle of White 
Plains. 

Battle of Trenton, 
Dec. 26-7. 
1777. Arrival of Lafay- 
ette. 
Capture of Ticon 



Great Britain. 



1766. American Stamp 
Act repealed, — New 
ministry under the 
Earl of C h a t h a m . 



1767. First war with 
Hyder Ali in Mj"- 
sore. 



1770. Lord N /. r t h , 
prime minister. 

1771. The Falkland 
Islands ceded by 
Spain to Great Bri- 
tain. 



1774. The Boston Port 
Bill passed. 

1774. Warren Hastings, 
governor general oi 
India. 

REVOLUTIONARY 

1775. Lord North's 
" conciliatory mea- 
sures " rejected by 
the colonies. 



takes St. Johns and 

Q,uebec. 

1776. The city of Lon- 
don remonstrates 
against the American 
war. 

feats the English at 

The British army 
takes possession of 
New- York. 

Hessians hired for 
service in America. 



deroga by the British, 
July 5. 



1718-1815.] 



THE world's progress. 



139 



Germany. 



The World, elsewhere. 



Genoa cedes Corsica to France. 



Ministry of Due d'Aiquillon. 

Marriage of tlie dauphin with 
Marie Antoinette. 



Madame du Barri rules the 
king. 

—Louis XVI .^ 

Marie Antoinette, queen : — 
Maurepas, prime minieter. 



N e c k e r , comptroller-gene- 
ral. 
Franklin in Paris. 



1772. Joseph 
II. with the 
Emperors of 
Russia and 
Prussia, dis^ 
member Po 
land, divid 
ing it be 
tween them 
selves. 



Discipline of the Ottoman troops Im- 
proved by Baron de Tott. 

1767. Spain :— Jesuits expelled. 

India: — Hyder Ali resists the Eng- 
lish. 

1768. War between Russia and the Ottoman 
Empire. 



17G9. Pope Clement XIV. 

The Russian army occupies Wi-lachia 
and Moldavia. 

1771. Sweden :—Gustavus III.^^ 

1772. First Partition of Poland. 



1773. Ottoman Empire :— The Russians cross- 
ing the Danube, are repulsed by Ghazi 
Hassan. 

Pope Clement abolishes the order of 
Jesuits. 

1774. India — Warren Hastings, first British 
governor-general. 

Russia : — Revolt of the Cossack Pugat- 
schefF, calling himself Czar Peter. 

Ottoman Empire :— Abdul Hamid.^§ — 

1775. Pope Pius VI. 
Spain :— Able ministry of Florida Blan- 



1776. Bassora surrendered to the Persians. 
East Indies :— Lord Pigot, governor-{ 
neral, imprisoned by his own council. 



1777. Portugal :— Maria, queen. 



140 



THE world's progress. 



[Period X. — 97 years. — i 



Progress op Society, etc. 



United States. 



Herschel's discovei-y u!' the 
Georgium Sidus. 



Prussia acid obtained in a se- 
parate state, by Scheele. 

Air balloon of Montgolfier. 



First American vessel 

China. 
Bistitulion for the deaf and 

dumb at Paris, by the Abbe 

de I'Epee. 
Sunday schools established in 

England, by Robert Rcukes. 
Herschel's Telescopes. 



Stenography., by Taylor. 

Panoramas in London. 
First spinning machine 
France. 



Talma, tlie celebrated trage- 
dian. 



Great Britain. 



Battles of Bennington, 
U, and S;illwater. 

Philadelphia taken by 

lis. Battle of German 

ceives Burgoyne's 
Articles of confederation, 
adopted Nov. 1.5. 

1778. Alliance with France. 
Battle of Monmouth, 

Washington victorious, June 
28. 

Arrival of the French 
fleet under D'Estaing. 
Massacre of Wyoming. 

Savannah taken by the 
English. 

1779. Wayne recovers 
Sioney Point. 

Paul Jones's Victory off 

1780. Battle near Camden : 
D e K a I b killed. 

Treason of Arnold. 

1781. Battle of Covvpens, gain- 
ed by Morgan. 

Surrender of Co 
town, Oct. 17. 



Aug. 16; Brandywine, Sept. 

the English, under Cornwal 
town, Oct. 4.— G ales re- 
surrender, Oct. 17. 



1778. Capture of Pondicherry, 
in India. 



Scotland. 

1780. War with Hyder Ali in 
India. 

War with Holland. 



rnwallis at York- 

1781. Victory off the Dogger- 
bank. 



1782. Treaty with Holland, by 
J. Adani.s, Jay, Frank 
1 i n , and Laurens. 

1783. PEACE OF VERSA ILLES : 

INDEPENDENCE of the UNITED STATES ac- 
knowledged by Great Bri- 
tain. 



1781. New- York Chamber of 
Commerce founded. 



1784, Pitt, the younger, 
premier. 

Peace with Tippoo Saib. 



1785. John A d a ra s , Ist ambassador from the United 
States of America to Great 



Britain. 

1786. Shay's insurrection in 
Massachusetts. 

1787. General Convention at 
Philadelphia. 

Federal Con- 
stitution of the 
United States, adopted. 
1783. Cotton planted in Geor- 
gia. 
1789. George Wash- 
ington, first Presi- 
dent : 

Jefferson, Ha- 
milton, Knox, Ran- 
dolph, and Jay, form 
the cabinet. 

1791. First United States Bank. 

1792. Kentucky admitted 
to the Union. 

United States Mint esta- 
blished. 



1783. Pitt's Sinking Fund. 



1788. The king insane.— Deatn 
of Charles Edward, the last 
pretender. 



Trial of Warren Hast- 
ings. 



1792. Provision for the gradua. 
abolition of the slave trade. 



1718-1815.J 



THE world's progress. 



141 



1778 



Alliance with America. 



1779 Scheme to invade England 
from Normandy. 



1 78Ci Rochambeau 
aid the Americans. 



1781 
1782 



Necker resigns. 



Defeat of De Grasse in the 
West Indies, by Rodney. 



Peace 

1 e s . 



of V e r s a i 1 



1787 



1789 



179. 
1792 



La Perouse's voyage of disco- 
very. 

Financial difficulties — New 
taxation : Colonne, Brienne, 
and Necker, ministers suc- 
cessively. 

FRENCH REVOLUTION 

begins. — Bastile taken and 
razed, July 14. — Lafay- 
ette, commander of the 
national guards. — M i r a 
beau, leading orator. 



Flight of the king to Varen- 
nes. — Lafayette resigns. 



Germany. 



1778. War of the Bavarian 
succession. — Bavaria seized 
by Germany, 



1779. Congress and Peace of 
Teschen. 



1732. Punishment of death 
abolished. 

The Pope visits the em- 
peror, to dissuade him from 
hostilities against the church. 



1785. 2,000 religious houses 
suppressed by the emperor. 



1788. The emperor attempts 
to control the Universities. 



1790. Leopold 11.^— 
Congress of Reichenbach. 

1791. Conference of Pilnitz. 



War with Germany : 



France declared a 

republic. 
Girondists and Muunlainisis 



1792. — F r a n c i s 1 1 . W— 
-The French take Spires, Mentz, 
and Longwy — Lafay&lie im- 
prisoned at Olmuiz. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1780. Declaration of the armed 
neutrality— to protect neu- 
tral flags from the right ol 
search claimed by Britain. 



1782. Italy :— Pontine mai ehea 
drained. 

India:— Rise of Sindia— 
T i p p o o , Sultan. 

1783. —alliance with the 
French. 



1786. Prussia — Frederic Wil- 
liam II. 

1787. Russia :— War with the 
Porte. 

1788. Spain:— Charles IV. 

1789. Ottoman Empire:— Se- 
ll m II. 

1790. Tuscany : — Ferdinand 
III. 



1792. Sweden:— Gustavus IV 



142 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period JC. — 97 years. — 



A.O. 


Progress op Society, etc. 


United States. 


Great Britain. 






1793. Washington re-elected. 


1793. First coalition against 






Neutrality in regard to 


France, directed by Eng- 






France. 


land — all Europe, except 
Sweden, Denmark, and Tur- 




Tom Paine, 


Alfieri, Italian 




key. 




Fisher Atnes. 


poet. 










1794. Commercial treaty with England. 




HannahMore, 


Gluck, 


Commencement 


British army defeated 




Gainsboro', 


Haydn, 


of the nav y—6 fri- 


near Dunkirk. 




Moreland. 


Mozart, 
Albrechtsber- 


gates built. 






Bognslawski, 


gen, 








Krasiki, Po- 


Beethoven. 








lish poets. 






1795. War with Holland. 






1796. Washington resigns. 






1797. John Adams, 2d 








president. 








Difficulties with France. 








1798. Regular army organized, 


1798. Second coalition against 






Washington commander-in- 


France.— Irish rebellion. — 






chief. 


Nelson's victory at 


1799 


Pestalozzi, system of elemen- 


1799. Death of Washington. 


the Battle of the 




tary education. 


Tennessee becomes 


Nile. 




Mungu Park's travels in 


a State. 


.Wilberforce's motion to 




Africa, published. 




abolish the slave trade, lost, 
87 to 83. 






1800. Seat of government 
transferred to Washington, 


1800. Union of Eng- 
land and Ireland. 




Iron railways in England. 


D. C. 


— Malta taken. 


1801 


1801. Thomas Jeffer- 


1801, Battle of Alexandria.— 




Polytechnic school in Paris. 


s n , 3d President. 


Pitt resigns, succeeded by 






Exports of United States, 


Addington. 


ISu-^ 


First book-fair in New- York. 


$93,000,000. 
1802. Ohio joins the Union ; 
it has 76,000 inhabitants. 


1802. Peace of Amiens. 






1303. Purchase of Louisi- 


1803. Successful war in India. 






ana, for $15,000,000. 








U. States frigate Philadel- 








phia, taken by the Tripoli- 








tans. 




\'m 


First Locomotive Steatn En- 


1804. Decatur recaptures 


1804. Pitt again premier. 




gine used on the jMerthyn 


the Philadelphia. 






Tydvil road in Wales. 


Preble bombards Tri- 
poli. 

Burr kills Hamilton. 














1805. Jefferson re-elected Pre- 


1805. Nelson defeats the 






sident : George Clin- 


French and Spanish fleets 
off Trafalgar. 






ton, of New- York, Vice- 








President. 





1718-1815.J 



THE world's progress. 



14? 



The king and queen beheaded. 1793. First Coalition 

against France. 
Reign of Terror. 

Marat assassinated by Char- 
lotte Corday. 

Victories of P i c h e g r u and J o u r d a n —the allies 
every where driven bact. 

Revolution of the 9th Thermi- 
dor. 

Robespiere guillotined. 

NAPOLEON BONA- 
PARTE, commander of 
the army ; quells an insur- 
rection in Paris. 

War in Italy. 

Battle of Lodi. 

Bonaparte's AiistrianCampaig n — H o c h e 
and M o r e a u ' s cele- 
brated passage of the Rhine. 

Peace of Campo Formic. 



The World, elsewhere. 



Bonaparte's expedition to 
Egypt is defeated by Nelson 
at Aboukir, Aug. 1. 

The French enter Switzerland 
under Bernadotte and 
Jourdan. — Return of Bona- 
parte. — R evolution of 
the 18th B r u m a i r e 
— B onaparte, first 
consul. 

Battle of Marengo. 



1798. Second Coalition against 
France. 



-M o r e a u ' s victory of 
Hohen linden. 



Peace of Lunevile. 



Bonaparte elected president of 

the Ita'lian republic. 
Peace of Amiens. 
Legion of Honor instituted. 

War with England. 
Bank of France. 



Duke D'Enghien shot. 

Bonaparte crowned as NA- 
POLEON I., Emperor of 
the French. 

Marshals Soult, Murat, 
N e y , &c. 

Austrian Campaign, iBatttle of Auster 
■ i t z . 



1804. The emperor of Ger- 
many assumes the tille of 
emperor of AUSTRIA. 



Peace of 
Napoleon Protector of the 



Pi'esburg. 

Confederal inn of the Rhinfi. 



1793. Second Partition of Po- 
land by Russia and Prussia. 

H a y t i independent re- 
public, under Toi;,'S saint 
L'Ouverture. 

1794. Poland :— Revolt at Cra- 
cow. — K osciusko, ge- 
neral-in-chief — Russians de- 
feated at Warsaw. 



1795. Final partition 
of Poland — extinction 
of the kingdom. 

Batavian Republic :— Shi- 
mejpennink. 

1796. Russia :— Paul I. 

1797. Switzerland : — General 
Revolution — The French 
invade Berne — Helvetian 
Republic. 

Prussia ; — Frederic Wil- 
liam ni.^ 

1798. India :— Marquis Welles- 
ley, governor-generaj. 

1799. Russians, under S u • 
w a r r o w , defeated near 
Milan. 



1800. Armed neutrality of the 
north. 

Pope Pius VII. 
Ionian Republic founded. 

1801. Russia: Alexander. ^g 

1802. Italian Republic— Bona- 
parte president. 



1803. India :— Great Mahratta 
War. 



1804. Russia :— War with Per 

sia. 



144 



THE world's progress. 



[Peiiod X. — 97 years.— 



A.D. 


Progress of Society, etc. 


United States. 


Great Britain. 


1806 


Planet Juno discovered. 




1806. Fourth Coalition against 




Lewis Sf Clark's expedition 




France. 




to the Rocky Alountains, 






1807 


Fulton's first success- 


1807. Embargo on all the 


1807. Bill for the abolition of 




ful TRIAL OP Steam- 


ports of the United States. 


the slave trade, passed. 




boats. 


Trial of Aaron Burr for 
treason. 




1808 


General University established 


Slave trade abolished. 


1808. The English, under 




by Napoleon, to superintend 




W e 1 1 e s 1 e y , enter Spain 




national education. 




as allies. 




Lithography invented. 










1809. James Madison, 


1809. Fifth CoaUtion. 




In England : 


France : 


4th President. 


Walcheren expedition. 




Flaxman, 

Westmacott, 

Chantrey, 


La Grange, 

Mange, 
Hauy, 


Embargo repealed ; the 
non-imercourse act passed. 






sculptors. 


Biot. 

B. St. Pierre, 
poet. 






1810 


First steamboat built in Eu- 




1810. War with Sweden. 




rope. 










1811. Engagement between 


1811 George, Prince of Wales, 






the ' President ' and the 


Prince Regent, (the king be- 






'Little Belt.' 


ing insane). 






Indians on the Wabash, 


Population of Great Bri- 






defeated by Gov. Harrison. 


tain, 12,552,144. 






Population of the United 








States, 7,239,903. 




1812 


American Board of Com- 


1812. War with Great Britain. 




missioners for Foreign Mis- 






sio?is, founded. 


Invasion of Canada under Gen. Hull. 

Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to the British. 


18U 


Steam carriages in England. 


The Constitution captures the Guer- 




Gas used lor lightirrg the 


r i e r e : 




streets of London. 


(First clieck of Briti.sh Lord Liverpool, 
naval supremacy.) premier. 


1815 


Safety lamp invented by Sir 


Wool victorious at Q.ueenstown, Oct. 12. 




Humphrey Davy. 


Captain Jones, in the Wasp, captures the Frolic 
Oct. 18. 




In England : 






H.K. White, 
Keats, 
Reg. Heber, 


Bilderdyk, 
Dutch. 


The •' United States," Captain Decatur, captures the 
British frigate Macedonian. 




The Constitution, Captain Bainbridge, captures the Bri 
tish fri-iate Java. 




Shelley, 

Crabbe, 

Sir W. Scott, 

Byron, 

Coleridge, 

Lamb, 

Montgomery, 

Hogg. 


German: 


Louisiana admitted into 






W. Schlegel, 
F Schlegel, 


the Union. 
1S13. Perry's victory 


1813. Sixth Coalition against 




Richter, 


on Lake Erie. 


France — Prussia, Russia, 




Kotzebue : 


Battle of the Thames : 


Sweden, Great Britain, and 




Weber and 


TecumseJi killed. 


Austria. 




Spohr, musi- 
cal compo- 


1814. City of Washington 
burnt by the BK'''sh. 


1814. Treaty of Chaumont be- 
tween Austria, Prussia, Ru.s- 




France : 


sers. 




sia, and Great Britain. 




Mad. de Stael, 


Russia : 


Peace of Ghent, signed Dec. 3. 




Mad. deGenlis, 


Karamsin, 








Chateaubriand 


Somorokor, 


1615. Battle of New-Orleans ; 






Cuvier. 


Dmitriev, 


British defeated by General 


1815. Candy and Almora cap- 






Krilov. 


Jackson, Jan. 8. 


tured. 




Melendez Val- 






Wellington vie 




dez, Spanish 




War against Algiers de- 


torious at Waterloo. June 18. 




poet. 




clared. 





1718-1815.J 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



145* 



A.D. 


France. 


Germany. 


The World, elsewhere. 


1806 


Victory of Jena over 


the Prussians. 


1806. Holland :— Louis Napo- 




Berlin decree. 


leon, king. 








Prussia at war with France 








in alliance with Russia. 


ISO? 


War with Russia. 




1807. Ottoman Empire :— Mus- 




Battle of Friedland.— P e a c e 




taplm IV. 




of Tilsit. 








Invasion of Portu- 






18(E 


gal. 
French in Spain defeated at 




1808. Spain :— Ferdinand VII. 




Vienna, by S'ir Arthur Wel- 




" Joseph Napoleon. 




lesley. 




Naples :— Murat. 
Denmark i-^Frederic VI. 
Ottoman Empire :— Mah- 
moud 11. 


1809 


Battle of VVagra m— 


Peace of Vienna. 
M e 1 1 e r n i c h , minis- 


1809. Sweden :— Charles XHI. 






ter. 


~ 


ISIO 


Napoleon marries Maria Lou- 




1810. South America : —VE- 




ise.— Continental peace ex- 




NEZUELA declared inde- 




cept with Spain. 




pendent. 


ISII 


Birth of the emperor's son; 




1811. NEW GRENADA de- 




created king of Rome. 




clared independent. 




Soult victorious in Spain- 


\ 






takes Badajos ; is defeated 








by the English at Albuesa. 






1812 


Russian Campaign. 
Battles of Smolensko and Bo- 
rodino. 
Moscow entered by Napoleon's 


1812. Austria in alliance with 
France against Russia. 


1812. Invasion of Russia 
by Napoleon.— BURNING 






OF MOSCOW. 

K u t s f f pursues 




army — and burr 5d by the 
Russians. 




the retreating I'rench. 

Poland:— Diet of War- 
saw: the Poles declared a 
nation by Napoleon. 


ISI3 


Victories of L u t z e n , 


1813. War of German inde- 


1813. South America:— Bo- 




Bautzen, and Dres- 


pendence. 


ll V a r drives the Span- 




den, over the allies. 


Austria joins the Coali- 
lion. 


iards from Caraccas 




Battle of Leipsic — 


Bonaparte driven to the 




1814 


The allies enter Paris. 


Rhine, loses his whole army. 


1814. Union of Holland mh.I 




Napoleon abdicates. 




Belgium. — Peace of Kii-I. 




and retires to Elba. 




Sweden, and England. 




House of Bourbon 




Union of Sweden :ii. 1 




restored: 




Norway as two kingdnni . 




Louis XVIII. 




under one monarch 


Vdl5 


Bonaparte returns from Elba. 


1815. German League. 


1815. Netherlands :— Willi;uii 




The hundred days. 


Congress of Vien- 


.»^ 




Napoleon victorious at Lisny. 


n a . 


I ^^ 




BATTLE OF WATERLOO. 




The "Holy Al- 




The allies enter Paris. 




liance' '—Russia, Priis 




Bonaparte banish- 




sia, and Austria. 




ed to St Helena. 







146" 



THE world's progress. 

PERIOD XL— 35 years, 



A.D. Progress op Society, etc. 



New corn law in England. 

Polytechnic institution at Vi- 
enna. 

Manufactories introduced into 
Poland. 

Tlie family of Rothschilds 
conies into notice at Frank- 
fort. 

Abolition of the slave trade by 
the congress of Vienna. 

Second United States Bank 
chartered for 20 years, capi- 
tal $3.5,000,000. 

Public schools established 

throughout Russia. 
Belzoni penetrates the second 

pyramid of Gheza. 

Abolition of predial bondage 
in Bavaria and Wirtemberg. 



United States. 



1816. United States Bank in- 
corporated. 

Indiana admitted. 

1817. James Monroe, 
5th President. 

Mississippi ad- 
mitted. 

1818. Illinois admitted. 
War with the Serainoles. 



First passage of the Atlantic by steam, by the Savannah — 
New- York to Liverpool. 

1820. Maine admitted. 

Rise of mechanic institutions 1821. Monroe re-elected. 

in England. Missouri admitted. 

Slavery compromise. 
Hieroglyphics deciphered : — 

Cliampollion. — Sir William 

Herschel died. 

Huskisson's free trade system 

in England. 
First manufactory in Egypt, 

established by Aleheme^t Ali. 

Inland navigation of the 
United Slates : the great 
Erie Canal opened. 



Mail-posts in Prussia. — 

Stea?n navigation 07i the 

Rhine. 
General financial panic in 

England. 
Vast increase of periodical 
literature in England, France, 

Germany, America, &c. 



1S26 j Alexander Volta dies, disco- 
verer of the Voltaic battery. 



1824. Lafayette's visit. 
Erie canal opened. 
Protective tariff. 



1825. J. Q. Adams, 6th 
President. 



Great Britain. 



1816. Bombardment of Algiers. 
— The Dey compelled to 
make peace and abolish 
slavery. 

1817. Lord Exmouth's expe- 
dition to Algiers. 



1820.- -3 e r g e I V . W— 



182.3. Canning ministry. 
The Ashantees in Africa 
defeated. 



1825. Commercial treaty wiili 
Prussia. 



1827. Treaty of London in 
favor of Greece. 



1828. Wellington ministry. - 
Disturbances in Ireland. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



147* 



1815-1850. 



A.D. France. 



1118 



1821 



Austria, &c. The World, elsewhere. 



Congress of Aix la Chapelle 
— France joins the " Holy 
Alliance." 



Death of Napoleon at St. He- 
lena. 



-Charles X . 



Fleet sent to Algiers, 



1821. Congress of monarchs 
at Laybach. — Insurrection 
in Moldavia and Wallachia. 
— Alexander Ypsilanti de- 
feated and carried prisoner 
to Austria. 



1816. Portugal r-JchnVI.^ 
in Brazi. 

Union of Naples and 
Sicily. 

1817. Republic of the Ionian 
Islands. 

India : — The cholera com- 
mences its ravages. 

1818. Sweden :— Charles XIV. 
(Bernadotte.) 

India:— The Mahralta 
power completely over- 
thrown, and the British suc- 
ceeds. 

1819. South America: — Re- 
public of COLOMBIA:— 
Bolivar, President. 

1821. Ilayti :— B oyer, em- 
peror. 

South America :— PERU 
and GUATEMALA inde- 
pendent. 

1822. BRAZIL declared inde. 
pendent. 

Mexico : — Iturbide, em- 
peror. 

Greek Revolu- 
tion. 

Declaration of Indepen- 
dence. 

Massacre of Scio. 

1823. Italy :— Leo XII., pope, 

1824. Death of Lord Byron at 
Missolonghi. 

1825. Russia :— N i c h o 1 a r 

1820. —War with Persia. 
Greece : — Missolonghi 

taken by the Turks. 
;827. Treaty between Russiti 
and the Porte respecting 
Greece. 

Greece :— B a 1 1 1 e of 
N a V a r i n . 

Portugal :— Maria de Glo- 
ria, queen, ^g 

—Rebellion in favor ol 
Don Miguel as regent. 
1828. War between Russia 
and the Porte. 



148* 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period XI. — 35 years. — 



In England : 

Jeremy Ben- 
tham, 

Thomas Chal- 
mers, 

Thomas Dick, 

W. Kirby, 

Hallam, 

LiingarrI, 

Wordsworth. 

Southey, 

Campbell, 

Moore, 

Leigh Hunt, 

Mrs. Hemans, 

Bulwer, 

" Barry Corn- 
wall." 

Russia : 
Kuramsin, 
Somorokov, 
Dmietriev, 
Krilov. 

U. 
N. Webster, 
Irving, 
Cooper, 
Flint, 
Wirt, 
Marshall, 



France : 

Citvier, 

Talma, trage- 
dian, 

Segur, 

La Place, 

Beranger, 

Lamartiiie. 

Germany : 
Spohr, 
Mayerbeer, 
Kotzebue, 
Gall, 
Spurzheim. 

Sweden : 
Tegner, 
Dahlyren. 

Italy : 
Rossini, 
Paganini. 

5. A. 

Wlieaton, 

Kent, 

Story, 

Gallatin, 

Livingston, 

Channing. 



Liverpool and Manchester 
Railroad opened. 

The two Landers succeed in 
tracing the Niger from Lake 
Tchad to the ocean. 

The first newspaper in Con- 
stantinople. — The Factory 
Bill in England, limiting the 
hours of labor for children. 

Reform Bill in England: — 
/Orlcnsion of Suffrage. 

Trade unions in England, 
France, Germany, Switzer- 
land, <fcc. 

Girard College, at Philadel- 
phia, and tlie University ol 
New-York, commenced. 

De Tocqueville's History of 
Democracy in America. 

Inquisition abolished in 
Spaiji. 

Slavery abolished in the 
British colonies. 

Boston and Loicell Railroad 
completed. 

James Smithson, of London, 
bequeathes £100,000 to the 
United States for the esta- 
blishment of an Itistitution 
'■for the increase and diffu- 
sion of knowledge among 
inen." 

The Luxor obelisk erected at 
Paris. 



1S29. General Jack- 
son, 7th President of the 
United States. 



18-30. Treaty between the 
United States and the Porte. 



1831. The king of the Nether 
North Eastern Boundary, be 

1832. War with the Winneba- 
goes and other Indian tribes, 
—Cholera in New- York. — 
Nullification in South Caro- 
lina. — General Jackson's ce 
lebrated proclamation. 

1833. General Jackson re-elect- 
ed to the Presidency. 

Removal of the Depo 
sites of the United States 
from the U. S Bank. 
183-t. The President censured 
by the Senate for removing 
the Deposites. 

1835. Great Fire in New- York. 



183e. The national debt of the 
United States being paid, the 
surplus reventie is divided 
among the States. 

Treaty with Morocco. 
1837. The independence of 
Texas acknowledged 

Martin Van B u r e n , 

8th President. 



1827. Treaty of London iri 
favor of Greece. 



1828. The Wellington minis- 
try. — Disturbances in Ire- 
land. 



1829. Catholic* emancipation. 
Capiain Ross' voyage to 
discover a North West pas- 
sage. 



18-30.— Wil Ham IV,^ 
Earl Grey, minister. 
Difficulties with China. 

1831. Lord John R u s - 
s e 1 ' 3 Reform Bill intro- 
duced. 

Cholera first appears in 
England. 

lands makes his award on the 
tween the United States and 
the British provinces. 

1832. Reform Bill passed. 



1833. Captain Ross returna 
from his voyage of disco- 
very. 



1834. Sir Robert Peel, 
Premier. — Difficulties in 

Canada. 



ia37. 



1815-1850.J 



THE WORLD S PHOGRESS, 



149' 



1827 



1829 



1835 



IS36 



A French fleet sent to Algiers. 



Algiers takeu. 



Three Days' Revo- 
lution, t) Illy 27, 28, and 
29. 

Lafayette, commander of the 
National Guard. 

Charles X abdicates. 

— L ouis Philippe I. 

(House of Orleans.)^§ 



Ministry of Marshal S o u It . 



Death of Lafayette. 



Insurreclioa attempted by 
Louis Napoleon at Stras- 
burg. 



Austria, &c. 



1833. The Em- 
peror of Rus- 
sia visits the 
Emperor of 
Austria. 



• F e r d i 



The World, elsewhere. 



1829. Italy :— Pius VIII., pope. 

Algiers taken by the French. 

VENEZUELA independent, General 
P a e z , President. 



1830. BELGIUM revolts from Holland, and 

is declared independent in August. 

1830. Polish struggle for nation- 
ality, begins November 19. 

Brazil : — Revolution ; Don Pedro 11. ^§ 

1831. Belgium :—L e o p o 1 d I .^g 

The Poles victorious at Prayo. 

Italy :— Gregory XVI., pope. 
Poland :— Warsaw capitulates to Rus- 
sia. 

1832. The kingdom of GREECE founded : 

-O t h o I .@— 

Poland :— The Insurrection crushed : 
5000 families sent to Siberia. 

— University of Warsaw abolished. 

1833. Spain :— Isabella. ^^ 

— Don Carlos claims the throne. 
Portugal : — A constitutional monarchy. 
Esypt :— Mehemet All acknowledged by 
the Siiftan. 

Mexico :— Santa Anna, President. 

1834. Quadruple alliance— England, France, 
Spain, and Portugal, against Don Miguel 
and Don Carlos. 

1835. The Plague in Egypt. 



1836. Spain :— The Queen Regent adopts (he 
constitution. 



Texas:— Battle of San Jacinto, Santa 
Anna taken prisoner. 



China:— A decree to expel all British 
and other bai'barian merchants. 



150* 



THE WiJRLTi S PROGRESS. 



[Pel iod XI. — 35 years. — 



1837 



Prooress of Society, etc. 



ISIO 



S- F. B. Morse takes 
out a patent for his Elec- 
tro-magnetic Tele- 
graph, (invented 183"2 ) 

Suspension of specie payments 
by the Banks in the United 
States, in May. 

The Daguerreotype 

invented in Paris. 
Improvement of the condition 

of the Jews in Russia. 
An Antarctic Continent disco 



Pennii postage system in Eng- 
land. 



Persecution of the Jews at 
Damascus. 



Wheats tone's Electric Tele- 
graph patented in England. 



United States. 



l»4o 
1816 



1838. The E.xploring E.xpedi- 
tion sails. 

1839. Disturhannes on the 
"disputed territory," be- 
tween Maine and New- 
Brunswick. 



vered by the United States 
Exploring Expedition. 



The Cruton Aqueduct in NeW' 
York completed. 



Bain's electro-magiietic Tele- 
graph patented in London. 



" Anti-rentism "■ coached in 
the State of Newr-York. 



A great defection hrim the Ro- 
mish chm-ch, under the 
preaching of Ro7ige, in Ger- 
many. 

Lord Rosse's Telescope. 

Gulta Percha in use. 

Completion of the Thajnes 
Tunnel. Marcli 2.5. 

The Planet Neptune, pre- 
dicted by Le Verrier, dis- 
covered by Dr. Galle, of 
Berlin, Sept. 23. 



1811. W. H. Harrison, 

9th President. 

He dies April •!, j ust one 
month after his inaugura- 
tion. 

John Tyler, sue. 
ceedshim,as lOih President. 

Congress meets in extra 
session. May 31. 

Sub-Treasury Act re- 
pealed, Aug. 9. 

Bankrupt Act passed, 
August IS. 
1842. The Dorr Insurrection 
in Rhode Island. 

Treaty between the Uni 



Great Britain. 



1839. The British take posseB- 
sion of Gliuzne. 



1810. The uniform Penny 
Postage system estai iished 

Marriage > f Queen Vic- 
toria to Prince Albert of 
Saxe Cobourg. 

War with Chira, to en- 
force the opium trade. 

War in Syria:— Great 

Britain taking part with 

Austria and Turkey. Lord 

^Palmerston's foreign 

' policy excites the ill-will o/ 

France. 
1841. The war with China 
ended : $0,000,000 received 
as a ransom for Canton 



1844. Texas annexed to 
the United States. 

Anti-rent riots in New- 
York. 

1845. Treaty with China. 
James K . Polk, 

11th President. 

1846. War vr i t h M e x i - 
c o : 

Hostilities commence on 
the Rio Grande, April 24. 

Battle of Palo Alto, 
iMay 8. 

Battle of Resaca de la 
Palma, May 9. 



ted States and England, settling 
the north-eastern boundary. 

Treaty of peace with 
China. 

1843. Great "Repeal" 
agitation in Ireland. 

The British gain posses- 
sion of Scinde. 

1814. Daniel O'ConneIl'3 trial 
and imprisonment — the sen- 
tence reversed by the House 
of Lords. 

1845. Sir John Franklin .=;ail3 
in search of the north west 
passage. 



1815-1850.1 



THE world's progress. 



15P 



1838 



iSlO 



Talleyrand dies. 
Difficulty with Mexico : cap- 
ture ol' San Juan d'UUoa. 



Prince Louis Napoleon at- 
tempts a hostile descent on 
the coast of France, near 
Boulogne — is taken prisoner, 
and imprisoned at Ilam. 



G u i z t , minister lor fo- 
reign affairs. 

The remains of Napoleon 
removed from St. Helena, 
and deposited with great 
honors at the Invalides, in 
Paris. 



18^ 



The duke of Orleans, heir to 
the throne, killed by a fall 
from his carnage. 



The Duke de Nemours ap 
pointed Regent, in the event 
of the king's death. 



Austria, &c. 



1838. New 
Treaty of 
commerce 
with Eng- 
land, July 3. 



Ferdinand 
crowned at 
Milan, Sep- 
tember 6. 



1816 Louis Napoleon escapes from 
Ham, May 26. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1838. Mexico :— The Castle of San Juan 
d'Ulloa taken by the French. 

1839. Peace between France and Mexico. 
China :— The Opium trade forbidden. 
Turkey at war with Egvpt. 

India :— Ghuzne taken by li e British. 

1840. China :— Canton blockaded by the Eng- 
lish, to compel the renewal of the opium 
trade. 

Holland :— William I. abdicates : 

William H.^ 

Syria:— St. Jean d'Acre taker, by the 
English, Austrians, and Turks 



1841. China:— Canton capitulates, 66,000,000 
paid in one week, as a ransom for the city. 

Mexico : — Santa Anna enters the capi- 
tal, and places himself at the head of the 
government. 



1812. India :— Insurrection in Affghanistan. 



1843 Temporary surrender of the Sandwich 
Islands to Great Britain, compelled by Lord 
Geo. Paulet. 

Greece : — King Otho compelled to ac- 
cept a constitution, Sept. 15. 

The Society Islands seized by a French 
squailron^resiored by the govpr.iment. 

India: — Scinde annexed to the British 
empire. 
1846. Poland :— A powerful, but unsuccessful 
insurrection at Cracow, Feb. 23. 

Rome :— Pius IX., pope ; electedJune 16. 



Poland :— Cracow deprived of its inde- 
pendence, Nov. 16. 



152* 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period XI. — 35 years. — 



Pbogbbss op Society, etc. 



The cultivation of the Tea 
commenced by J. Smith, 



Suspension Bridge at Nia- 
gara Falls, opened July 29. 



United States. 



1846. The Oregon Trea 
lling the North- Western Bo 

Commodore Sloat takes 
possession of California, 
July 6. 

New TarifT bill passed, 
establishing ad valorem du- 
ties. 

Battle of Monterey, Sep- 
tember 23. 

Tampico occupied, No- 
vember 14. 

1847. Battle of Buena Vista. 
Feb. 22. 

Battle of Sacramento, 
Feb. 26. 

Vera Cruz surrenders. 
March 29. 

Battle of Cerro Gordo, 
April 18. 

Battle of Contreras, Au- 
gust 20. 

Armistice, Aug. 24. 
Hostilities renewed, Sep- 
tember 7. 

Battle of Molino del Rey, 
Sept. 8. 

Battle of Chepultepec, 
Sep, 12. 

Mexico surren- 
ders, Sept. 14. 

1848. Treaty of Peace with 
Mexico, signed at Guada- 
loupe Hidalgo, Feb. 22. 

plant in the United Stales, 
near Greenfield, South Caro- 
lina. 

Postal convention betw 



First deposit of Califor- 
nia gold in the mint, Dec. 8. 



Great Britain. 



t y with Great Britain, sel- 
undary, signed at Londuiii 
June 18. 



1847. Severe famine in Ire- 
land. Large supplii-s of 
food sent from the United 
States. 

The Bogue forts in China 
taken and destroyed, April 
26. 



Emigration from Europe to America during this year, 
300,090. 



1848. Civil war in Ireland. 

. John Mitchell, tried and 
condemned to transporta- 
tion. May 26. 

een the United States and 
Great Britain. 



Habeas Corpus Act sus- 
pended in Ireland, July 25. 



Smith O'Brien arrested 
and condemned, Aug. 5. 



Return of Ross's expe 
dition, Nov. 



J 815-1850.] 



THE world's progress. 



15c 



Reform Banquets in Stras- 
bui'g, Chartres, &c. 



Michelet's Lectures interrupt- 
ed by the ministers, Dec. 

Abd-el-Eader captured, Dec. 

22. 
Debate on the Reform Bill, 

Feb. 8. 
Proposed Banquet ai Paris, 

abandoned, Feb. 'iL 

REV0LUT10^ COM- 
MENCED, Feo. 22. 

Barricades erected, Feb. 23. 

Louis Philippe abdicates and 
iiies, Feb. 24. 

Provisional government esta- 
blished. 

L a m a r t i n e , Provisional 
President, Feb. 24. 

French Republic proclaimed, 
Feb. 26. 

Meeting of the National As- 
sembly, May 4. 

Bloody Insurrection in Paris, 
June 23-25. 

Cavaignac, military dictator, 
June 24. 

Paris in a state of siege. 

New Constitution adopted. 
Nov. 4. 



Louis Napoleon Bo- 
naparte, elected Pre- 
sidrnt, Dec. 10. 



Austria, &c. 



1847. Austria 
takes posses- 
sion of Cra- 
cow. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1847. Prussia :— Frederic William grants a 
constitution, Feb. S. 

Hayti :— Soulouque, President, March 2. 



Algiers — Abd-el-Kadei made a prisoner 
to France, Dec. 22. 

848. Sardinia : — Charles Albert protests 
against the encroachment of Austria, and calls out an 
army of 25,000 men, Jan 10. 

Naples : — Rebellion at Palermo, Jan. 12. 
Sardinia :— Charles Albert proclaims a 
constitution, Feb. 8. 

Bavaria : — Disturbances on account of 
Lola Montes — the king abdicates in favor of 
his son, 



-Maximilian IL W 



March 22. 



Charles Albert 



TheBanJella- 
chich ap- 
pointed gov- 
ernor of 
Hungary, 
Oct. 3. 

Insurrection at 
Vienna, Oct. 
6. 

1848. The Em- 
peror leaves 
the city. The 
Hungarian 
army advan- 
ces within 6 
miles of Vi- 
enna, Oct. U. 

Windisch- 
gratz ap- 
pointed com- 
mander of 
the imperial 
army. 



enters Milan, March 23. 

Denmark : — Revolt of Schleswig-Hol- 
stein, March 26. 

Sicily declared independent, April 3. 
Holland receives a constitution, April 17. 

Poland :— Unsuccessful revolt at Cra- 
cow, April 25. 

Sicily :— The Duke of Genoa elected 
king, July 10. 

India : — Insurrection in Ceylon, Aug. 16. 

Armistice signed between Denmark, 
Prussia and Sweden, Aug. 26. 

India: — The British make an unsuc- 
cessful attempt on Moultan. 

Sicily : — Messina bombarded and taken, 
Sept. 2. 

Hungary :— K o s s u t h appointed Pre- 
sident of the Defence Committee, and Dicta 
tor, Oct. 



154* 



THE world's progress. 



[Period XI. — 35 years.- 



A.D. 


Progress of Society, eic. 


United States. 


Great Britain. 


1849 


A nexD planet discovered by 


1849. Zachary Taylor, 


1849. Moultan, in India. takei\ 




Gasparis, at Naples. 


12th President. 


Jan. 3. 




Magnetic Telegraph lines in 


use in the United States in 

1849, 10,000 miles. 
Rail Roads 6,000 " 






Tubular Bridge in Anglesea, 








England. 








Magnetic Clock, invented by 








Dr. Locke, at Cincinnati. 








Emigration from Europe to 


America, during this year, at 
the rate of 1000 a day. 




1850 


Great agitation on the Slavery 


1850. John C. Calhoun died at 


1850. The war m I,ahore fiiv 




Question in tiie United 


Washington. 


ished, and ths Punjaub an- 




Slates Congress. 


Attempted invasion of 
Cuba :— 600 adventurers un- 


nexed to the British crown. 




The Pekin Monitor, a new 


der Lopez, repulsed at Car- 






paper, printed in China 


denas, May. 






The Sultan of Turlcey, grants 


Death of Gen. Taylor, 






permission to the .lews to 


July 9. 






build a temple on Mount 


Millard Fillmore, 






Zion. 


13lh President. 






A University founded at Syd- 


California ad- 






ney, New South Wales. 


mitted, 31st State. 

Texas b[)undary settled, 
by the payment of 10,000,000 






Deaths in 1850 : 


dollars to Texas. 






U. S. A. i EUROPE. 


New-Mexico and Utah 






A. Judson, Wordsworth, 


admitted as Territories. 
Bill for the arrest of 






5f. M. Fuller, JelTrey, 
ML. Davis. Neander, 
[Zschokke, 
jBerzelius, 
'Balzac. 


fugitive slaves passed by Con- 
gress. 
Slave trade in (he District of 






Columbia abolished. 








A British fleet blockades 








the ports of Greece, to en- 




, 




force the alleged claims of 








British subjects. 








Sir Robert Peel dies 








July 2. 








Haynau. " the Austrian 








butcher," chastised by tlie 








draymen in London, Sept. 



1815-1850.] 



THE world's progress. 



155' 



1850 



Louis Philippe dies in Eng- 
land. 



Austria, &(j 



The World, elsewhere. 



The Emperor 
issues a pro- 
clamation 
against the 
city. 

Kossuth with -draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27. 



The Imperial- 
ists take pos- 
session 01 Vi- 
enna, Nov. 
2. 



Ferdinand ab- 
dicates, Dec. 
2. 

— Francis 



Joseph 



1849. A new 
Constitution 
promulgated 
March 4. 

Brescia taken 
by Haynau, 
March 30. 



Rome :— M a z z i n i ' s proclamation. 
Oct. 29. 

Prussia :— The king prorogues the As- 
sembly, Nov. 9. 

— The Burgher Guard of Berlin refuse to 
give up their arms. The city in a state oi 
siege, Nov. 12. 

Rome : — Count Rossi, the Pope's prime- 
minister, assassinated, Nov. 16. 

India:— Great battle near Ramnugeur, 
Nov. 22. 

Rome : — The Pope escapes in disguise, 
Nov. 24. 

Hungary declared independent, Dec. 
1849. India:— Moultan taken by the British, 
Jan. 3. 

Italy:— The Grand Duke of Tuscany 
flies. Provisional Government proclaimed, 
Feb. 9. 

Rome :— Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9. 

Sicily : — A new Constitution conceded 
by Naples, March 6. 

Sardinia :— Charles Albert defeated by 
Radetsky, March 21— again totally defeated 
at Novarra, March 23, he abdicates the 
throne in favor of his son, 

—Victor Emanuel. ^M 

India : — The Punjaub annexed to the 
Ri-itish Empire, March 29. 

Italy :— Insurrection in Genoa, April 1. 



Russia comes to the aid of Austria against Hungary, April 
26. 

Rome : — The French army arrives un- 
der the walls of Rome, April 29. 

Haynau takes command of the Austrian army in Hungary, 
June. 

Rome surrenders to the French, July 2. 
Garibaldi leaves the city, July 3. 

Rome : — The government placed in the 
hands of the Pope's commissioners, Aug. 3. 

GiJrgey traitor -ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. 11. 
Kossuth escapes into Turkey. 
Venice capitulates to Radetsky, Aug. 22. 
1850. Rome:— The Pope returns, April. 

Greece disputes the claims of Great 
Britain for losses of British subjects: is 
forced to submit. 

China:— The Emperor Tau-Kwang, 
dies : 



~Sze-hing ^M succeede. 



DICTIOMM OF DATES. 



CHIEFLY FROM THAT OF JOSEPH HAYDN : WITH REVISIONS AND ADDITIONS 



AEBEYS AND MONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, near 
the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one. 
An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaim, in Upper Egypt, a. d. 305. 
The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360. The first in Ireland was 
in the fifth century : see Clogher, Elpliin, Down. The first in Scotland was 
in the sixth century : see Isles. And the first in Britain was in 560 : see 
Bangor. The abbey of' Mount Cassino, near Naples, founded by St. Benet 
in 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands 
of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories were suppressed in 
England by order in council, 2 Henry V. I'klL— Salmon. The revenues of 
193 abbeys which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to £2,653,000. 
These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry 
Vin. 1539. See Monasteries. 

ABDICATION op KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in 
later times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance, 
and to which reference may more frequently be made, are the following : — 

He again abdicates in favor of the Bo- 
naparte family. See Spain. May 1, 1808 
Of .Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, to 

take the crown of Spam, . June 1, 1808 
Of the same (by flying before the British 

from Madrid), . . July 29, 1808 
or Louis of Holland, . . July 1, 1810 
Of Jerome of Westphalia, . Oct. 20, 1813 
Of Napoleon of France, . . April 5, 1814 
Of Emanuel of Sardinia, . March 13, 1821 
Of Pedi-o of Portugal, . .May2,182G 
Of Charles X. of France, . Aug. 2, 1830 
Of Pedro of Brazil, . . April 7, 1831 

Of Don Miguel of Portugal (by leaving 

the kingdom), . . . May 26, 1834 
OfWilliamL of Holland, . Oct. 8, 1840 
Of Christina of Spain, queen dowager 

and queen regent, . . Oct. 12, 1840 
Of Louis Phillippe of France, Feb. 24, 1848 
Of Louis, king of Bavaria, . March 22, 1848 
Of Ferdinand I. emperor of Austria, 

Dec. 2, 1848 
Of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, 

Aug. 1849 



Of Henry IV. of Germany, 

Of Stephen 11. of Hungary, surnamed 

Thunder, 1114 

Of Albert of Saxony, .... 1142 

OfLestusV. of Poland, . . . . 1200 
OfUladislaus 111. of Poland, . .1:206 

Of Baliol of Scotland, .... 1306 

Of Otho of Hungary, .... 1309 

OfEric IX. of Denmark . . 1439 

OfEricXllI. of Sweden, . . .1441 

Of Charles V. Emperor, . . . 1556 

Of Christina of Sweden, . . . 1654 

Of John Casimir of Poland, . . . 1669 

Of .Tames II. of England, . . . 1688 

Of Frederick Augustus II. of Poland, . 1704 

OfPhilipV. of Spain, .... 1724 

OfVictor of Sardinia, . . . . 1730 

Of Charles of Naples, .... 1759 

OfStanislaus of Poland, . . . 1795 



OfVictor of Sardinia, . . June 4, 1802 
Of Francis II. of Germany, who becomes 

emperor of Austria only, . Aug. 11, 1804 
Of Charles IV. of Spain, in favor of his 

son, .... March 19, 1808 

ABEL ARD AND HELOISE. Their amour, so celebrated for its passion and 
misfortunes, commenced at Paris, a. d. 1118, when Helolse (a canon's daugh- 
ter) was under 17 years of age. Abelard, after suffering an ignominious in- 
jury, became a monk of the abbej' of St. Denis, and died at St. Marcel, of 
gi'ief which never left his heart in 1142. Helo/se begged his body, and had 



146 THE world's pkogress. [aca 

it buried in the Paraclete, of which she was abbess, with the view of reposing 
in death by his side. She was famous for her Latin letters, as well as love, 
and died in 1183. The ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French 
Monuments in 1800 ; and the museum having been subsequently broken up, 
they were finally removed to the burying-ground of Pfere La Chaise, in 1817. 

i\jBORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy ; or, as others have it, the nation 
conducted by Saturn into Latium, founded by Janus, 1450 b. c. — Univ. His- 
tory. Their posterity was called Latini, from Latinus, one of their kings ; 
and Rome was built in their country. They were called Aborigines, being 
loOsque origine, the primitive planters here after the flood. — St. Jerome. The 
word signifies without origin, or whose origin is not known, and is generally 
applied to any original inliabitants. 

A.BOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expe- 
dition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the 
British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18, 
1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, Au- 
gust 1, 1798. See Nile. 

ABRAHAM, Era op. Used by Eusebius ; it began October 1, 2016 e. c. To 
reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months. 

ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread, 
and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104. 
St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Stylite, to 112 ; and Kenti- 
gern, commonly called St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of 
age. — Spottiswood. A man may live seven, or even eleven, days without 
meat or drink. — Pliny Hist. Nat. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty days 
by smelling honey and hot bread, 323 b. c. — Diog. Laert. A Avoman of Nor- 
mandy lived for 18 years without food. — Petrus de Albano. Gilbert Jackson, 
of Carse-grange, Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kind, 
1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty days, died on 
the sixteenth, 1789. — PliilUps. A country girl, of Osnabruck, abstained four 
years from all food and drink, 1799. — Hufeland's Practical Journal. Ann 
Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, supposed to have been 
an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808. 
At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived 
two years without meat or drink ; Aug. 1840 ; his imposture was afterwards 
discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See 
instances in Holler's Elementce PkysiologicB ; Cornaro ; Pricker's Surgical 
Library, &c. ; and in this volume, see Fasting. 

ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine, 
. flesh, and marriage ; and were a community of harmless and mild ascetics. 
They appeared in France and Spain in the third century ; and some autho- 
rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhere in a. d. 170. — 
Bossuet. 

ABYSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation, 
which they place in the 5493d year before our era, on tlje 29th August, old 
style ; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 days. 
To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and 
125 days. 

ACADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and 
the arts, are of early date. Academia was a shady grove without the walls 
of Athens (bequeathed to Hecademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato 
first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics 378 
B. c. — Stanley. Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- 
andria, about 314 B. c. Theodosius the Younger and Charlemagne are also 



ach] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



14? 



named as founders. Italy has been celebrated for its academies ; and Jarckiua 
mentions 550, of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical 
academy in France was established by Pere Mersenne, in 1135. Academies 
were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes ; and the Royal Society 
of London was formed in 1660. The following are among the principal 
academies : — 



American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 

1780. 

American Philosophical Society, 1769. 

Ancona, of the Caglinosi, 1624. 

Berlin, Royal Society, 1700; of Princes, 
1703; Architecture, n<i^. 

Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1637 ; Mathematics, 
1690 ; Sciences and Arts, 1712. 

Brescia, of the Erranti, 1626. 

Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. 

Brussels, Belles- Lettres, 1773. 

Caen, Belles Lettres, 1750. 

Copenhagen, Polite Arts, 1742. 

Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 

Dublin, Arts, 1749 ; Science and Literature, 
1786; Painting, Sculpture, &c., 1823. 

Erfurt, SaxoiTY, Sciences, 1754. 

Faenza, the Philoponi, 1612. 

Florence, Belles-Leltres, 1272 ; Delia Cms- 
ca, 1582 ; Antiquities, 1807. 

Geneva, Medical, 1715. 

Genoa, Painting, «fec., 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 

Germany, Medical, 1617 ; Natural Historv, 
1652; Military, 1752. 

Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. 

Lisbon, Histoiy, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779. 

London : its various Academies arc de- 
scribed tlurough the volume. 

Lyons, Sciences, 1700; had Physic and Ma- 
thematics added, 1758. 

Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 
1730 : Painting and the Arts, 1753. 



Marseilles, Beltes-Lettres, 1726. 

Milan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 1719. 

Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. 

Naples, Rossana, 1540 ; Mathematics, 1560 ; 

Sciences, 1695; Herat/ aneum, 1755. 
New York, Literature and Philosophy,1814." 
Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 
Padua, for Poetry, 1610 ; Sciences, 1792. 
Palermo. Medical, 1645. 
Paris, S'orbonne, 1256 ; Painting, 1391 ; Mu- 
sic, 1543; French, 1635; Medals, 1663; 
Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; Mili- 
tary, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796. 
Parma, the Innoininati, 1550. 
Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filir^iti, 1574 
Petersburgh, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732 ; 

theSchoolof Arts, 1764. 
Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. 
Rome, Umoristi, 1611; Fantascici, 1625; 
Infecondi, 1653 ; Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi^ 
1690; English, 1752. 
Spain, Royal, 1713; Military, 1751. 
Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles-Lettres, 

1753 ; Agriculture, 1781. 
Toulon, Military, 1682. 
Turin, Sciences, 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. 
Turkey, Military School, 1775. 
Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 
Venice, Medical, &c., 1701. 
Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. 
Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Sur- 
gery, 1783 ; .Oriental, 1810. 
Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753. 
Woolwich, Military, 1741. 



Manheim, Sculpture, 1775. 

Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. 

ACCENTS. The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and 
without any separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century 
that the copyists began to leave spaces between the words. Michaelis, after 
Wetstein, ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in 
Egypt, A. D. 458; but his invention was followed up and improved upon by 
other grammarians in the various languages. 

A.CHAIA. This country was governed by a race of kings, but even their names 
are all forgotten. The capital, Achaia, was founded by Achseus, the son of 
Xuthus, 1080 B. c. The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the 
.^tolians until about 284 b. c. The Achsei were descendants of Achseus, 
and originally inhabited the neighborhood of Argos ; but when the Hera- 
clida3 drove them thence, they retired among the lonians, expelled the na- 
tives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Peleni, jEgira, ./Egeum, Bura, Tri- 
tosa, Leontium,' Rhyp^e, Ceraunia, Olenos, Helice, Patrse, Dymas, and Phara3. 



The Achsan league, . .B.C. 281 

Fortress of Athenaeum built, . . 228 

Defeat of the Achaeans by the Spartans, 

and Lysiades killed, . . 226 

Battle of Sallacia, . . .222 

The Social war begun, . . 220 

The Peloponnesus ravaged by the Mko- 

lians, .... 219 

Aratus poisoned at .SIgium, . . 215 

Battle ofMantinea ; PhiloptEniendeluats 

the Spartan tyrant Mcchanidas, . 208 



Alliance with the Romans, . B. c. 201 

Philopcemen defeated by Nabis, in a na- 
val battle, . . . .194 
Sparta joined to the league, . 191 
Tne Achseans overrun Messenia with 

fire and sword, . . . 182 

The Romans enter Achaia, . 165 

Metellus enters Greece, . . 147 

The Achfean league dissolved, . 146 

Greece subieriefl to Rome, and named 
the prni ii'c of Achaia, . . 146 



Now extinct. 



i48 THE world's PROGKESS. [ AD.' 

The constitution of the United States of America bears some analogy to that 
of the Achaean league ; and the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance 
to it in their confederacy. 
ACOUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings, and 
the communication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmosphere, 
was probably first explained by Pythagoras, about 500 b. c. Mentioned by 
Aristotle, 330 b. c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by 
Alexander the Great, 335 s. c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about 
A. D. 1600. The velocity of sound was investigated by Newton before 1700. 
Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was demonstrated by Dr. Brook 
Taylor, in 1714 ; and further perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, and 
La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. See Sound. 

ACRE, St. Jean d'. Taken by Richard I. and other crusaders in 1192, after a 
siege of two years, with the loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 
barons, and 800,000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000 'llhris- 
tians perished, 1291. This capture was rendered memorable by the uLurder 
of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the lust of the Infidels. 
Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July 1798 ; and was relieved by Sir Syd- 
ney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorable 
siege by the French, between March 6 and May 27, 1799, when, baffled by 
the British squadron on the M'ater and the Turks on shore. Bonaparte relin- 
quished his object and retreated. St. Jean d'Acre is a pachalic subject to 
the Porte ; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted, July 2, 1832. 
It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840. Stormed by the British fleet 
under Sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours, 
the Egyptians losing upwards of 2,000 in killed and wounded, and 3,000 
prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, Nov. 3, 184^. 
See Syria and Turkey. 

ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, and 
accessible only on one side : Minerva had a temple at the bottom. — Paus. in 
Attic. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2,000 years, was destroyed 
in the Venetian siege, a. d. 1687. — Aspin. The Acropolis of Mycenae was 
marked by terraces, and defended by ponderous walls, on which were high 
towers, each au the distance of fifty feet. — Euripides. 

ACTIUM. Battle of, between the fleets of Octavianus Cassar on the one^ide, 
and of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the other, and which decided the fate 
of Antony, 300 of his gallej^s going over to Caesar; fought Sei:)t. 2, 31 b. c. 
This battle made Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the senate 
upon Cajsar) master of the world, and the commencement of the Roman 
empire is commonlj' dated from this year. In honor of Ins victory, the con- 
queror built the city of Nicopolis, and instituted the Actian games. — Blair. 

ACTRESSES. Women in the drama appear to have been unknown to the an- 
cients ; men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to 
have first encouraged the public appearance of \vomen on the stage in Eng- 
land, in 1662 ; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a the- 
atre at court. — Theat. Biog. 

VCTS OF PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated, 16 John, 1215. See Bar- 
liament. For a great period of years the number of acts passed has been 
annually large, although varying considerably in every session. Between 
the 4th and 10th of George IV. 1126 acts were wholly repealed, and 443 
repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. 
Peel (afterwards Sir Robert) : of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at 
large and 225 to Ireland solely. 

VDAMITES, a sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arose a. d. 



A.DM J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



149 



130. They assembled quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that 
if Adam had not sinned, there would have been no marriages. Their chief 
was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it 
was not necessary to confess Christ. — E^usebius. This sect, with an addition 
of many blasphemies, and teaching from the text " increase and multiply," 
was renewed at Antwerp in the thirteenth century, under a chief named 
Tandeme, who, being followed by 3,000 soldiers, violated females of every 
age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. A Flandrian, named Picard, 
again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth centixry, whence they 
spread into Poland and existed some time. — Baijle ; Pa,rdon, 
ADMINISTRATIONS. Successive administrations of the United States, since 
the formation of the government: — 



First Administration; 
George Washington, VirginiSj, 



John Adams, 

Thomas Jefferson, 
Edmund Randolph, 
Timothy Pickering, 
Alexander Hamilton, 
Oliver Wolcott, 
Henry Knox, 
Timothy Pickering, 
James IM'Henry, 
Samuel Osijood, 
Timothy Pickering, 
Joseph Habersham, 
Edmund Randolph, 
William Bradford, 
Charles Lee, 



Massachusetts, 

Virginia, 

do. 
Pennsylvania, 
New York, 
Connecticut, 
Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, 
Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania, 
Georgia, 
Virginia, 
Pennsylvania, 
Virginia, 



1789 to 1797 ;— 8 years. 

April 30, 1789 President. 

do. 1789 Vice President. 

Appointed. 

Sept. 26,1789) 

Jan. 2. 1794 > Secretaries of Slate. 

Dec. 10;i795') 

Sept. 11, 1789 I Secretaries of the 
Feb 3, 1795 ( Treasury. 

Sept. 12,1789;) 

Jan. 2, 1795 > Secretaries of War. 

Jan. 27, 1796 S 

Sept. 26, 1789 ) 

Nov. 7, 1791 > Post Masters Gen. 

Feb. 25, 1795 S 

Sept. 26, 1789 ) 

Jan. 27, 1794 > Attorneys General 

Dec. 10, 1795 ) 



Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 1st Congress, 1789. 

Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut, 2d do. 1791. 

Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 3d do. 1793. 

Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 4th do. 1795. 

S'econd Administration;— 1797 to 1801 ; — i years. 

John Adams, Massachusetts, March 4, 1797 President. 

Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, 1797 Vice President. 

Appoi7ited. 

Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, (continued in office.') ) co„,.o*o,.;o=, «< ctot« 

John Marshall, Virginia, May 13, 1800 \ »ecietaiies oi fttata 

Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, (continued in office.) } Secretaries of the 

Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, Dec. 31, 1800 \ Treasury. 

James M'Henry, Maiyland, {continued in office.) 1 

Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, May 13, 1800 V Secretaries of War. 

Roger Griswold, Connecticut, Feb. 3, 1801 > 

George Cabot.* Massachusetts, May 3, 1798 / Secretaries of the 

Benjamin Stoddart, Maryland, May 21, 1798 \ Navy. 

Joseph Habersham, Georgia, {continued in office.) Post Master Gen. 

Charles Lee, Virginia, {continued in office.) Attorney deneral. 



-.797. 
1789. 



Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 5th Congress, 

Theodore Sedgwick, Massachusetts, 6th do. 

Third Administration;— 1801 to 1809;— 8 years, 

Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, March 4, 1801 President. 

Aaron Burr, New York, do. 1801 ^ vicp Prp=!id?ntq 

George Clinton, ' New York, do. 1805 \ ^^'^^ ^ resmants. 

Appointed. 

James Madison, Virginia, Marcli 5,1801 Secretary of State. 

Samuel Dexter, Mass. {continued in office.) > Secretaries of th« 

Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania, Jan. 26, 1802 \ Treasury. 



* Mr. Cahot declined the appointment. The Navxj Department was established in 1798. 



rso 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[ ADM 



Henry Dearborn, 
Benjamin Stoddart, 
Robert Smith,* 
Joseph Habersham, 
Gideon Granger, 
Levi Lincoln, 
John Breckenridge, 
CBEsar A. Rodney, 



Nathaniel Macon, 
Joseph B. Varnum, 
Nathaniel Macon, 
Joseph B. Vamum, 



James Madison, 
George Clinton, 
Elhridge Gerry, 

Robert Smith, 
James Monroe, 
James Monroe,t 
Albert Gallatin, 
George W. Campbell, 
Alexander J. Dallas, 
William Eustis, 
John Armstrong, 
James Monroe, 
William H. Crawford, 
Paul Hamilton, 
William Jones, 
Benj. W. Crowninshield, 
Gideon Granger, 
Return J. Meigs, 
Caesar A. Rodney, 
William Pinkney, 
Richard Rush, 



Massachusetts, March 5,1801 Secretary of War. 

Md. {continued in office.) { Secretaries of the 

Maryland, Jan. 26,1832$ Navy. 

Georgia, {continued in office.') I Post Masters Gc- 

Connecticut Jan. 26, 1892 { neral. 

Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 i 

Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 v Attorneys General, 

Delaware, Jan. 20, 1807 S 

Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801. 

Massachusetts, 8th do. 1803. 

North Carolina, 9th do. 1805. 

Massachusetts, 10th do. 1807. 

[7RTH Administration;— 1809 to 1817;— 8 ye^rs. 

Virginia, March 4, 1809 President. 

New York, 1809, {died April 20, 1812) } ^. p^sidents 
Mass. 1813, {died Nov. 23, 1814) y^'^^^ resiaents. 

Appointed. 
Maryland, March 6, 1809 ) 

Virginia, Nov. 25, 1811 > Secretaries of Stata 

Virginia, Feb. 25, 1815 S 

Pennsylvania, {cojitinued in office.) 



Tennessee, 

Pennsylvania, 

Massachusetts, 

New York, 

Virginia, 

Georgia, 

South Carolina, 

Pennsylvania, 

Massachusetts, 



Feb. 9, 1814 } 
Oct. 6, 1814 S 
March 7, 1809 i 
Jan. 13, 1813 ( 
Sept. 27, 1814 ( 
March 2,1815) 
March 7, 1809 ) 
Jan. 12, 1813 \ 
Dec. 19, 1814 S 



Secretaries of the 
Treasury. 

Secretaries of War. 

Secretaries of the 
Navy. 

Post piasters Ge- 
neral. 



Connecticut, {continued in office.) 

Ohio, March 17, 1814 \ 

Delaware, {continued in office.) ) 

Maiyland, Dec. 11, 1811 > Attorneys General. 

Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814 S 



Joseph B. Vamum, 
Heniy Clay, 
Henry Clay, 
Langdon Cheves, 
Henry Clay, 



James Monroe, 
Danic'. D. Tompkins, 



.Tohn Q. Adams, 
William H. Crawford, 
Isaac Shelby,! 
John C. Calhoun, 
Benj. W. Crowninshield. 
Smith Thompson, 
Samuel L. Southard, 
Return J. Meigs, 
John McLean, 
Richard Rush, 
William Wirt, 



Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

Massachusetts, 11th Congress, 1809. 

Kentucky, 12th do. 1811. 

Kentucky, ; ,o,,, j. J 1812. 

South Carolina, \ ^"^"^ °°- ) 1814. 

Kentucky, 14th do. 1815. 

[■H Administration ;— 1817 to 1825 ; —8 years. 

Virginia, March 4, 1817 President. 

New York, do. 1817 Vice President. 

Appointed. 
Massachusetts, March 5, 1817 Secretary of State. 

Georgia, March 5, 1817 Secretary of Treaa 

Kentucky, March 5, 1817 ? „ , . , „, 

■ - ■" ■• T..- ,(>' iQ, 7 J Secretaries of War. 



South Carolina, Dec. 16, 1817 J ' 

Massachusetts, {continued in office.) 1 o^ „»„ : » .,<■ .i. 

New York, Nov. ^0, 1818 t S®"^^™^ ^'^ *« 

New Jersey, Dec. 9,1823) ^^^y- 

Ohio, {continued in office.) t Post Masters Ge- 

do. Dec. 9, 1823 S neral. 

Pennsylvania, {continued in office.) i 
Virginia, Dec. 16, 1817 i 



■ Attorneys General. 



* Robert Smith was appointed Attorney General, and Jacob Crowninshield, of Massachusetts, 
Secretary of the Navy, on the 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined these appointments ; and 
Mr. Smith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of Mr. Jefferson's admi- 
nistration. 

t James Monroe was recommissioned, having for some time acted as Secretary of War. 

t Isaac Shelby declined the appointment. 



ADM ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



151 



ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. 

Speakers of the House of Jiepreseniatives. 
Henry Clay, Kentucky, 15th Congress, 

Henry Clay, Kentucky, > ,g,, , 

John W. Taylor, New York, \ ^""^ "°- 

Philip P. Barbour, Virginia, 17th do. 



Henry Clay, 

,Tohn Q,. Adams, 
John C. Calhoun, 



Henry Clay, 
Richard Rush, 
James Barbour, 
Peter B. Porter, 
Samuel L. Southard, 
John McLean, 
WiUiam Wirt, 



John W. Taylor, 
Andrew Stephenson, 



Kentucky, 
Sixth Administration 



18th do. 



1817. 
5 1819. 
?1820. 

1821. 

1823. 



1825 to 1829 ;— 4 years. 
Massachusetts, March 4, 1825 President. 

South Carolina, do. 1825 Vice President. 

Appointed. 
Kentucky, Marwi 8, 1825 Secretary of State. 

Pennsylvania, March 7,1825 Sec'yoftheTreas'y 

Virginia, do. 182o;„ . • j-™- 

New York, May 26,1828^'='^'='^^''^™®°'^'"- 

New Jersey, (continued in office.j Sec'y of the Navy 

Ohio, (continued iti office.) Post Master Gen 

Virginia, (continued i7i office.} Attorney Genera;. 

Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

New York, 19th Cona;ress, 1827. 

Virginia, 20th do. 1828. 



Seventh Administration ;- 
Andrew Jackson, Tennessee, 

Jolin C. Calhoun, South Carolina, 

Martin Van Buren, New York, 



■1829 to 1837, -—8 years. 

March 4, 1829 President. 
*^°- }^ i Vice PresideiUs, 



Martin Van Bui-en, 
Edward Livingston, 
Louis McLane, 
John Forsyth, 
Samuel D. Ingham, 
Louis McLane, 
William J. Duane, 
Roger B. Taney, 
Levi Woodbury, 
John H. Eaton, 
Lewis Cass, 
John Branch, 
Levi Woodbury, 
Mahlon Dickerson, 
William T. Barry, 
Amos Kendall, 
John McP. Berrien, 
Roger B. Taney, 
Benjamin F. Butler, 



New York, 

Louisiana. 

Delaware, 

Georgia, 

Pennsylvania, 

Delaware, 

Pennsylvania, 

Maryland, 

New Hampshire, 

Tennessee, 

Ohio, 

North Carolina, 

New Hampshire, 

New Jersey, 

Kentucky, 

Kentucky, 

Georgia, 

Maryland, 

Nevr York, 



!- Secretaries of State, 



1833 i 
Appointed. 
March 6, 18291 
1831 

1833 1 
1835 1 

March 6, 1829 'j 

i^q I Secretaries of the 
1^ Treasury. 

1834J 

March 9, 1829 | Secretaries of War. 

March 9, 1829 ) secretaries of the 

Im ^^^- 

March 9, 1829 ; Post Masters Ge- 
1835 S neral. 

March 9, 1829 i 

1831 > Attorneys General. 

1834 i 



Andrew Stevenson, 
Andrew Stevenson, 
John Bell, 



Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

Virginia, 21st Congress, 1829. 

Virginia, 22d do. 1831. 

Pemisylvania, 1835. 



Eighth Administration; — 1837 to 1841 — 4 years. 



Martin Van Buren, 
Richard M. Johnson, 

John Forsyth, 
Levi Woodbury, 
Joel R. 1 oinsett, 
Mahlon Dickerson, 
James K. Paulding, 
Amos Kendall, 
John M. Niles, 
Benjamin F. Buller, 
Felix GrunJy, 
Henry D. Gilpin, 



James K. Polk, 
Robert M. T. Hunter, 



New York, 1837 I'resident. 

Kentucky, 1837 Vice President. 

Appointed. 
Georgia, (continued in office.) Secretary of State. 

New Hampshire, (continued in office.") Sec'y of Treasury. 
South Carolina, 1837 i 

New Jersey, (continued in office.) \ Secretaries of War 

New York, 1838 S 

'KexAVLOky, (continued in office.) ^ Post Masters Ge- 

Connecticut, 1840 \ neral. 

New York, (continued in office.) ) 

Pennsylvania, > Attorneys General 

Pennsylvania, 1839 ) 

Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

Temiessee, 1837, 

Virginia, 1839. 



152 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[ ADM 



ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. 

Ninth Administration ;— 1841 to 1845 ;-^ years, 

1841 President. 



William H. Harrison, Ohio, 

Died one month after inauguration, and 



John Tyler, 

Samuel L. Southard, 
Willie P. Mangum, 



Virginia, 

New Jersey, 
North Carolina, 



Daniel Webster, 
Abel P. TJpshur, 
Thomas Ewing, 
Walter Forward, 
John C. Spencer, 
John Bell, 
John C. Spencer, 
George E. Badger, 
Abel P. Upshur, 
David Henshaw, 
Francis Granger, 
Charles A. W'icklifle, 
John J. Crittenden, 
Hugh S. Legare, 
John Nelson, 



John White, 
John W. Jones, 



Massachusetts, 
Virginia, 
Ohio, 

Pennsylvania, 
New York, 
Tennessee, 
New York, 
North Carolina, 
Virginia, 
Massachusetts, 
New York, 
Kentucky, 
Kentucky, 
South Carolina 
Maryland, 
Speakei's of the House of Reepresentatives. 

Kentucky, 

Virginia, 



1841 \ ^^'^^ President, 

I became acting Pres. 
1841 ) Acting V. Pres. and 
1841 5 Pres. Senate. 
Appointed. 

1341 ( Secretaries of StaU*. 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

184n' 

1841 \ Attorneys Generzd. 

1841 J 



Secretaries of the 
Treasury. 

• Secretaries of War. 

Secretaries of thft 

Navy. 

Post Masters Gen- 
eral. 



Tenth Administration ;~1845 to 1849 ; — 4 years. 



James K. Polk, 
George M. Dallas, 

James Buchanan, 
Robert J. Walker, 
William L. Marcy, 
George Bancroft, 
John Y. Mason, 
Cave Johnson, 
John Y. Mason, 
Isaac Toucey, 



Tennessee, 
Pennsylvania, 

Pennsylvania, 

Mississippi, 

New York, 

Massachusetts, 

Virginia, 

Tennessee, 

Virginia, 

Connecticut, 



1845 

1845 

Appointed. 

1845 



1841 
1843 



President. 
Vice President. 



Speakei's of the House of Kepresentatives. 
John W. Davis, Indiana, 

Robert C. Winthrop, Massachusetts, 



Secretary of State. 
1845 Secretary of Treas. 
1845 Secretaiy of War. 
1845 ) Secretaries of the 
1847 S Navy. 

1845 Post Master Gen. 

1847 ( -^-t't^i^Eys General 

1845. 
1847. 



Eleventh Administration ;- 
Zachary Taylor, Louisiana, 



MiUard Fillmore, 

John M. Clayton, 
William E . Meredith, 
William B Preston, 
George W. Crawford, 
Thomas Ewing, 
Jacob CoUamer, 
Reverdy Johnson, 

HoweU Cobb, 



New York, 

Delaware, 

Pennsylvania, 

Virginia, 

Georgia, 

Ohio, 

Vermont, 

Maryland, 



-1849 to 1853, --4 years. 

1849 President. 

1849 Vice President 
Appointed. 

1849 Secretary of State. 

1849 Sec'y of Treasury. 

1849 Sec'y of the Navy. 

1849 Secretary of War. 

1849 Sec'y of Interior.* 

1849 Post Master Gen. 

1849 Attorney General. 



Speaker of the House of Representatives. 
Georgia, 



1849. 



ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and op GREAT BRITAIN, from the 
accession of Henry VIII. The following were the prime ministers, or favor- 
ites, or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz. : — 

KING HENRY viii. | Sir Thomas More and Cranmer . 1529 

Bishop Fisher and Earl of Surrey . 1509 Lord Audley, chanceUor ; archbishop 
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey . . 1513 | Cranmer .... 1532 

* A new department, created by act of Congress, 1819. 
Note. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several adminis- 
trations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made by the Presidents, 
were confirmed by the Senate, as stated in the " Journal of the Executive Proceedmgs of the Senats 
of the United States." Am. Almanac^ &c. 



ADM J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



153 



And lord Cromwell (earl of Essex) . 1531 
Duke of Norfolk, earl of Surrey, and 

bishop Gardiner . . . 1540 

Lord Wriothesley, earl of Hertford . 1544 

KING EDWARD VI. 

The earl of Hertford, continued 

John, duke of Northumberland . 1552 

aUEEN MARY. 

Bishop Gardiner . . . 1553 

aUEEN ELIZABETH. 

Sir Nicholas Bacon . . . 1558 

Sir William Cecil, qftenoards lord 
Burleigh; chief minister during al- 
most the whole of this long reign 
Earl of Leicester, a favorite . . 1564 

Earl of Essex . . . .1538 

Lord Burkhurst . . . 1601 

KING JAMES. I. 

Lord Burkhurst (earl of Dorset) 

Earls of Salisbury, Suffolk, and North- 
ampton. .... 1608 

Sir R. Carr, created viscount Roches 
ter, afterwards earl of Somerset 

Sir George Villiers, created earl, mar 
ouess, and duke of Buckingham . 1615 

KING CHAELES I. 

Duke of Buckingham continued 

Earl of Portland, archbishop Laud . 1628 

Archbishop Laud, earl of Strafford, 

lord Cottinglon . . . 1640 

Earl of Essex .... 1640 
Lord vis. Falkland, lord Digby . 1641 

[The civil war commenced, and all 

went iirto confusion.] 

KING CHARLES II. 

Edward, earl of Clarendon . . 1660 

Dukes of Buckingham and Lauderdale 1667 
Lord Ashley, Lord Arlinston, Sir T. 

Clifford, aftericards lord Clifford . 1667 
Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, created 
earl Shaltesbury, and Sir Thomas 
Osborne .... 1673 

Sir Thomas Osborne . . . 1674 

Earl of Essex, duke of Ormond, earl 
afterwards marquess of Halifax, sir 
William Temple . . . 1677 

Duke of York, and his friends . 1682 

KING JAMES II. 

Eai-ls of Sunderland and Tyrconnel, 
sir George aftericards lord Jeffries 1685 

I,ord .Jeffries, earl of Tyrconnel, lord 
Bellasis, lord Arundel, earl of Mid- 
dleton, visct. Preston . . 1087 

KING WILLIAM III. AND aUEEN MARV II. 

Sir.Tolm, aftericards lord Someis, lord 
Godolphin, earl of Danby, after- 
wards duke of Leeds, &c. . , 1688 
The earl of Sunderland, &c. . . 1695 
Charles Montagu, afterwards earl of 
Halifax, earl of Pembroke, viscount 
Lonsdale, earl of Oxford, &c. . 1697 

aUEBN ANNE. 

Lord Godolphin, R. Harley, esq., lord 
Pembroke, duke of Buckingham 



Duke of Marlborough, &c. . . 17lii 

Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, dukes 

of Marlborough and Newcastle . 170/ 

R. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford 171 1 

Earl of Rochester, lord Dartmouth, 

and Henry St. John, esq. c^terwards 

visct. Bolmgbroke ; lord Harcourt . 171( 

Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, &c. . 171' 

KING GEORGE I. 

Lord Cowper, duke of Shrewsbury, 
marquess of Wharton, earl of Or- 
ford, duke of Marlborough, visct. 
Townshend, &c. . . . 1714 

Robert Walpole, esq. . . . IT'lE 

James, afterwards earl Stanhope . 1713 
Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. . 1715 
Robert Walpole, esq. afterwards sir 
Robert and earl of Orford . . 17?] 

KING GEORGE II. 

Lord Carteret, lord WilmingtCLi, lord 
Bath, Mr. Sandys, &c. . . 1744: 

Hon. Henry Pelham, lord Carteret, earl 
of Harrington, duke of Newcastle . 174J! 

Mr. Pelham, earl of Chesterfield, duke 
of Bedford, &c. . . . 1740 

Duke of Newcastle, Sir Thomas Rob- 
inson, Henry Fox, &c., lord Anson 1754 

Duke of Devonshire, Mr. William Pitt, 
earl Temple, Hon. H. B. Legge . 1756 

[Dismissed m April, 1757. Restored in 
June, same year.] 

William Pitt, Mr. Legge, earl Temple, 
duke of Newcastle, &c. . . 1757 

KING GEORGE III. 

Earl of Bute, earl of Egremont, duke 
of Bedford .... 1761 

Earl of Bute, hon. George Grenville, 
sir Francis Dashwood, <fec. . . 1762 

Right hon. George Grenville, earl of 
Halifax, earl of Sandwich, duke of 
Bedford, &c 1763 

Marquess of Rockingham, duke of 
Grafton, earl of Shelbume, &;c. July 1765 

Duke of Grafton, hon. Chas. Towns- 
hend, earl of Chatham, &c. Aug. 1766 

Duke of Grafton, right hon. Frederick, 
lord North, &c. . . Dec. 1767 

Lord North, lord Halifax, &c. . . 1770 

Lord North, lord Dartmouth, lord Stor- 
mont, lord Hillsborough, lord St. 
Germain, &c. .... \Tr"i 

Marquess of Rockingham,r)ght hon'ble 
Charles James Fox, &c. Mar. 30, 1782 

Earl of Shelbume, William Pitt, lord 
Grantham, &c. . July 10, 1782 

Duke of Portland, lordNorth, Mr. Fox, 
&c. (The Coalition Ministry. See 
"Coalition.") . April 5, 1783 

Rt. hon. William Pitt, lord Gower, 
lords Sidney, Carmarthen, and Thur- 
low, right hon. W. W. Grenville, 
Henry Dundas, lord Mulgrave, duke 
of Richmond, &c. . Dec. 27, 178;- 

Mr. Pitt, lord Camden, marq. of Staf- 
ford, lord Hawkesbury, &c. . . 178' ■ 

Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, duke of Leeds, 
lord Camden, &c. . . .179) 

Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, earl of Chat- 
ham, lord Loughborough. <fec. . 179t- 



154 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



L ABR 



Mr. Pitt, duke of Portland, lord Gren- 
ville, Mr. Dundas, &c. . . 1795 

Mr. Pitt, earl of Westmorland, earl 
of Chatham, lord Grenville, &c. . 1798 

Right hon. Henry Addington, duke of 
Portland, lord Hawkesbury, lord Ho- 
bart,lordEldon, &c. . Mar. 17, 1801 

Mr. Pitt, lord Melville, rt. hon. George 
Canning, lord Ilarrowby, lord West- 
morland, duke of Portland, Mr. Dun- 
das, &c. . . May 12, 1S04 

Lord Grenville, lord Henry Petty, earl 
Spencer, rt. hon. William Wind- 
ham, Mr. Fox, lord Erskine, rt. hon. 
Charles Grey, lord Sidmouth, &c. 
(See ''All the Talents.") Feb. 5, 1800 

Duke of Portland, Mr. Canning, lord 
Hawkesbury, earl Camden, right 
hon. Spencer Perceval, &c. Mar. 25, 1807 

Duke of Portland, earl Bathurst, lord 
vicount Castlereagh, lord Granville 
Gower, &c 1803 

Mr. Perceval, earl of Liverpool, mar- 
quess Wellesley, viscount Palmers- 
ton, Mr. Ryder, &c. . ' . Oct. 1809 

REGENCY OP GEORGE, PRINCE OF WALES. 

Mr. Perceval, the earl of Liverpool, 

&c. continued. 
Earl of Liverpool, Earl Bathurst, visct. 

Sidmouth, viscount Castlereagh, Mr. 

Ryder, earl of Harrowby, right hon. 

Nich. Vansittart, <kc. June 8, 1812 

KING GEORGE IV. 

Earl of Liverpool, viscount Sidmouth, 
Mr. Vansittart, &c. continued. 

Rt. hon. George Canning, lord viscount 
Goderich, lord Lyndhurst, Mr. Stur- 
ges Bourne, &c. . April 10, 1827 

Viscount Goderich, duke of Portland, 
right hon. William Huskisson, Mr. 
Herries, <fcc. . . August 11, 1S27 

Duke of Wellington, right hon. Robert 
Peel, earl of Dudley, viscount Mel- 
ville, earl of Aberdeen, Mr. Goul- 
bum, Mr. Herries, Mr. Grant, &c. 

January 25, 1828 

Duke of Wellington, earl of Aberdeen, 
sir George Murray, lord Lovrther, sir 



Henry Hardinge, &c., (Mr. Huskis- 
son,visc Palmerston, Mr. Grant, eart 
of Dudley, &c. retiring) May 30, 18J23 

KING WILLIAM IV. 

Duke of Wellington and his cabinef, 
continued. 

Earl Grey, viscounts Althorpe, Mel- 
bourne, Goderich, and Palmerston, 
marquess of Lansdowne, lord Hol- 
land, lord Auckland, sir James Gra- 
ham, &c. . . Nov. 22, 3330 

[Earl (jrey resigns May 9, but resumes 
office May 18, 1832.] 

Viscount Rlelboume, viscount Althorp, 
lord John Russel, viscts. Palmerston 
and Duncannon, sir J. C. Hobhouse, 
lord Howick, Mr. S. Rice, Mr. Pou- 
lett Thomson, &c. . July 14, 1834 

Viscount Melbourne's administration 
dissolved: the duke of Wellington 
takes the helm of state provisionally, 
waiting the return of sir Robert Peel 
from Italy . . Nov. 14, 1834 

Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellir.eton, 
lord Lyndhurst, earl of Aberdeen, 
lord EUenborough, lord Rosslyn, 
lord Wharncliffe, sir George M urray, 
Mr. A. Baring, Mr. Herries, Mr. 
Goulbum, &c. . Dec. 15, 1831 

Viscount Melbourne and his colleagues 
return to office . April 18, 1835 

aUEEN VICTORIA. 

visct. Melbourne and the same cabi- 
net, continued. 

Viscount Melbourne resigns May 7, 1839 

Sir Robert Peel receives the queen's 
commands to form a new adminis- 
tration. May 8. 

This command is withdrawn, and lord 
Melbourne and his friends are rein- 
stated . . . May 10, 1839 

Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington, 
earl of Aberdeen, earl of Hadding- 
ton, earl of Ripon, lord Stanley, Mr. 
Goulbum, &c. . Aug. 7, 1841 

Lord John Russell's administration 

July 6, 1845 



ADJMIRAL. The first so called in England was Richard de Lucy, appointed 
by Henry III. 1223. Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, had 
been previously the commanders of their own fleets. The first was appointed 
in France, in 1284. The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of 
great distinction, and was first given to William de Leybourne by Edward I. 
in 1297. —Spelman; Ryvier. 

ADMIRAL LORD HIGH, op ENGLAND. The first officer of this rank was 
created by Richard II. in December 1385 ; there had been previously high 
&^va\Y2i\s, of districts — the north, west, and south. See Navy. 

ADMIRALTY, Court of, erected by Edward III. in 1357. This is a civil court 
for the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs. 

ADRIANOPLE, Battle of, which got Constantine the empire, was fought July 
3, A.D. 323. Adrianople was taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks in 1360 ; 
and it continued to be the seat of the Turkish empire till the capture of 
Constantinople in 1453. Mahomet II., one of the most distingui.shed of the 
sultans, and the one who took Constantinople, was born here in 1430.— 



ADV j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 155 

Priestley. Adrianople was taken by the Russians, Aug. 20, 1829 ; but was 
restored to the sultan at the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Turkey. 

ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic Sea 
was instituted in a.d. 1173. Annually, upon Ascension-day, the doge married 
the Adriaticum Mare, by dropping a ring into it from his bucentaur, or state 
barge, and was attended on these occasions by all the nobility of the state, 
and foi-eign ambassadors, in gondolas. This ceremony was intermitted, for 
the first time for centuries, in 1797. 

ADULTERY, ancient laws against it. Punished by the law of Moses with 
the death of both the guilty man and woman. — Leviticus xx. 10. This law 
was repealed, first, because the crime had become common ; and secondly, 
because God's name should not be liable to be too often erased by the ordeal 
of the waters of bitterness. Leo, of Modena, says that the husband was obliged 
to dismiss his wife for ever, whether he willed it or not. — Calmet. Lycurgus 
punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spartans 
tore out the offenders' eyes. The Romans had no formal law against adultery ; 
the emperor Augustus was the first to introduce a positive law to punish it, 
and he had the misfortune to see it executed in the persons of his own chil- 
dren. — Lenglet. Socrates relates that women who were guilty of adultery 
were punished by the horrible sentence of public constupration. In England 
the legal redress against the male offender has been refined into a civil 
action for a money compensation. — Lord Mansfield. 

ADULTERY, English Laws against it. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, 
and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. — 
Pardon. King Edmund punished the crime as homicide. It was punished 
by cutting off the hair, stripping the female offender naked, and whipping 
her through the streets, if the husband so demanded it to be done, without 
distinction of rank, during the Saxon Heptarchy, a.d. 457 to 828. — Stowc. 
The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished 
capitally, together with incest, under Cromwell, May 14, 1650 ; but there is 
no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained 
whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man 
were unmarried, and several sufiered under it, 1662. — Hardie. At present 
this offence is more favorably viewed ; to divorce and strip the adulteress 
of her dower, is all her punishment among us ; but in Romish countries they 
usually shut up the adulteress in a nunnerj''. — Aslie. 

ADVENT. In the calendar it signifies, properly, the approach of the feast of 
the Nativity ; it includes four Sundays, the first of which is always the nearest 
Sunday to Saint Andrew (the 30th November), before or after. Advent was 
instituted by the council of Tours, in the sixth century. 

ADVENTURERS, MERCHANT, a celebrated and enterprising company of 
merchants, was originally formed for the discovery of territories, extension 
of commerce, and promotion of trade, by John duke of Brabant, in 1296. 
This ancient company was afterwards translated into England, in the reign 
of Edward III., and queen Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation 
in 1564. — Anderson. 

ADVERTISEMENTS in NEWSPAPERS. In England, as now published, they 
were not general until the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty 
of 50Z. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with "No questions to 
be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the printer, 25 Geo. H. 1754. 
— Statutes. The advertisement duty was formerly charged according to the 
number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, in England at os. Qd., and in Ireland 
at 2s. Qd. each advertisement. The duty Avas further reduced, in England 
to Is. 6d., and in Ireland to Is. each, by statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833. 



156 THE world's PROGilESS. T AFF 

^DILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 b.c. There wer? three degrees 
of these officers, and the functions of the principal were similar to our justices 
of the peace. The plebeian sediles presided over the more minute affairs of 
the state, good order, and the reparation of the streets. They procured all 
the provisions of the city, and executed the decrees of the people. — Varro. 

.ENIGMA. The origin of the jenigma is doubtful : Gale thinks that the Jews 
borrowed their senigmatical forms of speech from the Egyptians. The 
philosophy of the Druids was altogether senigmatical. In Nero's time the 
Romans were often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing 
truth under obscure language. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond is 
an elegant specimen of the senigma : — 

Hie jacet in tomba, Rosa mundi, non Uosa mimda ; 
Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet. 

iEOLIAN HARP. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to Kircher. 1653 ; 
but Richardson proves it to have been kno'^^Ti at an earlier period than his 
time. — Dissertation on the Customs of the East. There is a Rabbinical story 
of the aerial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night, 
was played upon by the north wind. — Baruch. 

AERONAUTICS. To lord Bacon, the prophet of art, as Walpole calls him, has 
been attributed the first suggestion of the true theory of balloons. The 
ancient speculations about artificial wings, wherebj'^ a man might fly as well 
as a bird, refuted by Borelli, 1670. Mr. Henry Cavendish ascertained that 
hydrygen air is at least twelve times lighter than common air, 1777. The 
true doctrine of aeronautics announced in France by the two brothers Mont- 
golfier, 1782. — See Balloon. 

.^SOP'S FABLES. Written by the celebrated fabulist, the supposed inventor 
of this species of entertainment and instruction, about 565 B.C. ^sop's 
Fables are, no doubt, a compilation of all the fables and apologues of wits 
both before and after his own time, conjointly with his own. — Plutarch. 

.iETOLIA. This coxmtry was named after ^tolus of Elis, who, having acci- 
dentally killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, 
and settled here. The inhabitants were very Mttle known to the rest of 
Greece, till after the ruin of Athens and Sparta, when they assumed a con- 
sequence in the country as the opposers and rivals of the Achaans, to whom 
they made themselves formidable as the allies of Rome, and as its enemies. 
They were conqxiered by the Romans under Fulvius. 



The jEtoIians begin to ravage the Pelo- 
ponnesus . . .B.C. 282 

They dispute the passage of the Mace- 
donians at Thermopylce . . 223 

Acarnania ceded to Pliilip as the price 
of peace .... 218 

Battle of Lamia; the jEtolians, com- 
manded by Pyrrhus, are defeated by 
Philip of Macedon . . .214 

With the assistance of allies, they seize 
Oreum, Opus, Tribon, and Dryne . 212 

They put to the sword the people of 



Therma, Xenia, Cyphara, and other 
cities, and destroy with fire all the 
country they invade . B.C. 201 

They next invite the kings of Macedon, 
Syria and Sparta, to coalesce witn 
them against the Romans . . 195 

They seize Calchis, Sparta, and Deme- 

trias in Thessaly . . . 194 

Their defeat near Thermopylae . . 193 

They lose Lamia and Amphissa . 192 

Made a province of Rome . . . 146 



'VFFINITY, Degrees of. Marriage Avithin certain degrees of kindred was 
prohibited by the laws of almost all nations, and in almost every age. 
Seypral degrees were prohibited in scriptural law, as may be seen in Leviti- 
cus, chap, xviii. In England, a table restricting marriage within certain 
near degrees was set forth by authority, a.d. 1563. Prohibited marriages 
were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the ninety-ninth Canon, in 
1603. AU marriages celebrated within the forbidden degrees of kindred are 
declared to be absolutely void hy statute 5 and 6 Will. IV. 1835. 



AGR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 157 

AFFIRMATION of the QUAKERS. This was first legally accepted as an oath 
in England a.d. 1696. The affirmation was altered in 1702, and again altered 
and modified December 1721. 

AFGHANISTAN. Insurrection of the Afghans against the British power in 
India, January 5, 1842. — See India. 

AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient 
world, and the gi'eatest peninsula of the universe, first peopled by Ham. It 
was conquered by Belisarius in a.d. 553 et seq. In the seventh century, about 
637, the Mahometan Arabs subdued the north of Africa ; and their descend- 
ants, under the name of Moors, constitute a great pert of the present popu- 
lation. See the several countries of Africa through the volume. Among 
the late distinguished travellers in this quarter of the world, may be men- 
tioned Bruce, who commenced his travels in 1768 ; Mungo Pai-k, who made 
his first voj^age to Africa, May 22, 1795 ; and his second voyage, January 50, 
1804, but from which he never returned. See Park. Richard Lander died 
of shot-wounds (which he had received when ascending the river Nunn) at 
Fernando Po, Jan. 31, 1834. The African expedition, for which parliament 
voted 61,000^., consisting of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steam-ships, 
sailed in the summer of 1841. The vessels commenced the ascent of the 
Niger, Aug. 20; but when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the 
crews, and they were successively obliged to return, the Albert having 
ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedi- 
tion was, in the end, wholly relinquished owing to disease, heat, and hard- 
ships, Oct. 17. 

AFRICAN COMPANY, a society of merchants trading to Africa. An associ- 
ation in Exeter, Avhich was formed in 1588, gave rise to this company. A 
charter was granted to a joint stock company in 1618 : a third company was 
created in 1631 ; a fourth corporation in 1662 ; and another formed by let- 
ters patent in 1672, and remodelled in 1695. The rights vested in the pre- 
sent company, 23 Geo. H. 1749. See Slave Trade. 

AGE : Golden Age, Middle Age, &c. Among the ancient poets, an age was 
the space of thirty years, in which sense age amounts to much the same as 
generation. The interval since the first formation of man has been divided 
into four ages, distinguished as the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages ; but 
a late author, reflecting on the barbarism of the first ages, will have the 
order assigned by the poets inverted — the first, being a time of ignorance, 
would be more jDroperly denominated an iron, rather than a golden age. 
Various divisions of the duration of the world have been made by historians : 
by some the space of time commencing from Constantino, and ending with 
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the fifteenth century, is called 
the middle age ; the middle is also styled the barbarous age. The ages of 
the world may be reduced to three grand epochs, viz., the age of the law of 
nature, from Adam to Moses ; the age of the Jewish law, from Moses to 
Christ ; and the age of grace, from Christ to the present year. 

AGINCOURT, Battle op, between the French and English armies, gained by 
Henry V. Of the French, there were 10,000 killed, and 14,000 were taken 
prisoners, the English losing only 100 men. Among the prisoners were the 
dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen, 
and men more numerous than the British themselves. Among the slain 
were the dukes of Alen^on, Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one 
marshal, thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights, Oct. 25, 1415. 
— Goldsmith. 

AGRA, Fortress of, termed the key of Hindostan, surrendered, in the war 
with the Mahrattas, to the British forces, Oct. 17, 1803. This was once the 



158 TIIK world's progress. I ALB 

most splendid of all the Indian cities, and now exhibits the most magnificent 
ruins. In the 17th century the great mogul frequently resided here ; his 
palaces, and those of the Omrahs, were very numerous ; Agra then con- 
tained above 60 caravansaries, 800 baths, and 700 mosques. See Mau- 
soleums. 

AGRARIAN LAW, Agraria Lex. This was an equal division among the Ro- 
man people of all the lands which they acquired by conquest, limiting the 
acres which each person should enjoy, first proposed by Sp. Cassius, to gain 
the favor of the citizens, 486 b.c. It was enacted under the tribune Tibe- 
rius Gracchus, 132 b.c. ; but this law at last proved fatal to the freedom of 
Rome under Julius Cfesar. — Livy ; Vossius. 

A(tRICULTURE. The science of agriculture may be traced to the period im- 
mediately succeeding the Deluge. In China and the eastern countries it was, 
perhaps, coeval with their early plantation and government. Of the agri- 
culture of the ancients little is known. The Athenians pretended that it 
was among them the art of sowing corn began ; and the Cretans, Sicilians, 
and Egyptians lay claim, the last with most probability, to the honor. 
Brought into England by the Romans, as a science, aboiit a.d. 27. 

AGYNNIANS. This sect arose about a.d. 694, and alleged that God forbade 
the eating of flesh, assuming the first chapter of Genesis to be the authority 
upon which the doctrine was founded. A revival of this ancient sect now 
flourishes at Manchester and other towns in England, and has been public 
there since 1814. 

AIR. Anaximenes of Miletus declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the 
first cause of every thing created, 530 b.c. The pressure of air was discov- 
ered by Torricelii, a.d. 1645. It was found to vary with the height by Pas- 
cal, in 1647. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time, have 
illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experi- 
ments, and numerous inventions have followed from them ; among others, 
the air-gun by Giiter of Nuremburg in 1656 ; the air-pump, invented by 
Otho Guericke at Magdeburg in 1650, and improved by the illustrious Boyle 
in 1657 ; and the air-pipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, 
about 1756. See Balloon. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Peace of. The first treaty of peace signed here wa"" 
between France and Spain, when France yielded Franclre-Comt^, but 
retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 1668. The second, or 
celebrated treaty, Avas between Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, 
Spain, and Genoa. By this memorable peace the treaties of Westphalia in 
1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, 
of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 
1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. Signed on the 
part of England by John Earl of Sandwich, and Sir Thomas Robinson, Oct. 
7, 1748. A congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia,, 
assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la-Cha- 
oelle, and a convention signed, October 9, 1818. The sum then due from 
France to the allies was settled at 265,000,000 francs. 

AL.AJBAMA. One of the United States ; most of its territory was included in 
the original patent of Georgia. It was made a part of the Mississippi ter- 
ritory in 1817 ; admitted into the Union as a State in 1820. Population in 
1810 was less than 10.000 ; in 1816, 29 683; in 1820, 127,901; in 1830, 
308.997 ; in 1840, 590 756, including 253,532 slaves. Exports of the State in 
1840 amounted to S12 854 694 ; imports, to ^574,651 

ALBA. Founded by Ascanius, 1152 b.c, and called Longa, because the city 
extended along tlie hill Albanns. This kingdom lasted 487 years, and was 



ALB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 159 

governed by a race of kings, the descendants of iEneas. When Amulius 
dethroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter of Numitor, to a 
hfe of ceUbacy, hy obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal, 
thereby to assure his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however, 
frustrated; violence was offered to Ilia, and she became the mother of 
twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to 
be thrown into the Tiber, 770 b.c. But the little bark in which the infants 
were sent adrift stopped near Mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by 
Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, M^ho reared the children as his own, and 
called tbem Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnanied 
L/iipa ; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled 
by a she-wolf At sixteen years of age, Romulus avenged the wrongs of 
Ilia and Numitor, 754: b.c, and the nest year founded Rome. — Varro. 

^LEAN'S, ST. The name of this town was anciently Verulam ; it was once 
the capital of Britain, and previously to the invasion of Julius Caesar was 
the residence of British princes. It takes its present name from St. Alban, 
who was born here, and who is said to have been the first person who suf- 
fered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly styled 
the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the perse- 
cution raised by Diocletian, June 23, a.d. 286. A stately monastery was 
erected here to his memory by OfFa, king of Mercia, in 793. St. Alban's 
was incorporated by EdAvard VI. 1552. 
- ALBAN'S, ST., Battles of. The first, between the houses of York and Lan- 
caster, in which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Henry VI., 
of whose army 5000 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered 
no material loss, fought May 22, 1455. The second, between the Yorkists 
under the earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen 
Margaret of Anjou, who conquered : in this battle 2500 of the defeated army 
perished ; fought on Shrove Tuesday, February 2, 1461. 

ALBANY, city, capital of the State of New- York, founded by the Dutch in 
1623, and by them named Beaverwyck ; capitulated to the English in 1664, 
and then received its present name in honor of the Duke of York and 
Albany, its proprietor. Incorporated in 1686. Population in 1810, 9,356 : 
in 1830, 24,238; in 1840, 88,721. 

ALBIGENSES. This sect had its origin about a.d. 1160, at Albigeois, in Lan- 
guedoc, and at Toulouse ; they opposed the disciples of the Church of 
Rome, and professed a hatred of all the corruptions of that religion. Simon 
de Montfort commanded against them, and at Bezieres he and the pope's 
legate put friends and foes to the sword. At Minerba, he burnt 150 of the 
Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur, he hanged the governor, and beheaded 
the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other 
women. They next defeated the count of Toulouse, with the loss of 17,000 
men. Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England. See Waldenses. 

ALBION. The island of Great Britain is said to have been first so called by 
Julius Caesar, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion 
of the country, 54 e.g. The Romans conquered it, and held possession about 
400 years. On their quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots, 
Picts, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain coun- 
try, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornwall and Wales ; the 
Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England : and from a 
mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See 
Britain. — New Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir 
Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578; explored by Vancouver in 
1792. 

ALBUERA; Battle of, between the French, commanded by marshal Soult. 



160 THE world's progress. [ ALE 

and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, now lord 
Beresford, May 16, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement, 
the allies obtained the victory, justly esteemed one of the most brilliant 
achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 9000 men 
previously to their retreat. 
ALCHEMY. This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which effected the 
transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruum, a 
universal ferment, and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may be 
had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood : yet 
few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years after 
Christ, mention any such thing. Plinj^ saj's the emperor Caligula was the 
first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it 
off because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had 
this mystery ; which if true, how could it have been lost 1 The Arabians 
are caid to have invented this mysterous art, wherein they were followed by 
Ramond Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thing else 
but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimus, 
about A. D. 410. — Fab. Bib. Grccs. A license for pi-actising alchemy with all 
kinds of metals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — Rymer's 
Fad. Doctor Price, of Guildford, published an account of his experiments 
in this way, and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to 
the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red and white pow- 
der ; but being a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain 
of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe ; 
but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783. 

ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and credenda of Mahomet : 
it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans 
believe, inimitable by any human pen ; hence thej^ assume its divine origin. 
It is the common opinion of writers, that Mahomet was assisted by Batiras, 
a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestorian monk, and by a learned Jew, in composing 
this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nes- 
torius, Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God 
sent it to their prophet by the Angel Gabriel : it was Avritten about a. d. 610. 
— See Koran, Mahometism, Mecca, &c. 

ALDERMEN. The word is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and 
among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as 
distinguished persons, on account of the experience their age had given 
them. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of pro- 
vinces or districts, and are so mentioned up to a. d. 882. After the Danes 
were settled in England, the title was changed to that of carl, and the Nor- 
mans introduced that of count, which though different in its original signifi- 
cation, yet meant the same thing. Henry III. may be said to have given 
its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in the 
United States, an alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor. 

AliE AND TnNE. Thejr are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the for- 
mer where the soil, owing to its quality, wotild not grow grapes. — Tooke^s 
Pantheon. Ale was known as a beverage at least 404 b. c. Herodotus as- 
cribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis, the wife 
of Asyris. The Romans and Germans very earlj'- learned the process of pre- 
jmring a liquor from corn by means of fermentation, from the Egyptians. — 
Tacitus. Alehouses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wes- 
sex. Booths were set up in England a.d. 728, when laws were passed for 
their regulation. Alehouses were licensed 1621 ; and excise duty on ale 
and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles 
II., 1660. See Beer, Wine. 



ALG J DICTIONARY OF DATKS. 161 

ALEMjINNI, or All Men, {i.e. men of all nations.) a body of Suevi, defeated 
by Caracalla, a. d. 214. On one occasion 300;000 of this warlike people are 
said to have been vanquished, in a battle near Milan, by Gallienus, at the 
head of 10,000 Romans. Their battles were numerous with the Romans and 
Gauls. They ultimately submitted to the Franks. — Gibbon. 

ALEXANDER, Era op, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Novem- 
ber 12, 323 B. c. In the computation of this era, the period of the creation 
was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in conse- 
quence, the year 1 a.d. was equal to 5503. This computation continued to 
the year 284 A. D., which was called 5786. In the next year (285 a.d.), 
which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date be- 
came 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, xchich see. The date is 
reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and 
after that time by subtracting 5492. 

ALEXANDRIA, in Egypt, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by 
Alexander the Great, 332 b. c. ; taken by Cfesar, 47 b. c, and the library of 
the Ptolemies, containing 400,000 valuable works in MS., burnt. Conquered 
by the Saracens, Avlun the second librai-y, consisting of 700,000 volumes was 
totally destroyed by the victors, who heated t].ie water for their baths for 
six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph 
Omar, a. d. 642. This was formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures 
of the East being deposited here before the discovery of the route by the 
Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a mas- 
sacre ensued, July 5, 1798 ; and from them by the British in the memorable 
battle mentioned in next article, in 1801. Alexandria was again taken by 
the British, under General Frazer, March 21, 1807 ; but was evacuated by 
them, Sept. 28, same year. For late events, see Syria and Tiirkeij. 

ALEXANDRIA, Battle of, between the French, under Menou, who made the at- 
tack, and the British army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, amounting to about 
15,000 men, which had but recently debarked, fought March 21, 1801. The 
British were victorious, but Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded. 

ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve feet, or syllables, first written by 
Alexander of Paris, and since called, after him. Alexandrines, about a. d. 
1164. — Nouv. Did. Pope, in his Essay on Criticism, has the following well- 
knoAvn couplet, in which an Alexandrine is happily exemplified : — 

" A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 
Tha' like a wound-ed snake, drags its slow length a-long." 

ALGEBRA. Where algebra was first used, and by whom, is not precisely 
known. Diophantus first wrote upon it, probably about a. d. 170 ; he is said 
to be the inventor. Brought into Spain by the Saracens, about 900 ; and 
into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebra- 
ical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of sym- 
bols for quantities was by Francis Vieta, in 1590. when algebra came into 
general use. — Moreri. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the 
doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. 

ALGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia, reduced to a Roman province, 
44 B. 0. It afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of the 
Spaniards, the nation invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and he 
seized the government, a. d. 1516 ; but it afterwards fell to the lot of Tur- 
key. — Priestley. The Algerines for ages braved the resentment of the most 
powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Charles V. lost a fi-ne fleet 
and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541. Algiers was 
reduced by Admiral Blake, in 1653, and terrified into pacific mcasurea 
with England ; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks of other European pow- 
ers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761 ; and of Spain, in 1775, 



162 THE world's progress. [ ALil 

1783, and 1784. It was bombarded by the British fleet, under lord Exmouth, 
Aug. 27, 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abol- 
ished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bourmont and 
Duperr^, after some severe conflicts, July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed, 
and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry 
announced their intention to retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834. 
Marshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two engagements (in one of which 
the duke of Oi-leans was wounded), and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1830. 
'General Damremont attacked Constantina (wMch see), Oct. 13, 1837;" since 
when various other engagements between the French and the natives, have 
taken place. Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere, Dec. 22, 
1847. See Morocco. 

ALI, Sect of. Founded by a famous Mahometan chief, the son-in-law of Ma- 
homet, (having married his daughter Fatima,) about a. d. 632. Ali was 
called by the Prophet, " the Lion of God, always victorious ;" and the Persians 
follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other Maho- 
metans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. It is worthy of remark, 
that the first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and 
Ali, whom he had employed as his chief agents in establishing his rehgion, 
and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that accoimt he styled the " cut- 
ting swords of God," all died violent deaths ; and that this bloody impos- 
tor's family was wholly extirpated within thirty j^ca,rs after his own decease. 
Ali was assassinated in 660. 

ALIENS. In England aliens were grievously coerced up to a. d. 1377. When 
they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half foreigners, if 
they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or 
handicraft by retail, 1483. 

ALL SAINTS. The festival instituted, a. d. 625. All Saints, or All Hallows, 
in the Protestant church, is a daj^ of general commemoration of all those saints 
and martyrs in honor of whom, individually, no particular day is assigned. 
The Church of Rome and the Greek church have saints for every day in the 
year. The reformers of the English church provided offices only for very 
remarkable commemorations, and struck out of their calendar altogether a 
great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at their time were 
connected with popiilar feeling or tradition. 

ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest 
instances, of which Blair gives Psalm Ixxx. ver. 8, 16. as a specimen. Spen- 
ser's Faerie Qucene is an allegory throughout ; Addison, in his Spectator, 
abounds in allegories ; and the Pilgrim, s Progress of Bunyan, 1663, is per- 
fect in its ivay. Milton, among other English poets, is rich in allegory. _ 

ALLIANCES, Treaties of, between the high European Powers : See Coalition, 
Treaties, &c. 



Alliance of Lei psic . . April 9, 1631 

Alliance of Vienna . May 27, 1657 

Alliance, the Triple . . Jan. 28, 1668 

Alliance of Warsaw . March 31, 1683 

Alliance, the Grand . . May 12, 1689 

Allianco, the Hague . .Tan. 4, 1717 
Allance, the Quadruple ' . Aug. 2, 1718 

Alliance of Vienna . March 16, 1731 



Alliance of Versailles . May 1, 1756 

Germanic Alliance . .July 23, 1785 

Alliance of Paris . . May 16, 1795 

Alliance of Petersburg . April 8, 1803 

Austrian Alliance ." March 14. !812 

Alliance of Sweden . \Iarch 24 (312 

Alliance of Toplitz . Sept. 9; 1S13 

Alliance, the Holy . Sept. 26, 18ir- 



\LMANACS, The Egyptians computed time by instruments. Log calen- 
dars were anciently m use. Al-mon-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the Bri- 
tish Museum and imiversities are curious specimens of early almanacs. 
Michael Nostrodamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almanac in the 
style of Merlin, 1566. — Dufrcsiunj. The most noted early almanacs were: 



Poor Robin's Almanf.c 


. 1C52 


Lady's Diary 


. . 1705 


Moore's Almanac 


. 1713 


Season on the Seasons 


. . 1735 


Gentleman's Diary 


. 1741 


Nautical Almanac . 


. . 1767 



Poor Richard's Almanac, (Franklin's, 



ALU J ^ DICTIONAP>.Y OF DATES. 163 

ALMAN ACS, continued. 

Jobn Somer's Calendar, written in Ox- 
ford 1380 

On« in Lambeth palace, written in . 1460 

Firnt printed one, published at Buda . 1472 

First printed in England, by Richard 
Pynson .... 1497 

Tybault's Prognostications . . . 1.533 

Lilly's Ephemeris . . . . '644 I Philadelphia) . .' . . 1733 

Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500,000 copies were annually sold. 
The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until 
1790, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to this 
company, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs was 
abolished in England, 1834. 
ALMEIDA, Battle op, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com- 
manded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was 
defeated with considerable loss, August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Mas- 
sena to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him ; but the route 
of the French was tracked by the most horrid desolation. 
ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and 
wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 b. c. — Blair. But Josephus 
affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though 
this is doubted, and deemed a mistake, or fabulous. The first lettei of the 
Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks cwpha, and 
abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived 
from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought 
the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece ; they were the fol- 
lowing : — 

A, B, r. A, I, K, A, M, N, O, n, P, 3, T, Y. 
These letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian char- 
acters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the 
Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented 
the double characters, 0, X, *, E, about 1224 b. c. ; and Simoni^es added Z, 
^, H, n, about 489 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles. When the E was introduced 
is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters 
till 399 B. c, when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small 
letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets 
of the different nations contain the following number of letters : — 

English . 

French 

Italian 

Spanish 

ALPHONSINE TABLES ■ Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by com- 
mand, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the 
Wise. This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 
crowns in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a preface, 
written by his own hand : he commenced his reign in 1252. 

ALTARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also insti- 
tuted and regulated marriages, 1556 b. p. He introduced among the Greeks 
the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt. — Hero- 
dotus. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I. in 135 ; 
and they were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar 
in Britain was in 634. — Stowe. The Church of England, and all the reformed 
churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that sup- 
ported their use. 

ALUM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about a. d. 1300 ; 
it was found in Tuscany, in 1460 ; was brought to perfection in England, in 



. 26 


German . 


. 26 


Greek 


. 24 


Turkish . 


. 33 


. 23 


Sclavonic 


. 27 


Hebrew 


. . 22 


Sanscrit 


. 50 


. 20 


Russian . 


. 41 


Arabic 


. 28 


and 




.27 


Latin . 


. 22 


Persian 


. . 32 


Chinese 


. 214 



164 • THE world's progress. [ AMB 

1608 : was discovered in Ireland, in 1757 ; and in Anglesey, in 1790. Alum 
is a salt used as a mordant in tanning ; it is used also to harden tallow, and 
to whiten bread. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapors of sulphu- 
ric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley; but it is usually obtained 
by means of ore called alum slate. 

AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru, 
Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing com- 
panies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and 
gave the name of Amazon to the river, Avhich had previously been called 
Maranon. 

A MAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend- 
ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having 
made incursions, were all slain, being siirprised in ambuscades by their 
enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they under- 
went on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female 
state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matri- 
mony was a shameful servitude ; but, to perpetuate their race, ihey, at stated 
times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbors. — Qunitus Curtius. 
They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 b. c. The Amazons were con- 
stantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more 
force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the 
Greek, no7i and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the 
Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with 
him, in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior ; three hundred 
females were in her train. — Herodotus. 

AMBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to 
another, are referred to early ages, and to almost all nations. In most coun- 
tries they have great and peculiar privileges ; and in England, among others, 
they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambas- 
sador in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653 ; and the Russian, by a 
lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their 
protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the. servant of an ambas- 
sador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassa- 
dor, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them 
to be imprisoned three months and the other fined. May 12, 1780. — Phillips. 

AMBER. Of great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a 
medicine before the Christian era: Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 b. c. 
Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of 
the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails 
among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some- refer- 
ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal king- 
dom ; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in 
favor of each opinion. 

AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself. In that language it means 
tnie, faithful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it im- 
plies, so be it ; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally 
used, both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer. 

AMENDE Honorable, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first 
an infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the 
offender was delivered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt was stripped 
off! a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he was then led into 
court, and was obliged to pray pardon of God, the king, and the country. Death 
or banishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used for 
making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party. 



AMM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 1 65 

AMERICA : See United States. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Geno- 
ese, better known as Christoplier Columbus, a.d. 1492, on the 11th of Octo- 
ber, on which day he came in sight of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands. 
This great navigator foimd the continent of America in 1497, and the east- 
ern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci (Americus Vespucius) in 1498 ; 
and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named. 



Newfoundland, the first British colony 
in this quarter of the world, discover- 
ed by Cabot, and by him called 
Prima Vista. .... 1497 

Virginia, the first English eettlement 
on the main land . . . 1607 



New England, the second, by the Ply- 
mouth company . . . 162( 
New York, settled by the Dutch . . 16H 
[For other occurrences, see Tabular 
Views — United Slates. See also 
separate states, Maine, &c. 



AMERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast 
portion of the Western World, had the largest and richest share of it. When 
they landed in Peru, a. d. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called 
Incas, who were revered bj' their subjects as divinities, but the3' were soon 
subdued by their invaders under the command of Francis Pizarro. The 
cruelties practised by the new adventurers wherever they appeared, will be 
a reproach to Spain for ever.* Spanish America has successfully asserted 
its freedom within the present century. It first declared its independence 
in 1810 ; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the 
people in July, 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending 
chiefs have been afflicting the coimtry, it has released itself from the yoke 
of Spain for ever. Its independence was recognized first by the United 
States, chiefly through the influence of H. Clay ; by England, in 1823, et seq. ; 
and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Bro,zil, Coloinhia, Lima, Peru, &c. 

AMERICAN LITERATURE. The American Almanac for 1840 gives a list of 
776 names of American authors who had died previous to that year. This 
did not include authors of mere iDamphlets, which would have swelled the 
number three-fold; but the "authorship " of many in the list was of very 
moderate amount or value. Of the 776 names, there were writers on Theo- 
logy, Sermons, &c., 259; Poetry, 57; History and Biography, 80 ; Politics 
and Law, 77. [In these numbers, writers on two or more of the subjects are 
repeated.] 

AMETHYSTS. Wlien this stone was first prized is not known ; it was the ninth 
in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name 
Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet color, and according 
to Plutarch, takes its name from its color, resembling wine mixed with water. 
One worth 200 rix dollars having been rendered colorless, equalled a dia- 
mond in lustre valued at 18.000 gold crowns. — De Boot Hist. Gemmarum. 
Amethysts were discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1755. — Burns. 

AMIENS, Peace of, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain ; the 
])reliminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawkesbmy and 
M. Otto, on the part of England and France, Oct. 1, 1801 ; and the definitive 
treaty was subscribed on March 27, 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for 
England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Scliitumelpen- 
ninck for Holland. 

AMMONITES. Descended from Ammon, the son of Lot; they invaded the 
land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated 

* I,as Casas, in describing the barbarity of the Spaniards while pursuing their conquests, records 
•nauy inslances of it that fill the mind with horror. In .lamaica, he says, they hanged the unrc- 
•sisting natives by thirteen at a time, in honor of the thirteen apostles! and he has beheld them 

hrow the Indian infants to their dogs for food! "I have heard them," says Las Oasa.s, "liorrcw 
'he limb of a human beiiior to feed their dogs, and have seen them the next day return a quarter ol 

iiiiiihin' victim to the lender!" 



1'66 THE world's progress. [ ANA 

by Jephthali, 1188 b. c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, 
with an intention to put out the right eye of all those they subdued, but 
Saul overthrew them, 1093 b. c. They were afterwards many times van- 
quished ; and Antiochus the Great took Rabboath their capital, and destroyed 
all the walls, 198 b. c. — Josephus. 

A MNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by 
Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expul- 
sion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends : 
having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with 
two branches of olive. 409 b. c. — Hume's Essays. 

AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL : Established at Thermopylae by Amphictyon, for 
the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, 
which was composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some cities 
of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 b. c. Other cities in process 
of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyons, 
and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty. 
— Suidas. 

.\MPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Caesar 
and Curio : the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former in 
full senate " Omnium mulierum virum, et omniuvi virorum mtdierem." In the 
Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the people 
assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhi- 
bitions ; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one 
of stone, under Augustus Caesar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built 
A. D. 79 ; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi- 
theatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. 

AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in a. d. 1100 ; and its 
building, as a city, was commenced about 1203. Its famous exchange was 
built in 1634 ; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest jjalaces in the world, 
in 1648 ; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that 
time. It is built upon 13,659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is, 
for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel 
in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince 
invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were 
admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was 
restored in November, 1813. See Holland. 

AMULETS, OR CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The 
Egyptians had a great variety; so had the .lews, Chaldeans, and Persians. 
Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the 
passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romans. — Plinv. 
Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were made of the Avood 
of the true cross, about a. d. 328. They liave been sanctioned by religion 
and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other sciences- 
witness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and 
sell amulets and charms even to this day. — Ashe. 

ANA BAPTISTS. This sect arose about a. d. 1525, and was known in England 
before 1549. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusi- 
asts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabap- 
tists of Munster (who are. of course, properly distinguished from the existing 
mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism was a contriv- 
ance of the devil that there is no original sin, that men have a free will in 
spiritual things, and otlier doctrines still more wild and absurd. Munster 
they called Mount Zi-on and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the 
king of Zi'^n. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and 



ANG ] DICTIOMAliy OF DATES. 167 

ttey, at length, rose in arms under pretence of gospel liberty. Munster was 
taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The 
anabaptists of England differ from other Protestants in little more than the 
not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the 
representatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689. 

ANACREONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, 
named after Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 b. c. The 
odes of Anacreon are much prized ; their author lived in a constant round 
of di unkenness and debauchery, and was choked bj^ a grape stone in his 
eighty-lifth year. — Stanley's Lives of the Poets. 

A N AGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence ; as from Mary, 
the name of the Virgin, is made army. On the question put by Pilate to our 
Saviour. " Q;idd est Veritas?" we have this admirable anagram, '-Est vir qui 
adest." The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in 
the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560. — HenauU. 

ANATHEMAS. The Avord had four significations among the Jews : the ana- 
thema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We 
bave a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (sec Joshua vi. 17). 
Anathemas were iised by the primitive churches, a. d. 387. t>uch ecclesias- 
tical den\mciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Eliza- 
beth's reign. — Rwpin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommunica- 
tion, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in Catholic 
countries to this day. — Aslie. 

ANATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philoso- 
phical investigations of Plato and Xenophon ; and it became a branch of 
medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 b. c. But Erasistratiis and Hero- 
philus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy: they were the fii-st 
to dissect the himian form, as anatomical research had been confined to 
brutes only : it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living 
criminals, about 300 and 293 b. c. In England, the schools were supplied 
with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves ; and, until lately, the bodies 
of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical 
plates were designed by Vesalius, about a. d. 1538. The discoveries of 
Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680. 
— Preind's History of Physic. 

A.NCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many 
of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great aus- 
terities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary pun- 
ishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being accept- 
able to God ; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and crimi- 
nal. The order first arose in the fourth century. 

ANCHORS J'OR SHIPS, are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the 
Tuscans — Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the 
Scj'thian. — Strabo. Anchors were first forged in England a. d. 578. The 
anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will 
weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost £450. — Phillips. 

ANEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was in- 
vented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind 
to be 93 miles per hour. See article Winds. 

ANGELIC KNIGHTS of ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, a.d. 450. The 
Angdici were instituted by Angelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople, 
1191 The Aiiicelica. an ->r(ler of n\iiis. was fmindcd at Milan bv Louisa 
Tordli. A. n 1534. 



168 THE world's progress. [ant 

ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Some 
will have it to have been at the same time with our world ; others, before 
all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. — Cavers 
Hist. Literat. The Jews had ten orders of angels ; and the popes have re- 
cognized nine choirs and three hierarchies. 

ANGELS, IN COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing 
four pennyweights, and was valued at 6s. Sd. in the reign of Henry VI., and 
at IO5. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient gold 
coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hands 
of the English, in the reign of Henry VI., 1431. — Wood. 

ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity ; allusion is made 
to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible, 
as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the 
Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's Treatyse of Fysshinge, the first book 
printed on angling, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's book Avas printed in 
1653. 

ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception was introduced oy father Hehl, at 
Vienna, about 1774 ; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had 
its dupes in England also, in 1789 ; but it exploded a few years afterwards. 
It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympa- 
thetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The eiiect on the 
patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features 
of the operator, he placing himself immediately before -the patient, whose 
eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagina- 
tion and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distor- 
tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. — Haydn. 

ANGLO-SAXONS, or ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a vil- 
lage near Sleswick, called Anglen, whose jiopulation joined the first Saxon 
freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a 
kingdom of the heptarchy, foimded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, 
Uffa, assumed the title of king, a. d. 575 : the kingdom ceased in 792. — See 
Britain.. 

ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the Hebrews, 
Greeks, and Latins : the ancient philosophers denied annihilation ; the first 
notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology. — Dr. 
Burnet. 

ANNO DOMINI ; in the year of our Lord ; used by the Christian world, and 
abbreviated a.d. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of 
our Saviotu' and is called the vulgar era ; first adopted in the year 525. See 
H-a. Charles III. of Germany was the first sovereign who added " in the 
, car of our Lord " to his reign, in 879. 
.. i'ARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north 
or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, and 
64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French 
and American Exploring Expeditions, under DTTrville and Wilkes, respec- 
tively on the same day, Jan. 19, 1840 ; a coincidence the more singular, as 
the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It was 
coasted by captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy, 
fell in with land, Avhich he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the 
year 1830. 

ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of 
people in the ancient woiid, or world as it existed previous to the Flood, 
reached to the enormous amount of 549.755 millions, in the year of the world 
1482, Burnet has .supposed that the first human pair might have left, at the 



I. 


10 


V. 


. 2,560 


IX. . 


. 655,360 


xni 


11. 


. 40 


VI. . 


. 10,240 


X. 


. 2,621,440 


XIV. 


ni. . 


. 160 


VII. . 


. 40,960 


XI. . 


10,485,760 


XV. 


IV. 


640 


vm. 


163,840 


XII. 


. 41,943,040 


XVI. 



ant] dictionary of dates. 169 

end of the first century, ten married couples ; and from tliese, allowing 
them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, would 
rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was capable 
of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only ; and 
then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centu- 
ries that preceded the Flood : — 

. 167,142,160 

671,088,640 
2,684,354,460 
10,737,418,240 

■ This calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen, 
by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the highest 
estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions. 

ANTHEMS, OR HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, and St. Ambrose, were 
the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century. — 
Lenglet. They were introduced into the church service in 886. — Baker. 
Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose 
into the Western church. Thej'' were introduced into the reformed churches 
in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the 
world. The Cyclops and Lestrygones are represented as man-eaters, by 
Homer ; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. 
Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of 
other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea 
Islands, &c. 

ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients 
to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and wo- 
men's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in 
eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes 
types for printing ; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to 
its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is suffi- 
cient to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's shop. — Boyle. 
We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various pro- 
cesses, about 1410. — Priestley. 

ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538. 
The Antinomians trust in the gospel, and not in their deeds; and hold 
that crimes are not crimes when committed by them, that their own good 
works are of no eft'ect; that no man should be troubled in conscience for 
sin, and other equally absurd doctrines. 

ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 b. c. In one 
day, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 b. c. In this city, once 
the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Chris- 
tians. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers 
attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation 
5492 years b. c. 

ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that anti- 
podes existed, about 368 b. c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of 
pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintain- 
ing this doctrine, a. d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east 
of New Zealand; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes 
Island. — Brookes. 

ANTIQUARIES, and ANTIQUE. The term antique is applied to the produc- 
tions of the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption 
of the Goths into Italy, in a. n. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have 
e.\isted in Ireland 700 venrsi;. r.: but tliis lias very little pretensions to 



170 THE world's progress. [ APO 

credit. A society was founded by archbisliop Parker, Camden, Stowe, and 
others, in 1572. — -Spelman. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for 
a charter, but lier death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from 
favoring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1751 it re- 
ceived its charter of incorporation from George II. It began to publish its 
discoveries, &c.. under the title of Archaologia, in 1770. The Society of 
Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780. 

ANTI-RENTISM. In Rensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New- York, 
an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer 
estates) to the demand for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846. 
See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases them 
from prison, Jan. 27, 1847- 

ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been 
the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the 
second century. This doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it 
was adopted by Ltelius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. — See Avians, Socini- 
ans, and Unitarians. 

-ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in a.d. 517. Its fine exchange built 
in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma, 
in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil wars 
caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The 
remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street, 
was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel duke of Alva, which 
lie had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war 
between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. In the late revolu- 
tion, the Belgian troo])S having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the 
Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, 
cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and sliells, doing immense mischief, 
Oct. 27, 1830. General Chass^ sun-endered the citadel to the French after 
a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgium. 

APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the Isle of Patmos, about 
A. D. 95. — Irencciis. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, 
and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many 
churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the 
sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other 
councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545, et seq. Rejected by 
Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from 
the time of Justin Slartvr, wlio wrote his first Apology for the Christians in 
A. D. 139. 

APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are 
neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." — Bible, 1539. The history 
of the Apocrypha ends 135 b. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon, 
but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged 
by the council of Trent, held in 1545, at seq. — Ashe. 

APOLLINARIANS, t^e followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who 
taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; that his 
flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent 
down from heaven, and convej^ed through the Virgin, as through a channel; 
that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c. 
Apollinarius was deposed for his opinions in a. d. 378. 

APOLLO, Temples of. Apollo, the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music, 
poetry, and eloquence, had temples and statues erected to him in almost 
every country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid 
temple was at Delphi, built 12G3 b, o.— See Delphi. His temple at Daphiiae, 



ara] dictionary of dates. 17'. 

built 434 B. c, during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt in a. d. 
362, and the Christians accused of the crime. — Lenglet. 

APOSTLE'S CREED. The summary of belief of the Christian faith, called the 
Apostle's Creed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while 
after their time. — Pardon. The repeating of this creed in public worship 
was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in the 
Roman church in the eleventh century ; whence it passed to the church of 
England at the period of the reformation, in 1584. 

APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; the 
second sect was founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, a. d. 
800. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled 
hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spirit- 
ual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the churck of 
Rome, and predicting its downfall. 

APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, oy which they 
raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the 
East were the first who paid divine honors to their great men, and the 
Romans followed their example, and not only deified the most prudent and 
humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate. — Herodian. 
This honor of deifying the deceased emperor was begim at Rome by Augus- 
tus, in favor of Julius Csesar, b. c. 18. — Tillemont. 

APPEAL OF MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of 
murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt 
or innocence. In 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have 
been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed 
his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed ; but the appellant 
(the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped, 
April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from oif the 
statute book, 59 George III., 1819. 

APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early 
business in England ; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they 
valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at 
the price appraised. 1282. 

APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, 
but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having 
introduced Januarius and Febniarlus before it 713 b. c. — Peacham. 

AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by 
Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the 
sacrament, and used nothing but Avater. 

AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct, 
which was therefore called the Appinn-ivay , about 453 b. c. Aqueducts of 
every kind were among the wonders of Rome. — Livy. There are now some 
remarkable aqueducts in Europe : that at Lisbon is of great extent and 
beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles 
long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in thr«e stories. The stupen- 
dous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 
126 feet high ; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805. 
_ \QUITAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of 
England, as descendants of William the Conqueror. It was erected into a 
principality in 1362, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke 
of Aquitaine was taken by the crowni of England on the conquest of thi,s 
duchy by Henry V. in 1418 ; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI. 

ARABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered ; the Arabians 
made no figure in history till A.n. 622. when, under the new nani(; of Sara- 



172 THE wopcLd's progress. [ab6 

cens. they followed Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and pro- 
phet, and made considerable conquests. — Priestley. 

ARBELA, Battle op. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the 
Great and Darius Codomanus, which decided the fate of Persia, 331 b. (;. 
The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 of foot and 40,000 horse; the 
Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse. — Arnan. 
The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, 
which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions ster- 
ling ; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed 
to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. — Plutarch. 

A RC ADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned them- 
selves of longer standing than the moon ; they were more rude in theii 
manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley 
surrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, as 
being more nutricious than herbs, their former food ; and for this discovery 
Ihey honored him as a god, 1521 b. c. Arcadia had twentj'-five kings, whose 
history is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were fond of militaiy glory, 
although shepherds ; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of 
other states. — Eustathlus. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by CEno- 
trus into Italy, 1710 b. c, and the country in which it settled was afterwards 
called Magna GrcEcia. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 b. c. — Idem. 

ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about a. d. 320. Atha- 
nasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly 
coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into 
England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-IJsk ; but 
soon after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Can- 
terbury, A. D. 596. 

ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England, 
and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest dea- 
con, who attended on the bishop, without any power ; but since the council 
of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest, 
though ancientlj!- it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to 
A. D. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity: an 
appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1532. 

ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the j^oet Clau- 
dian, from the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was 
offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was commu- 
nicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in the 
earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded 
by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Amphipolis, upon being slighted by 
Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at him. The arrow, on whicb 
was written "Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and 
Philip threw back the arrow with these words : "If Philip take the town. 
Aster shall be hanged." The conquei-or kept his word. 
ARCHERY IN England. It was introduced previously to a. d. 440, and Ha 
rold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bow.' 
of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings, in 1066 ; that which killed 
the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England 
in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy, 
Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won chiefly by archers. The usual range of 
the long-bow was from 300 to 400 yards. Robin Hood and Little John, 11 
is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand archers surrounded the 
houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Rich- 
ard II. 1397. — Slowe. The citizens of London were formed into companTea 
of archers in the reign of Edward III. : they wer(> formed into a corporate 



argJ dictionary of dates. 173 

body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VIII. 1538. 
— Noiihouk's History of London. 

ARCHES, Triumphal, are traced to the era of the Macedonian conquest by the 
best writers. The triumphal arches of the Romans form a leading featuro 
in their architecture. Those of Trajan (erected a. d. 114) and Constantino 
were magnificent. 

ARCHITECTURE was cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 b.c. Their 
King, Hiram, supplied Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials 
for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 b. g. The art 
passed to Greece, and from Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic came 
into vogue in the ninth century. The Saracens of Spain, being engaged 
during peace to build mosques, introduced grotesque carvings, &c., and the 
ponderous sublimity of bad taste ; which species is known hy elliptic arches 
and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from 
the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not 
fullj' revive till about the reign of James I. 1603. 

ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive govern- 
ment was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office con- 
tinues for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, is the first who obtained this 
dignity, 1070 b. c. 

ARCOLA, Battle op, between the French under general Biionaparte, and the 
Austrians imder field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of 
this bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the 
loss on the part of the Austrians of 12 000 men, in killed, wounded, and 
prisoners, four flags, and eighteen guns. 

ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and 
some bj^ Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first 
Englishman who attempted to find a north-west passage to China, a. d. 1576. 
Davis's expeditioji to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a 
number of similar adventurous voyages, Baffin, an Englishman, attempted 
to find a north-west passage, in 1616. See Baffin'' s Bay. For the subsequent 
and late expeditions of this kind, including among the latter those of Buchan, 
Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddon, Lyon, Back, &c., sqq North-West Passage. 

AREOPAGITjE. a famous council said to have heard causes in the dark, be- 
cause the judges were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. 
— Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Areos pagos, the 
Hill of Mars, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the mur- 
der of Hallirhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippa. Whatever 
causes were pleaded before them, were to be divested of all oratory and fine 
speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, and corrupt their judg- 
ment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions. 

ARGENTARIA, Battle of. One of the most renowned in its times, fought in 
Alsace, between the Allemanni and the Romans, the former being defeated 
by the latter with the loss of more than 35,000 out of 40,000 men, a. d. 378, 
— Dufresnoy. 

ARGON AUTIC EXPEDITION, undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of 
Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship 
in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned viith the 
figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason 
was for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition 
on record ; it made a great noise in Greece, and many kings and the first 
heroes of the age accomijanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its 
builder, 1263 b. c. — Dufresnoy. 

ARGOS. This kingdom v,-as founded by Inachus, 1856 b. c, or 1080 years be- 



174 THE world's PUOGRESS. [ AUK 

fore the first Olympiad. — Blair. Tlie nine kings from the founder were 
called Inachida, of whom the fourtli was Argus, and he gave his name to 
the country. When the Heraclida3 took possession of Peloponnesus, b. c. 
1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards a 
republic, and distinguished itself in all the Avars of Greece. — Euripides. 



Inachus founds the kingdom . b. c. 1856 
Phoroneus reigns sixty years . ISO'^ 

Apis reigns thirty-five years . . 1747 
The city of Argos built by Arsus, son 

ofNiobe 1711 

Criasus, son of Argus, succeeds his 

father, and reigns .... 1641 
Reign of Triopas; Polycaon seizes 
part of the kingdom, and calls it af- 
ter his wife, Messejiia . . 1552 
Reign of Crotopus .... 1506 
Sthenelus reigns .... 1485 
Gelanor is deposed by Danaus . . 1474 
Feast of the Flambeaux, in honor of 



Hypermnestra, who saved her hus- 
band, while her forty-nine sisters sa- 
crificed theirs. (See Flambeazix') B.C. 1425 
Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose hfe 
had been preserved by his wife, de- 
thrones Danaus .... 11425 
Reign of Abas . . . 13&1 

Reign of Proetus, twin-brother of Acri- 

sius 1361 

Belierophon comes to Argos; the pas- 
sion for him of Sthenoboea . . 1-361 
Rebellion of Acrisius .... IS'M 
Perseus leaves Argos. and founds My- 
ceax Ciohich see.) .... 1313 



Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, a. d. 1686. It was 
lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826. 
Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present 
and first king, January 25, 18-33. Sec Greece. 

ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny iLe 
divinity of Christ: they arose about a. d. 315. The Arians were condemned 
by the council of Nice, in 325 ; but their doctrine became for a time the 
reigning religion ia the East. It was favored by Constantine, 819. Carried 
into Africa imder the Vandals, in the fifth century, and into Asia under the 
Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence 
arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Serve- 
tus was burnt, 1553. — Varillas, Hist de I'Heresic. 

ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty. 
It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 e. c. The 
oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th. 8th, and 9th books of his 
Elements), about 300 b. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used 
A.M. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of 
Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine 
digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan — 
introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Spain, 1050^nto Eng- 
land, 1253. The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, 
is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented," 1482. First work printed in 
England on arithmetic {de Arte Suppidandi) was bj^ Tonstall, bishop of Dur- 
ham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier 
in his Rabdolngia, in 1617. 

ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being 
the place on which Noah's ark rested after the universal Deluge, 2347 b. c. 
But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck 
there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves : this 
place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in 
breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about 
a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told, 
three floors — the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for 
birds, and Noah's famil3^ It was not made like a ship, but came near the 
figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There was a 
door- in the first floor, and a great window in the third. 

ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase. 
It was made a separate territory in 1819. and was admitted into the TJnion 
in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves 



arm] 



DICTIONARY OP DATES. 



175 



ARMADA, The Invincible. The famous Spanish armament so called con- 
sisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 200C 
volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, 
July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and HowaKl. Ten 
fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put 
to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and 
Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral 
Howard maintained a I'umiing fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obliging 
the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm di.s- 
persed them, and the remainder of the armament retm-ned by the Nortli 
Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, 
and 5,000 men; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, 
and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. Tlie 
English lost but one ship. — Rapin, Carte, Hume. 

ARMAGH, See op, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by 
St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444. 

ARMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers, 
against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; but 
its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty 
ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent pow- 
ers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral 
bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British 
cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Den- 
mark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was 
obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of England to 
the empire of the sea ; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. 

A RMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347 
B. c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Ar- 
menia fell to the kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original wor 
shippers of fire : they also paid great veneration to Venus Anaitis, to whoso 
priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters, 
prior to marriage. — Martin's Mevwires sur L'Armenie. 



City of Artaxarta built . .B.C. 

Tigranes the Great reigns 

He is called to the throne of Syria, as- 
sumes the fastidious title of "King of 
Kings," and is served by tvibutaiy 
princes ..... 

Tigranes defeated by Lucullus 

Again defeated, and lays his crown at 
the feet of Pompey 

His son, Artavasdes, reigns 

Artavasdes assists Pompey against Ju- 
lius Caesar .... 

Artavasdes assists the Parthians against 
Marc Antony 

Antony subdues, and sends him loaded 
with silver chains to Egypt, to grace 
his triumph .... 

The Armenian soldiers crown Itis son, 
Artaxias .... 



35 



30 



Artaxias is deposed . . b. c. 

He is restored to his throne, and dies. — 

Blair 

Ueign of Venones . . a. d. 

Zenon reigns .... 
Tigranes IV. reigns . 
He is cited to Rome, and deposed 
Tiridates dethroned, and Roman power 

paramount in Armenia 
Armenia reduced to a Persian pi-ovince 

under Sapor 
Subdued by the Saracens 
Irruption of the Turks 
Agam made a Persian province, under 

Uffan Cassanes . . . 1472 

Subdued by Selim II. . . 1522 

Overrun by the Russians . . 1828 

Surrender of Erzeroum . July 1829 

(See iSyria.) 



1 

16 
18 
36 
37 

62 

365 
687 
755 



A RMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, a. d. 552 : the Ecclesiastical 
year on the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years 
and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 
10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their corre- 
spondence with Em-opeans. 

'^'ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a 
8s manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their 



l?t) IHE world's progress. [ ARM 

natural position and motion, tlie whole being comprised in a frame. It is 
said to have been invented by Eratostlienes, about 255 b. c. 
ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption, 
and generally espouse the principles of the Church of England: especially 
asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil powers. 
They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well as their necessity, in 
securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I. favored the doctrines of 
the Arminians ; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland 
and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Dort) in 1618, 
Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609. — Brandt. 
ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the 
twelfth century. They took their rise from the Imights painting their ban- 
ners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order 
at first to distinguish noblemen in battle a. d. 1100. The lines to denote 
colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum- 
biere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798 — and again in 1808. 
ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other defence ihan 
the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron 
armor, in plates or scales, followed. The first bodj^-armor of the Britons 
was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the 
weU-tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo- 
Saxon ej-a. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, a. d. 449. The heavy 
cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, Henry HI. 1216. Some horsemen 
had visors, and skull caps, same reign. Armor became exceedingly splendid 
about 1350. The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black armor, used, 
not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armor of Henry 
Vn. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. 
Armor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of 
Charles H. ofiicers Avore no other armor than a large gorget, which is commem- 
orated in the diminutive ornament known at the i^resent day. — Meijriclc. 
ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon; then followed the mace, 
battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient missiles 
were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the 
Phoenicians. See the various iveapons through the volume. 
ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of 
fighting men, 2017, b. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing 
army were formed by Saul, 1093 b. c. — Eusebius. One of the first standing 
armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The 
first standing army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in 
France by Charles "VH. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by 
Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles H. 
1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following 
armies : Spain 150.000 men ; Great Britain, 310.000 ; Prussia, 350,000 ; Tur- 
key, 450.000 ; Austria, 500,000 ; Russia. 560,000 ; and France, 680,000. 
g ARMY, BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United King- 
^ dom at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums voted 
for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary returcs and other ofiBcial 
records : 

1700, Time of war; troops of the line . . 

1800, War 

1810, War ; army, including foreign troops 

1815, Last year of the war . . . 

1820, Time of peace ; war incumbrances . 

1830, Peace 

In 1845, the army, of all ranks, numbered 100,011 men; and the sum voted 
was .£4,487,753. See Militia and Volunteers. 



amount 110,000 men . 


. sum voted JE7,847,000 


ditto 16S.000 men . 


. ditto 


17,973,000 


ditto 300,000 men . 


. ditto 


26,748,000 


ditto 300,000 men . 


. ditto 


39,150,000 


ditto 89,100 men . 


. ditto 


18,253,000 


ditto 89,300 men . 


. ditto 


6,991,000 



ASS J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 177 

ARTILLERY. The first piece was a small one, contrived by Sclawartz, a Ger- 
man cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery 
was used, it is said, by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of 
1341 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in 
1346, when Edward IIL had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the 
battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venitians first 
employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. — Voltaire. Cast in 
England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists in Sussex, 
1548. — Rymer's Fadera. Made of brass, 1685 ; improvements by Browne, 
1728. See Iron. 

ARTS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was 
composed of these seven liberal arts, namely — grammar, rhetoric, logic, 
arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society 
of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of 
Arts, to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, 
was instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and 
of its first president, lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition by the 
artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the rooms of this 
society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, the 
Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Art- 
ists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 
19,1824. — ^QQ British Museum; British Institution; National Gallery, <f-c. 

ARUNDELIAN MARBLES ; containing the chronology of ancient history from 
1582 to 355 B. c, and said to have been sculptured 264 b. c. They consist of 
37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the Isle of 
Paros, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord 
Arundel, and given to the university of Oxford, 1627. 'J'he characters are 
Greek, of which there are two translations: by Selden, 1628; by Prideaux, 
1676. — See Kidd's Tracts; and Parson's Treatise, 1789. 

ASCALON, Battle of ; in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Chris- 
tian forces, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other 
infidels. No less than 40,000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of 
battle ; and the victorious Richard marched to Jerusalem, a. d. 1192. — Rymer. 

ASH-WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent 
until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in a. d. 487, 
first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to complete the 
number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprink- 
ling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence the name of 
Dies Cinerum, or Ash-Wednesday: at the Reformation this practice was 
abolished, " as being a mere shadow, or vain show." 

ASIA ; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceanus 
and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world 
peopled ; here the law of God Avas first promulgated ; here many of the 
gi'eatest monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and from hence most of 
the arts and sciences have been derived. — Pardon. 

ASPERNE, Battle of, between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles, 
and the French, fought on the 21st May, 1809, and two following days. In 
this most sanguinary fight, the loss of the former army exceeded 20,000 
men, and the loss of the French was more than 30,000 : it ended in the defeat 
of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, and was the severest check that he 
had yet received. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and his retreat 
endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial efiect on 
the subsequent prosecution of the war. 

ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, formed by the earl of Ayles- 
bury and others to assassinate king William III,, near Richme- '. Surrej'', as 
8* 



178 THE world's progress. [ass 

he came from hunting. The object of the conspiracy was to have been con- 
summated February 15, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast. 
— Hist. Englayid. 

ASSASSINS. A tribe in Syria, a famous heretical sect among the Mahometans, 
settled in Persia, in a. d. 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land 
among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont- 
ferrat in 1192 ; they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; the khan of 
Tartary was murdered in 1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in 
1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assumed the 
title of'Aiicient of the Mountains." 

ASSDENTO. A contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for fur- 
nishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves. — Burke. It 
began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By the 
treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furnish 
4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. This contract was given up to 
Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guinea. 

ASSIGN ATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the 
revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At 
one period the enormous amount of eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions 
of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen- 
dencies. — Alison. 

ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the 
Virgin Mary, who, as the Catholics believe, was taken up to heaven in her 
corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, a. d. 45. Mary is reported to 
have been in her 75th j^ear. The festival is said to have been instituted 
in 813. 

ASSURANCE. Sec Insurance. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius 
ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Cfesar, a. d. 43. It is certain that assu- 
rance of ships was practised in the year 45. The first regulations concern- 
ing it are in the Lex Oleron, by which it appears to have been known in 
Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lombard-street was made a 
precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries ; but the 
first statute to prevent frauds from i^rivate assurers was made 43 Elizabeth, 
1601. — Molineaux^ s Lex Mercatoria. 

ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire — that of Bacchus 
wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the 
Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 b. c. It arose out of the 
union of two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter 
founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 b. c. When this last- 
named prince was conquered by Arbaces, he shut himself up in his palace, 
with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all 
perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assy- 
rians of Babylon, Nineveh, and the Median kingdom. — Lenglet. 

The tower of Babel built. — Genesis x. | Babylon and makes it the seat of her 

6 ; xi. 1. — Blair - - B.C. 2247 i dominion. — Lenglet , -_ b. o. 2017 

The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 
Astrononiical observations begun by 

the Chaldeans - - - 2234 

Belus reigns 55 years. — Usher ■ 2124 
Ninus, son of Bclus, reigns in Assyria, 

and names his capital after himself - 2069 
Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having 
subdued the Armenians, Persians, 
Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab- 
lishes what is properly the Assyrian 
monarchy, of which Nineveh was the 
seat of empire. — Blair - - 2059 

Semiramis enlarges and embellishes ' Nineveh taken by Arbaces - . 820 



Semiramis invades Libya, Ethiopia, 
and Lidia. — Lenglet • • ■ 1975 

Tlie Arabs seize Nineveh • - - 1937 

Belochus, the last king of die race of 
Ninus. — Blair ... - 1446 

He makes his daughter. Artossa, sur- 
named Semiramis 11., his associate 
on the throne - - - - l't33 

Belatoves reigns - - - . 1421 

* « « * » 

The prophet Jonah appears m the 
streets of Ninevela — Blair ■ ■ 840 



AST J 



THE world's progress. 



179 



ASSYRIA, Proper. After the destruction of the first Assyrian monarchy, Phul, 
the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 b. c, and 
the Idngdom continued until 621 b. c, when Sarac, or Sardanapalus II., being 
besieged by the Medes and Babylonians, put his wife and children to death, 
and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sardaf- 
napalus I. See preceding ai'ticU. Nineveh was then razed to the ground, 
and the conquerors divided Assyria. — Blair. It was finally conquered by 
the Turks in 1637 a. T).— Priestley. 



Pliul raised to the throne, about the 
year. — Blair ■ ■ b. c. 777 

He invades Israel, but departs without 
drawing a sword. — Blair; 2 Kings 
XV. 19, 20 - - - - 770 

Tiglath-Pileser invades Syria, takes 
Damascus, and makes great con- 
quests .... 740 

Shalmanezer takes Samaria, transports 
the people, whom he replaces by a 
colony of Cutheans and others, and 
thus finishes the kmgdom of Israel. 

—Blair 721 

.He retires from before Tyre, aftei- a 
siege of five years. — Blair - - 713 



Sennacherib invades Judea, and his ge- 
neral, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusa- 
lem, when the angel of the Lord in one 
night destroys 180,000 of hia army.— 
Isaiah xxxvii. - - b. o. 710 

[Commentators suppose that this mes- 
senger of death was the fatal blast 
known in eastern countries by the 
name of SamieL] 
Esar-haddon invades Judea, and takes 

Babylon.— Blair - - - 690 

He invades Judea — Blair - - - 677 

Holofernes is slain by Judith - - 677 

Saosduchinus reigns. — Usher • - 667 
Nineveh taken, and razed to the ground 621 



ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence 
was transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in 
vogue in France in the time of Catherine de Medicis, 1533. — Henault. The 
earty history of astrology in England is very little known : Bede was addicted 
to it, 700 ; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated 
the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she, and all the European princes, were the 
humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the 
Stuarts was the acme of astrology in England. — Sir Walter Scott has made 
ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this 
period ; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting 
his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. — Ferguson. 

ASTRONOMY. The earliest accounts we have of this science are those of 
Babylon, about 223i b. c. — Blair. The study of astronomy was much ad- 
vanced in Chaldfea under Nabonassur ; it was known to the Chinese about 
1100 B. c. ; some say many centuries before. Lunar eclipses were observed 
at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 b. c. Spherical form of the earth, 
and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 b. c. Further 
discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and 
believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 b. c. Hipparchtos began 
his observations at Rhodes, 167 b. c. — began his new cycle of the moon in 
143, and made great advances in the science, 140 b.c. The precession of 
the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discov- 
ered, hj Ptolemy , a. d. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during 
Avhich time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by the Arabs about 800 ; 
and was afterwards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, 
but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography. 



The Alphonsine tables {ichich see) were 
composed - - • a. d. 1284 

Clocks first used in astronomy, about - 1500 

True doctrine of the motions of the pla- 
netary bodies revived by Copernicus 1530 

The science greatly advanced by Tycho 
Brahe, about - - - - 1.5S2 

True laws of the planetary motions, by 
Kepler 1610 

Telescopes and other instruments used 
in astronomy, about - - - 1627 

The discoveries of Galileo were made 
about - - - ■ - 1631 



The transit of Venus over the sun's disk 

first observed by Horrox, Nov. 24 a. d. 1639 
Cassini draws his meridian line, after 

Dante. — See Bologna ■ ■ - 1655 

The aberration of the light of the fixed 

stars discovered by Horrebow - 1C59 

Discoveries of Picart - - - 1669 

Map of the moon constructed by Heve- 

hus 167C 

Motion of the sun round its own axis 

proved by Halley - - - 1676 

Discoveries of Huygens - - . 1686 

Newton's Principia published, andth* 



180 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[ ATH 



ASTRONOMY continued. 

system as now taught incontrovertibly 
established - - - a. d. 1687 

Catalogue of the stars made by Flam- 
stead' 1688 

Satellites of Saturn, &c. discovered by 
Cassini 1701 

Aberration of the stars clearly explained 
by Dr. Bradley . - - - 1737 

Celestial inequalities found by La 
Grange 1780 

Uranus and satellites discovered by 



Ilerschel, March 13.— See Georgium 

Sidus - - - -1781 

Mecanique Celeste, published by La 

Place 1796 

Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan. 1 - 1801 
Pallas, by Dr. Gibers, March 28 ■ 1802 

Juno, by Hardine, Sept. 1 • - - 1804 

Vesta, by Gibers" - - - 1807 

Neptune, by Le Verrier - - - 1S46 

United States astronomical expedition 

to the South Hemisphere, under Lieut. 

Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - - 1849 

The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 times greater from 
us than we are from the sun, that is to say, 38 millions of millions of miles ; 
so that a cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one of 
them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course 
thither. As light takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from 
the sun, it would be about six j'ears in coming from one of those stars ; but 
the calculations of later astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, that 
their light must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that every par- 
ticle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes from three or four 
hundred years ago. — Objects of Science. 

ASYLUMS, OR Privileged Places. At first they were places of refuge for 
those who, bj^ accident or necessity had done things that rendered them 
obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build certain cities for 
this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Athens, 
to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus 
built one at Thebes, aud Romulus one on Mount Palatine. A while after the 
coming of Christianity into England, superstitious veneration ran so high, 
that churches, monasteries, church-yards, and bishops' houses became asy- 
lums to all that fled to tliem, let the crime be what it would ; of which very 
ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons were 
secure from arrest in particular localities : these were the Minories, Salis- 
bury-court, Whitefriars, Fulvvood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, 
the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. This 
security was abolished a. d. 1696 ; but the last was not wholly suppressed 
until the reign of George L — See Privileged Places and Sanctuaries. 

ATHAN ASIAN CREED and CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regard- 
ing the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between a. d. 833 and 351. 
Athanasius, who was a native of Alexandria, encountered great persecution 
at the hands of the Arians for his religious doctrines, and was exiled for 
them again and again. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by 
most authorities to have been written about the year 340 ; but it is aflBrmed 
by other writers to be the compilation of an African bishop in the fifth cen- 
tury. — Du Pin. 

ATHEISM. This absurd doctrine has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spi- 
^ nosa, a foreigner, was its noted defender in the 17th century. Lucilio Vanini 
publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Tou- 
louse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and 
had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled 
to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienciares, because 
they held that there is no other deity than conscience. Many eminent men 
of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in England 
we have had writers tinctured with it. — Richardson. Ashe. "Though a small 
draught of philosophj' may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will 
certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God." — Lord Bacon. " S' 



ATT ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 181 



Dieu n^existait pas il faiidrait Vinventcr :" If a God did not exist, it would 
be necessary to invent one. — Voltaire. 

ATHENjEA. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of 
Minerva. One of them was called Panathenjea, and the other Chalcea ; 
they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 b. c. ; and Theseus 
afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people 
of Athens, the first every fifth year, 1234 b. c. — Plutarch. 

ATHENiEUM. A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and 
philosophers declaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated 
Athensa were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons : that of Rome was of great 
beauty ia its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, a. d. 125. — 
Tillemont's Life of Adrian. 

ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ancient Attica, whose magnificent 
ruins yet attest its former grandeur — the seat of science and theatre of valor. 
The first sovereign of whom we have any knowledge is Ogyges, who reigned 
in Bceotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge 
took place (by some supposed to be no other than the universal deluge, or 
Noah's flood) that laid waste the country, in which state it remained twc 
hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by 
whom the land was repeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 b. c. The first 
state of Athens was under seventeen kings, comprising a period of 487 years, 
but the history of its first twelve monarchs is mostly fabulous ; in its second 
state it was governed by thirteen perpetual archons, a period of 316 years ; in 
its third state by seven decennial archons, whose rule extended over 70 years, 
and, lastly, in its fourth state by annual archons, who ruled for 760 years. 
Under this democracy Athens became unrivalled, and her people signalized 
themselves by their valor, munificence, and culture of the fine arts ; and 
perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, in such a short 
space of time, of so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients, to 
distinguish Athens in a more peculiar manner, called it Astat, one of the ej'^es 
of Greece. — Plutarch. The Venetians got possession of Athens in a. d. 1204, 
and the Turks in 1687. — Priestley. It became the capital of Livadia, a pro- 
vince of European Turkey; and is now that of the new kingdom of Greece, 
and the seat of its legislature, established under King Otho I., January 25th, 
1833. — See Greece. For events in the history of Athens, see Tables from 
B. c. 1556 to B. c. 21. 

ATMOSPHERE. Posidonius first calculated the height of the atmosphere, 
stating it to be 800 stadia, nearly agreeing with our modern ideas, about 79 
B.C. Its weight was determined by Galileo and Terricellius, about 1630; 
its density and elasticity by Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by 
Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The composition of the atmosphere was 
ascertained by Hales, Black, Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; 
and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. 

ATTAINDER, Acts of, have been passed in numerous I'eigns : two witnesses 
ia cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, 
unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 William III^ 
1694-5. — Blackstone. The attainder of-Lord Russell, who was beheaded in 
Lincoln's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689. 
The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king 
James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were 
reversed ia subsequent reigns. Among the last acts so reversed, not the least 
interesting was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who 
was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819. 

A-TTILA, surnamed the " Scourge of God" and thus distinguished for his con- 
quests and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, \. d. 447. He invaded the Ro- 



1 82 THE world's progress. [ Airo 

man empire with an army of 500.000 Huns, and laid waste all the provinces. 
He died on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named Ildico, 
about A. D. 453. — Goldsmith. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A great officer of the cromi, appointed by letters 
patent. It is among his duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute for 
the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims 
concerning the crown, in inheritance or profit ; and others may bring bills 
against the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was William de 
Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278. — Bcatson. 

ATTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward III.'s reign was under 400 
for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI. 1454, a law reduced the 
practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and 
restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in Eng- 
land, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and 
practising or retired in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527 ''practis- 
ing lawyers" in the United States is given in the Lawyer's Directory, 1850. 

ATTRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite 
which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1520. It was 
described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In 
the Newtonian philosophy, it is an original power which restores lost motion ; 
a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other. — See Astronomy. 

AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was 
about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of 
the goods he had brought home with him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779. 

AUERSTADT, Battle op. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French 
and Prussian armies, they were commanded by their respective sovereigns, 
and Napoleon obtained a decisive victory. The Prussians were routed on 
every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 pri- 
soners, leaving 30,000 slain upon the field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French 
emperor immediately afterwards entered Berlin, from whence he issued his 
meiuorable Berlin decree. — See Berlin Decree. 

AUGSBURG CONFESSION or FAITH. The confession of articles of faith 
drawn up at Augsburg by Melancthon, and by him and Luther presented to 
the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first 
consisting of twenty-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed 
to the abuses that had crept into the Church of Rome. The elector of Sax- 
ony, his son, and several other princes of Germany, signed this confession, 
which was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augs- 
burg, and hence it is called the Confession of Augsburg. 

AUGSBURG, League of. A memorable treaty concluded between Holland 
and other European powers, which had for its object the causing the trea- 
ties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respected, 16"86. — See Munster and Ni- 
vieguen. 

AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, 
long before the time of Hesiod. Augurs instituted at Rome, with vestals 
' and several orders of the priesthood, by Numa, 710 b. c. There was a com- 
niimit}^ of them, appointed to foretell events by the flight of birds, and 
other circimistances. The king Car, from whom Caria in Asia Minor is 
named, was the inventor of augury by birds.— Fossms. The augurs of 
Rome drew omens from the phenomena of the heavens, the chirping and 
flight of birds, and various strange casualties. — Livy. 

AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honor of 
Augustus Cfesar, from whom it was named in the year b b. c, because in 
tliis month lie was born, was created consul, or chief magistrate, thrice 



AUiS ] DICTIONAllY OF DATES. 183 

triumplied in Rome, subdued Egypt to tlie Roman empire, and made an 
end oif the civil wars. It was previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from 
March. 
AUSTERLITZ, Battle of, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by 
the former. Three emperors commanded at this battle, Alexander of Rus- 
sia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded 
exceeded 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards, 
150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive vic- 
tory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was signed Dec. 26, 
same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2, 1805. See Presburg. 
AUSTRALASIA, includes New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, 
New Britian, New Zealand, &c., mostly discovered Avithin two centuries. 01 
a population of twentj'-two millions, the native inhabitants are not supposed 
to exceed one hundred thousand. Several settlements from Europe have 
been made since the commencement of the present century. Act to pro- 
vide for the government of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act 
to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834. 
New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 1835. Several companies and institutions con- 
nected with Australia have lately been formed in London. 
AUSTRIA, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken from Hun- 
gary and annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, about a. d. 
1040. This was after Charlemagne had re-established the Western Empire, 
Austria being a part of what was called Eastern France, which its name in 
the German language implies. 

Rodolpli, count of Hapsburg, seizes The emperor issues his declaration 

Austria from Bohemia, and makes against France - - Aug. 5, 180f 

himself archduke - - - 1273 Napoleon, after many victories, enters 

Revolt of Switzerland from the house Vienna - - - Nov. 14, 1S03 

of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. -1307 Vienna evacuated by the French, 
Albert II. duke of Austria, succeeds to Jan. 12, 18116 

three crowns — the imperial, and They again capture it - May 13, 1809 

those of Hungary and Bohemia ; his But restore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809 

family still possess the empire, - 1438 Napoleon marries the archduchess 
Burgundy accrues to Austria by the | Maria Louisa, the daughter of the 

marriage of Maximilian with the l emperor - - April 1, 1810 

heiress of that province . -1477 Congress at Vienna - Oct. 2, 1814 

Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip Treaty of Vienna . Feb. 25, 1815 

I. of Austria with the heiress of Ara- Death of Francis I., and accession of 

gon and Castile - - - 1496 Ferdinand - - March 2, 183"> 

Charles V., reigning over Germany, New treaty of commerce with England 

Austiia, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, July 3, 1833 

the Netherlands, and their dependen- Ferdinand is crowned with great splen- 

cies, abdicates, and retires from the dor at Milan - - Sept.-6, 1838 

world, leaving his German dominions Tumult at Vienna, agitation for re- 

to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain forms; Metternich resigns and flies; 

andthe Netherlands to his son, Philip _ freedom of the press and national 

II. — See Spain - ■ ■ 15u7 guard granted by the emperor 

The Protestant princes of Germany, March 13, 1648 

being oppressed by the house of Aus- ; The emperor publishes, at Milan, abo- 

tria, call in theaid of Gustavus Add- i lition of the censorship and conven- 

phus of Sweden, and this leads to the tion of the states; the people demand 

treaty of Westphalia - - - 1648 ^ more, and are refused March 18, " 

Leopold I reigns. — See Gennany -1658 Blilan revolts, and contends successfully - 
Accessionof Francis, duke of Lorraine, i with the soldiery - March 23, " 

■who marries the celebrated queen of | Austrians retire to Mantua; Milan en- 

Hungary, Maria Theresa, daughter of : tered by Charles Albert of Sardinia 

the decea,=ed emperor, Charle's VI. - 1745 Blarch 23, " 

Reign of Joseph II. - - -1765 Lombardy and the Tyrol in rebellion 

Religious toleration granted - - 1776 March, " 

The emperor controls the pope - 1782 The emperor retires to Innsbruck 

Reign of Leopold n. - - - 1790 : May IS, " 

Reign of Francis II. ... 1792 1 Austrian army under Radetsky holds in 

Austria becomes a distinct empire, and ' check Charles Albert of Sardinia, in 

Francis II. of Germany takes the title Lombardy - - May — " 

of I. of Austria • Aug. 9, 1804 Is defeated and driven to Mantua May 29, " 



184 THE world's PROGRESfe. [ AZO 

AUSTRIA, contimied. 

Diet of the Croatian-Slavonic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates ; his brother, 

summoned by the Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne ; 

May 20, 1848 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph 
Insurrection at Rome ; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 1846 

blished after bombardment, June 12-15 " The emperor gives a new constitution 
Vicenza and Padua subdued by Ra- IMarch 4-6, 1849 

detsky - - - June " Haynau takes Brescia, after great 

Milan retaken • - Aug. 4, " slaughter, and sacks it March 30, 

The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, after a siege of 8 days 
Insurrection at Vienna ; Count Latour, May 16, 

minister of war, killed by the mob; Haynau takes command of the Aus- 

tlie diet demands the retraction of the trian army in Hungary June — , 

measures against Hungary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardment 

new ministry; the emperor flies June 11, 

Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, 

The Hungarian army advanced within Hungarian war finished by the surren- 

six miles of Vienna - Oct. II, " derofGorgey - Aug. 11, " 

Prince Windischgratz appointed com- Followed by numerous executions. 

mander-in-chief, Oct. 16 ; and be- See Germany, Vienna, &c. 

sieges Vienna, 17th ; bombards the 

city and masters it Nov. 2, " 

Before the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, Fran- 
cis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of 
Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germanic 
Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was declared hereditary head 
of that body. 

AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright, see Copyright and Literary Property. 

AUTO DA FE. See Inquisition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of 
a heretic. This is called an act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ; 
and since its first practice in a. d. 1203, more than one hundred thousand 
victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the Inquisitions of Roman 
Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last executions of this 
kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Christian rehgion (!) and in 
vindication of the Catholic faith, twenty sufferers perished in the flames, 
1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain. — Aslie. 

AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat 
was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several 
times by the French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was 
restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to 
France by the National Assembly, 1791. Horrible massacres in October of 
that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815. 

AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and vari- 
ous others of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to 
have been invented by Dsedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is 
ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 b. c. 

AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ata- 
lantis : they were discovered by Vandenburg, a. d. 1439 ; and were settled 
by the Portuguese, in 1448. Martin Behem found one of them covered with 
beech-trees, and he called it therefore Fayal; another abounding in sweet 
flowers, and he therefore called it Flores; and all full of haAvks, and he 
bherefore named them the Azores. A violent concussion of the earth took 
place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757. 
Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's destroyed 
the town of Ursuhna, May, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St. 
Michael's in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island 
called. Sabrina gradually disappeared, Dec. 1812. 



BAC] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 185 

B. 
BABEL, THE Tower of, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 b. c. Tiie temple of 
Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the 
world; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one 
of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of 
the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scriptures), who was deified 
after death ; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither 
the priests daily conducted a female, who, as they pretended, was there 
honored with the company of the god. — Blair. 
BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth, 
for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Bab- 
ington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of his 
own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the 
queen, and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to 
this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Marj'^, in gratitude, would 
accept of him as a husband. 1586. 
BABYLON, Empire of, founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of holy 
writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 b. c.^ — Lenglet. Ninus of 
AssjTia seized on Babylon, and established what was j^i'operly the Assy- 
rian empire, by uniting the two soveicignties, 2059 e.g. According to 
Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years ; according to Justin, 1300 years ; 
according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has 
adopted the first, which calculates from the tbundation of the empire by 
Ninus, B.C. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was de- 
throned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Baby- 
lonian, and Median kingdoms. 820 b. c. — See Assyria. 
The tower of Babel built - b. c. 2247 
The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 

Ashur builds a city, afterwards called 

Nineveh - - -2245 

The astronomical observations are be- 
gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans. — 
Blair ; Lenglet - - ■ 2234 

Belus, kmg ol" Assj'ria, extends his em- 
pire over the neighboring states, de- 
feats the Babylonians, and makes 
them tributary. — Usher - -2124 

Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, I Taken by Darius. — Usher - - 511 

The city of Babylon Avas, anciently, the most magnificent in the world; and 
in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidas. Its 
greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it 
was but a desolate wilderness ; and at pi-esent the jjlace where it stood is 
scarcely Imown to travellers. — Rollings Ancient Hist. 

BACCHANALIA, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in 
Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called 
Diouysia, about 1415 b. c. — Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome under 
the name of Bacchanalia. 

BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on immarried 
men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at 
certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars, 
and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. — Vossius. After 
twenty-five years of age, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England. 12^. lO.";. 

ii[ _iov a duke, and for a common person, one shilling, 7 William III. 1695. 
Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male and female servants, 
in 1785. 

BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game 
(decidedly one of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 e. c. It ia 



and names his capital after himself, 
Nineveh. — Lenglet ■ - B. c. 2069 

Babylon taken by Ninus - - - 2059 

The Assyrian empire ends - - 820 

Belesis governs in Babylon - - 766 

Babylon taken by Esar-haddon - - 680 
Nebuchadnezzar reigns - - - 604 

He takes Jeru.=alem. —Lenglet - - 587 
He is driven from among men - - 569 

Babylon taken by the Medes and Per- 
sians, under Cyrus - - - 538 



186 THE world's progress. [bri 

stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the period preceding the 
Conquest. — Henry. 

BADAJOS, Siege of. This important barrier fortress had surrendered to the 
French, March 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wel- 
lington on Marcli 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following. 
This victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, birt it 
obliged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder, 
to commence a precipitate retreat from that kingdom. 

BADEN, House of, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zah- 
ringen, who died a. d. 1074. From Christopher, who united the branches 
of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden- 
Baden, and Baden-Dourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in 
the annals of Germany, and is allied to all the principal fatnilies in the empire. 

BADEN. Treaty of, between France and the emperor, when Landau was 
ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a margravate ; it 
was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish-Confederation, 
in 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France, were gua- 
ranteed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted his 
people freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jurj^, and the right 
of public meeting, Feb. 29. Troops revolt at Rastadt, May, 1849. Insur- 
rection at Carlsruhe ; — the grand Duke Hues, May 13, 1849. Insurrection 
subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849. 
BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The 
nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions 
of Ross and Parrj^ proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his state- 
ment. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article North Wed 
Passage. 
BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, a. d. 
762 — taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It 
has since been often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the 
Tui'ks. — Blair. 
BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and 
Scotland ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece of 
Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, now in Rome, is represented a 
bagpiper dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played 
upon a bagpipe, a.d. 51. 
BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus. 
San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on the night of the 11th Octo- 
ber, 1492. — The Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667. Seized 
for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited them sur- 
rendered to Captain Rogers. 
-BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all felonies 
were bailable, till murder ^\■as excepted by statute ; and by the 3d Edward 
I. the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken 
away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI. ; 2 Philip and Slary 
and in later reigns. 
BAILIFFS OR SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its sMre- 
reve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for 
counties in Engknd in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the 
name of bailifis, in 1308; and the name was changed to sheriff 1548. There 
are still some places where the chief magistrate is called bailiff, as the high 
bailiff of Westminster. The term Bimi-ba.illffis a corruption ofbormd-bailiff, 
every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good he- 
ha.vior. -^Bladstone. 



BAL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 1 87 

BALANCE OP POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and 
control ambition ; the principle is said to he a discovery of the Italian poli- 
ticians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France— 
Robertson. By the treaty of Munster, the principle of a balance of power 
was first recognized by treaty October 24, 1648. 

BALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons.— 
Turner. Andhelme, who died a. d. 709, is mentioned as the first who intro- 
duced ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, that those might 
sing who could."— .Bciie. Alfred sung ballads.— iWaZOTsiwrT/. Canute com- 
posed one..— Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV. ; 
but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues, 
vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. — Viner. 

BALLADS, NATIONAL. "Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may 
make the laws." — Fletcher of Saltoun. A British statesmaB has said, " Give 
me the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at your com- 
mand every other species of composition, I will fix public opinion, and rule 
public feeling, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all 
your writers, political and moral can do by any other agency or influence." 
The beautifal and frequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those 
of the sea, inspired many a brave defender of his country in the late war ; 
Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833. 

BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One 
performed at the interview between Hen. Vlll. of Eng. & Francis I. of France, 
in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520.— Guicciardini. In the next century, 
they reached the summit of their glory in the splendid pomps of the courts 
of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore 
a part in one, 16G4. 

BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave 
. the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by 
MM. Montgolfler, in 1783, whenRozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended 
at Paris. Pilatre Desrozier and M. Romain perished in an attempted voyage 
from Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken fire, June 14, 1785. At 
the battle of Fleurus" the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the 
enemy's army, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794. 
Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4,000 feet, and descended by 
a parachute. Sept. 21. 1802. Gaj'-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of 
23,000 feet, Sept. 6. 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night, 
and the balloon, being surrounded by fire-works, took fire, and she was pre- 
cipitated to the grormd, and killed, July 6, 1819. 

BALLOON, The Nassau. The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions, 
and wliicli had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants 
of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that 
place on an experimental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and, 
after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the 
duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836. 

BALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United 
States ; founded 1729 ; named from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the 
Maryland patent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses ; chartered as a city 
in 1797. Population in 1790, 13 508 ; in 1810, 35,583 ; in 1830, 80,625 ; in 
1840, 102,313, including 3,199 slaves. A handsome monument in the city 
commemorates its successful defence against the attack of the British under 
general Ross, Sept. 12, 1814. 

BALTEVIORE, Battle of, between the British army under general Ross and 
the Americans ; the British in making an attack r;pon the town were unsuc- 



l88 THE world's progress. [ BAN 

cessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss; 
the gallant general who led the enterprise was killed, Sept. 12, 1814. 

BANK. The first established was in Italy, a. d. 808, by the Lombard Jews, pf 
whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still 
reside. The name bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected 
in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the tower of 
London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles I. 
laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the mint, in 1640. 
The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, 
which, when kept at home, their apprentices freqiiently absconded with to 
the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths 
in Lombard-street, who were'provided with strong chests for their own valu- 
able wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England. — 

Bank of Venice formed - - - 11.57 i Bank of Hamburgh - -1619 

Bank of Geneva - • - 134.5 Bank of Rotterdam • • 1635 

Bank of Barcelona - - - 1401 Bank of Stockholm • • -1688 

Bank of Genoa - - - 1407 Bank of England - • - •'694 

Bank of Amsterdam - • - 1607 I Bank of the United States • 1791 and 1816 

BANK OF ENGLAND. (See preceding article,) originally projected by a mer- 
chant named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in con- 
sideration of 1.200 000/., the then amount of its capital, being lent to gov- 
ernment. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up 
to the present time as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same 
authority has also at difterenfc intervals prolonged the privileges of tlie bank, 
and renewed its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were 
at 20 per cent, discount ; and so late as 1745, they vf&ve under par. Bank 
bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ; 
small notes were issued 1759 ; cash payments were discontinued February 25, 
1797, when notes of one and kco pounds were put into circulation. Silver 
tokens appeai-ed in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, with the 
head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV., were made current. 
Cash payments were resumed partially, Sept. 22, 1817, and the restriction 
had altogether ceased in 1821. For a number of years the financial mea- 
sures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reser- 
voir of wealth. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in cir- 
culation is as follows : — 

In 1718 (earliest account) - ^61,829,9.30 
1778 . - . . 7,030,680 
1790 - - - - 10.217.000 
1800 .... 15;450,000 
1810 - - - - 23,904,000 

The circulation of notes, in 1845, exceeded 27 millions, and the bullion in 
the bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 millions. The returns of issues, &c. 
are now made weekly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted, 
" that no other banking company should consist of more than sis persons," 
6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many of 
the chief towns of the kingdom ; as Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Glouces- 
ter, Hall, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c., 
all formed since 1828. See Funds. 
BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, first one established 1791. Cap. S10,000,000. 
—A new one with cap. of $35,000,000, 1816. The act of Congress rechar- 
tering it vetoed by president Jackson, July 10, 1832. The "removal of 
the deposits " of the U. S. government from the bank, by order of presi- 
dent Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of the Treasury, (W. J. 
Duane the late secretary having refused to sign the order,) Sejit. 23, 1833. 
Resolution of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for, and the respon- 
sibility assumed by the president unconstitutional, &e., introduced by Mr 



In 1815 .... £26,803,520 

1820 . • - - 27,174,000 

1830 - - - - 20,620,000 

1835 - - - - 18,215,220 

1840 - - - - 17,231,000 



BAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 189 

Webster and passed (26 to 20) March. 28, 1834. Senate refused to enter on 
tlieir journal the pi'esident's protest against their resolution, May 7, 1834, 
Noted resolution of the Senate "expunging" from their journals their reso- 
lution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837.— Sub-Treasury Bill passed 
Jan. 1840, repealed Aug. 9, 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by 
Pennsylvania, March 29, 1836 : suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill for 
establishing a " Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the House of Representa- 
tives Aug. 6, 1841 ; vetoed by president Tyler Aug. 16. Another bill for a 
"Fiscal Corporation" vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of all 
the Cabinet, except Mr. Webster. 

BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New Eng- 
land and New- York, May 10 — 16, 1837 ; — legalized for one year by legisla- 
ture of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended same 
month. General bankruptcy law passed bj'' Congress Aug. 9, 1841. 

BANKRUPTS, in England, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry VIE. 
1543. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560 ; again, I'james I. 1602 ; again, 1706 ; 
and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt 
may be arrested except in going and coming from any examination before 
the commissioners. May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused 
a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five poimds at one time in 
gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of commons 
becoming bankrupts, and not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their 
seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt court, 
passed October 1831. — Slatules at Large. 

NUMEEE OP BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 

1700 - • - - 38 I 1800 - - - 1339 I 1830 - - 1467 

1725 - - - . - 416 I 1810 - - - - 2000 1835 - - - 954 

1750 - - - - 432 1820 - - - 1358 1840 - - 1308 

1775 520 I 1825 - - - - 2683 | 1844 - - - 1064 

According to a return to parliament made at the close of February 1826. 
there had become bankrupt in the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses, 
comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been 
declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy 
to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. 
This was, however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented 
commercial embarrassment and ruin. ~ 
BANNOCKBURN, B.\ttle of, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and 
Edward II. of England ; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and 
that of Edward of 100,000 English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The 
English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which 
he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The 
rout was complete, the king narrowlj'^ escaping, and 50,000 English were 
killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314. — Barbour. 

BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing, 
and hence arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. 
The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been introduced into the Galil- 
ean church, about a. d. 1210; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in llic 
church of England to this day. 

BAPTISM. The sacrament of admission instituted by Christ and practised liy 
all sects professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John, the forerunner 
of our Saviour, is eminently called the Baptist, as being the first that publicly 
baptized with a spiritual intention. Christ came from Galilee to Jordan, 
and was baptized by John. a. d. 30. Originally the people were baptized in 
rivers; but in the reign of Constantino, a. d. 319, in great cities they buiit 
chapels, or ]jlacfs si)ecially to baptize in \\liiih in the eastern conntrii-s was 



190 THE world's Progress. I^as. 

by dipping the person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they 
use sprinkling ; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it ; 
onr fonts answer the same end. — Pardon. 

BAPTISTS, OR Anabaptists, a sect distinguished from other Christians by their 
opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about a. d. 1525, but much 
earlier dates are mentioned. They suffered much persecution in England in 
the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 
1635. Of Baptist missions, it may be said, that the Moravian brethren led 
the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732. — See Anabaptists. 

BARBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother 
plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605 ; and was, 
with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to the earl of Marl- 
boroiigh, 2 Charles 1. 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental 
visitations : in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabit- 
ants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroyed, 
by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every 
thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two 
great fires. May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thou- 
sands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831. 
The history of Tiikle and Yarico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has re- 
corded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island. 

BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century b. c. In 
England, barbers formerly exhibited a head, or pole, at their doors ; and the 
barber's pole until lately used by them was a burlesque imitation of the 
former sign. 

BARBER-SURGEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that 
of a barber, and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company was 
formed under this name in 1308, and the London company was incorporated, 
1st Edward IV. 1461. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute 
of Henry VIII. 

BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great^ lustre in Gaul, Britain, 
and Ireland. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; Alexander the 
Great had a bard named Cherylus ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, 
among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The druids among the 
English were philosophers and priests, and the bards were their poets. 
Thej' were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almost 
down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century, Merlin in 
the fifth. The former speaks of a prince who kejDt a hundred bards. Irish 
sonnets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. — See 
Ballads. 

BARNET, Battle of, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when Ed- 
ward IV. gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of War- 
wick, Easter-daj^, April 14, 1471. — Brooks. 

BAROMETERS. Torricelli. a Florentine, having discovered that no principle 
of suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump owing to nature's 
abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and 
made the first barometer, in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomena. 
Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668 ; pendant barometers in 1695 ; 
marine in 1700. 
\RONS. The dignitj'- of baron is extremely ancient: its original name in 
England was Vavasour, which, by the Saxons was changed into Thane, and 
by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are named in the his- 
tory of England and unfloubtedly had assisted in. or had been summoned 
to parliament; b)it such is tlie deficiency of public records, that the first 



bat] dictionary of dates. 191 

precept to be found is of no higher date than tlie 49th Henry III., 1265. The 
first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John de JBeauchamp, 
created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. Barons first sum- 
moned to parliament, 1205. Took arms against l^;ing John, and com- 
pelled him to sign the gi-eat charter of our liberties, and the charter of the 
forests, at Runnymcde, near Windsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a 
coronet to barons on his restoration : they attended parliament in complete 
armor in the reign of Henry III. — Beatson. 

BARONETS, the first among the gentrj', and the only knighthood that is here- 
ditary : instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created 
in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625. 

BARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. 
about 1291 ; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in Eng- 
land. There are various ranks of barristers, as King's Counsel, Ser- 
geants, &c. 

BARROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Mel- 
ville Island, in lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 118° 47' W. The strait was entered 
on the 2d August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55° 
below zero of Fahrenheit. 

BARTHOLOMEW, Massacre of St. This dreadful massacre in France com- 
menced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. BartholomeAV, August 24, 
1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were 
murdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at 
the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother. 
The masaacre was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even 
as regarded the female and the inlant. 

BASTILE OP PARIS. A roj-al castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in 
1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383. 
It was afterwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and be- 
came the scene of the most deplorable suftering and frightful crimes. It 
was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran array assailed it in 
vain in the siege of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated France 
between the years 1587 and 1594; yet it was piilled down by the infuriated 
populace, July 14. 1789, and thus was commenced the French revolution. 
On the capture of this great monument of slavery, the governor and other 
ofllicers were seized, and conducted to the Place de Greve, and having had 
their hands cut off, they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having 
fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets. 
"The man with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner ever known, 
died here, November 19, 1703. — See Iron Mask. 

BATAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East 
Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred 
here in one day, 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by 
the British, under general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the gaj-rison 
surrendered, Aug. 8, 1811. 

F.ATHS, long used in Greece, and introduced by Mfecenas into Rome. The 
thermaj of the Rom.ans and gymnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The 
marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules 
in those of Cai-acalla. — Slrabo. 

BATl'EL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of 
England, and subjected it to the Norman yoke, a list was taken of William's 
chiefs^ amounting to 629 and called the Battel-roU ; and among these chiefs 
the lands and distinction.'^ of the foiloww's of tlie defeated Harold wei'e dis- 
tributed. 1060. 



192 



THE world's progress. 



[BAT 



BATTLE, Wager of. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by English laws, 
where the defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, 
and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of appeal of 
murder, Ashford v. Thornton, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818, 
the court allowed that the . law gave the defendant a right to his wager of 
battle ; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had 
first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the murderer 
was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this 
mode of trial, 59 George III., 1819. — Statutes at large. 

B ATTERING-RAM. Testudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some 
of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 441 b. c. These 
ponderous engines by their own weight exceeded the utmost effects of our 
battering cannon. — Desaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren emploj'ed a batter- 
ing-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's church, previouslj'' to re- 
building the new edifice in 1675. 

BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an armj' in a regu- 
lar line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the sol- 
dier's vigilance by giving him a ^vatcll-word. — Lenglet. The following are 
the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in gvneral history, and 
are those also that are most commonly referred to : 

A. D. 



Actium (,the empire of Ro7ne is con- 
firmed to Augustus) ■ ■ - 31 
Xy]-iq:\s. (.Fall of Persia) ■ - - 331 



Aboukir (TMrAs) 

Acre (Siege commenced) - 

(Sir Sydney Smith) 

(Storming of) 

Adrianople ( Constant ine) 

Albuera 

PiXfoxA (Covenanters) • 

Alexandria (Abercrombie) ■ 

(Abercrombie) 

Algiera (E.vmout/i) - 

(French) 

Alderton Moor 
Agincourt 
Aliwal (India) 
Almanza,, in Spain 
Amoy ( City taken) - 
Almeida 

Anjou, or Breagne - . 

Antoign - 

Areola 

Ascaloii (Richard I.) ■ 

Assaye ( iVelleslcy) - 

Auerstadt 

Augsburg 

Austerlitz 

Badajos 

Balkan, passage of the - 

Baltimore 

Bannockburn 

Barnot (Edward I V. ) 

Barrosa - 

Bautzen 

Bayonne - 

Belgrade 



■ Brit.) 



Nov. 19, 1796 

Sept. 3, 1191 

Sept. 23, 1SU3 

Oct. 14, 1806 

Aug. 24, 1796 

Dec. 2, 1S05 

Mar. a, 1?11 

July 26, 1829 

Sept. 12, 1814 

June 25, 1314 

April 14, 1471 

Mar. 6, 1811 

May 20, 1813 

Mar. 19, 1794 

- - 1456 

- 1717 

- Au£. 1777 

April 13, 1759 



Berwick - - • - 1378 

Bilboa (British legion) Dec. 24, 1836 

Blackheath ( Cornish Rebels defeated) 1497 
Blackrock (Amer. ^ Brit.) - Dec. 3, 1813 
Bladensburg - - - Aug. 24, 1814 

Blenheim (Marlborougli) Aug. 2, 1704 

Borodina - - - Sept. 7, 1812 

Boswonh - - Aug. 22, 1485 

Bothvvell Bridge, Scotland - - - 1679 

Boyne, Ireland - - July 1, 1690 

Bovines (French and Gerjnans) - - 1214 
Boxtel - - - Sept. 17, 1794 

Brandywine - - - Sept. 11, 1777 

Brechin, Scotland - - • - 1452 

Brenau (Austrians and Bavarians) - 1743 
Breslau - - - Nov. 22, 1757 

Briar'.s Creek - - - - 1779 

Brienne - - - Feb. 29, 1814 

Bridgewater (Americans and British) 

•July 25, 1814 
Buena Vista (Amer. a7id Mexicans) 

Feb. 22, 1847 
June 21, 1806 
July 6, 1807 
June 17, 1775 
Sept. 27, 1810 
Aug. 8, 1812 



July 26, 1799 

Mar. 18, 1799 

May 27, ibid 

Nov. 3, 1810 

- 323 

May 16, 1811 

July 2, 1615 

Mar. 21, 1801 

May 17, 1799 

Aug. 27, 1816 

July 4, 1830 

- - 1643 

Oct. 25, 1415 

Jan. 20, 1846 

April 4, 1707 

Aug. 27, 1841 

AU2. 5, 1811 

^ - 1121 

Aug. 13, 1792 I Buenos Ayres (Popham) 



■ ( Whitelock) 
Bunker's Hill 
Busaco - 
Brownstown (Careat/a) 



Ca.r\ns (Victory of Hannibal) - 216 
Carthage (taken by Publius Scipio) - 146 
Chceronea ( Tohnidas) ■ - - 447 
(Philip) - . - - 338 



Bennington (Amer. 
Bergen 

■ Sept. W and 'Oct. 2, 1799 

Bersen-op-Zooni (taken) - ■ 1747 

- Mar. 6, ISU 

UiM'esiaa - - - Sf|)t. 7. 181^! 



(Sylla) 

Cnidos (Lysander killed) - 
Cranon, in Thessaly 
Cyzicum 

Calais taken 
Calcutta (India) 
Camden (Amer. ^- Brit.) 

— (Amer. Sf Brit.) ■ 

Campo Santo 

Canton ( Bogne forts taken) 

C'afle! Niiovij " - 



- - 394 

- 322 

- - 400 

A. D. 

- Jan. 7, 15.58 

June 1750 

• Aug. 16, 1780 

April 25, 1781 

- 1743 
Feb. 2C, 1841 

Sept. 29. 1800 
April 13. 181 L' 



bat] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



193 



BATTLES, continued. 

A. D. 

Cassano (Prince Eugene) - - 1705 

Castlebar (French) - - Aug. 28, 1798 

Castiglione - - July 2, 1796 

Castillon, in Guienne - - - 1453 

Charleroi .... 1690 

Charleroi Fleurus - - June 17, 1794 

Charleston (taken by the British) 

May 12, 1780 
Chepultepec(^?«.^iViejr.)Sept. 12-14, 1848 
Chippewa - July 5 and 25, 1814 

- - Oct. 1814 

Ciudad Rodrigo (invested) June 11, 1812 

(stormed) - Jan. 19, 1812 

Clontarf, Ireland - - - 1039 

Cojistantina (Algiers) ■ Oct. 13, 18-37 
Contreras (Amer. and Mexicans) - 1848 
Corunna, (Moore) • ■ Jan. 16, 1809 

Cowpens (Amer. Sr Brit.) - - 1781 

Craney island (Americans and Brit.) 

June 21, 1813 

Cressy (Teh Dien) - . ■ ~ 

CuUoden (Pretetider) - 
Cunnersdorf - 
Detroit (surrendered) - 
TloUmgen (George-II.) 
Dresden - 
Dreux, in France 
Drogheda (taken by storm) 
Dumblain (Sheriff-Muir) ■ 
Dunbar - 

— (King of Scots taken) 

-, Siege of. 



Aug. 25, 1346 
April 16, 1746 
Aug. 12, 1759 
Aug. 16, 1812 

- - 1743 
Aug. 26, 1813 

- - 1562 

- 1649 
Nov. 12, 1715 

Sept. 3, 16.50 

- - 1296 

- 1337 
DungariHill- ' - - July 10, 1647 
Dunkirk - - - Sept. 7, 1793 
Dunsinane - - - - - 1054 
Durham, Nevil's Cross . - - 1346 
Eastport (Atnericans and British) 

July 1814 
Edgehill fight - - Oct. 23, 1642 

Erie, Fort - - • Aug. 15, 1814 

Erzeroum ( Turks and Prussians) - 1745 



Eutaw Springs 

Evesham 

Eylau 

Fairfield (Amer. ^ Brit.) 

Falkirk, ( Wallace) 



- 1781 
Aug. 4, 1265 
Feb. 8, 1807 

- 1779 
July 22, 1298 



Flatbush, L. I. (Am. i?- Brit.) Aug. 27, 1776 



Flodden 

Fontainebleau - 

Fontenoy 

Fort du Q,uesne - 

French Town, Canada 

Friedburg 

Friedland - r 

Granicus - 



Sept. 9, 1513 
Feb. 17, 1814 
April 30, 1745 
July 9, 1755 
Jan. 22, 1813 
June 4, 1745 
June 14, 1807 

B.C. 

- 334 

A. D. 

Germantown - - - Oct. 4, 1777 

Gisors (Dieu et mon droit) ■ - 1198 

Guilford - - - Mar. 16, 1781 

Halidon Hill, Berwick - July 19, 1333 

Halle (Bernadotle) ■ - Oct. 17, 1806 

Hanau ( Wrede) - Oct. 29, 1813 

Hastings (Conquest) - Oct. 14, 1066 

Hexham ( Yorkists defeated) May 15, 1464 

Hochkirchen - - Oct. 14, 1758 

Hohenlinden • - Nov. 3, 1800 



Ipsus (Antigomis slain) 
Issus (110,000 Persians slain) 



.301 
3.33 



Jamac ... Mar. 3, 

Jemappe • . Nov. 5, 

Jena .... Oct. 14, 

Ket and Warwick ... 

Killiecrankie, Scotland - July 27, 

Kowno . - . Dec. 14, 

Krasnoi - - • Nov 16, 

Leuctra ..... 

Laffeldt (Duke of Cumberland) - 
Landshut (Prussians and Austrians) 

(Austrians) - April 21, 

Langside - - May 13, 

Leipzic - - - Oct. 16, 

Lepanto ( Greeks) - '' .- May 9, 
Lewes - - - May 14, 

Lexington (Amer. revolution) April 19, 177: 



Ligny 
Lincoln 



Lisle (taken by the Allies) 

Lissa - . - - 

Lodi 

Long Island - 

Lutzen - 

Lutzingen (Gustavus slain) 



June 16, 

Feb. 2, 

May 19, 

Dec. 5, 
May 10, 

Aug. 27, 
May 2, 



Mantinea (Epaminondas slain) 
Munda, in Spain 

McHenry, Fort (Americans and Brit.) 
Oct. 13, 
Malplaquet (Marlborough) 
Manheim - - - May 30, 
- July 12, 

- Sept. 23, 
May 29, 

■ Jan. 31, 
June 14, 

- Sept. 15, 
July 3, 

Sept. 12-14, 

April 27, 

Aug. 1, 



Mantua 



Marengo - 
Marignan, Italy 
Marston Moor - 
Mexico 
Milan 
Minden 

ISIittau (Swedes and Russians) 
Mockern - - - April 1, 

Oct. 14, 



Mohartz, Hungary 
Molwitz - - - April 10, 

Monmouth (Amer. S)' Brit.)- June 28, 
Monterey (Mexico) ■ Sept. 24, 
Montmorenci - - Aug. 10, 

Moodkee, India - - Dec. 18, 

Morea (Castle surrenders) Oct. 28, 
Moscow (burnt) ■ Sept. 4, 

Moskwa - - ■ Sept. 7, 

Moscow (retaken) - Oct. 22, 

Narva ( Charles XII. of Sweden) 
Naseby - - • June 14, 

Newark • - ■ • - - 

Newbury - ... - 

(second battle) ■ Oct. 20. 



New London (burnt by the. British) 
New Orleans - • Jan 3, 

Niagara, Fort - - • Nov. 

Nisbet - - - May 7, 

Norfolk (burnt by the British) June 
Northallerton, (or the .battle of the 
Standard) . - - . 



A.D. 

1569 
1792 
1806 
1549 
1689 
1812 
1812 

B. C. 

370 

A.D. 

1747 
1745 
1809 
1568 
1813 
1829 
1264 
1775 

S15 
1141 
1217 
1708 
1796 
1757 
1776 
1813 
1632 
B. c. 

363 
45 

A.D. 

1814 
1709 
1793 
1794 
1795 
1796 
1797 
1800 
1515 
1644 
1848 
1799 
1759 
1705 
1813 
1813 
1687 
1741 
1778 
1846 
1759 
iai5 
1828 
1812 
1812 
1812 
>70i) 
1645 
1644 
1(>W 
164i 
17S1 
1815 
1813 
1402 
1779 



!94 



THE world's progress. 



[bav 



BATTLES, continued. 

A. D. 

Norwalk (.burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22, 1779 
Novi {Suwarrow) • Aug. 16, 1799 

... Jan. 8, 1800 

Ogdensburg {British and Americans) 

Feb. 22, 1813 
Oporto - - - May 11, 1809 

Otterburn (CAer'y CAose) - - -1308 

Oudenard (Marlborough) July 11, 1708 

B. C. 

Pharsalia - - - - 48 

Philippi (,Ro7nan Republic ends) • 42 

A.D. 

Palo Alto (ist o/Amer. Sr Mex.) May 8, 1846 
Parma (Austrians and French) - 1734 

■ (Suwarrow) ■ - July 12, 1799 

Patay (Joan of Arc and the English) 1429 
Pavia (French andAu^trians) Feb. 24, 
Pensacola (taken by general Jackson) 

Nov. 20, 
Peterwarden • - Aug. 5 

Pfaffendorf - - - Aug. 15, 

Piakey - - - Sept. lOi 

Plattsburg (Americans and Biitish) 

Sept. 11 
Poitiers - - 

Prague - 



Sept. 19 
Nov. 9. 
Maya: 
Jan. 2: 
July 8, 

Dec. 26 

July 28; 

June 16 



Princeton (Amer. £)• Brit.) 
Pultowa (Charles XII.) 
Pultusk - 
Pyrenees 
Uuatre Bras 
Quebec (or the plains of Abraham) 
Sept. 13 

(death qfMontgo}nery)X)ec. 21 

- - - April 28, 

ftueenstown (Amer. S/- Brit.) Oct. 13, 
Ramilies (Marlborough) ■ May 23! 
Resaca de la Palma (Mexico) May 9. 
kosbach • - - Nov. 17j 

Nov. b. 



1525 

1814 
1717 
1760 I 
1547 



A. D. 

Sobraon (India) • Feb. IC, 1846 

Solway Moss - - Nov. 25, 1542 

St. Albans ( York and Lancaster) - 1455 



1814 
1356 
1620 
1757 
1777 
1709 
1806 
1813 
1815 

1759 
1775 
1760 
1812 
1706 
1846 
1382 
1787 



Sackett's Harbor (Americans and 

British) .... 1813 

■salamanca - - ■ July 22, 1812 

san Maretal (Spajiiards) Aug. 4, 1813 

Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender) 

Oct. 17, 1777 
Savannah (taken Inj the British) 

Dec. 29. 1778 
Schwerdnitz - - Aug. 16, 1762 

Sedgemoor - - . - July 5, 1685 

Seidlitz (Poles) - - Mar. 31, 1831 

Sempach - - - July 9, 1386 

Seringapatam .... 1791 

— (Tippoo reduced) - -1791 

( Tippoo killed) May 4, 1799 

Shrewsbury - - July 21, 1403 

Skenesborough - - July 7, 1777 

Smolensko - - - Aug. 27, 1812 



(second) 



1461 

- 1567 

Jan. 27, 1814 

May 5, 1836 

Mar. 13, 1470 



St. Denis (Montinorenci) 
Si Dizier, France - 
St. Sebastian 
Stamford 

Stony Point (taken by the Americans) 1779 
Stratton (jwet Waller) ■ May 16, 1643 
Talavera de la Reyna - July 27, 1809 

Tai-ragona - - - Jan. 24, 1812 

Tev.'kesbury - .- May 4, 1471 

Thames (Americajts and Brit.) Sept. 1813 
Thermopylae (Greeks) - July 13, 1822 

Tirh mont (French and Allies) - 1705 

Toplitz (Austfians and Prussians) - 1762 

- - Aug. 30, 1813 

Toumay - - - May 8, 1793 

ToulSn - - Oct. 1, 1793 

Touli.use - - - April 10, 1814 

Towton - - - Mar. 29, 1461 

Trenton (Amer. ^ Brit.) ■ Dec. 26, 7, 1776 
Turin (French and Germans) - 1706 

Ulm .... June 21, 1800 

(surrendered) ■ Oct. 29, 1805 

Valenciennes - • May 23, 1793 

Vania (surrenders) - Oct. 11, 1E.25 

Vera Cruz (taken by Amer. Gen. Scott) 

March 27, 1847 
Villa Franca 
Vimiera ( Wellington) 
Vittoria, Spain 



Wagram 

Wakefield 

Waisaw 




April 10, 1812 
Oct. 21, 1808 

- - 1702 
June 21, 1813 

.Tuly5, 1809 
Dec. 31, 1460 
Oct. 10, 1794 
Nov. 8, ibid 
Sept. 8, 1831 
••«Z by the Britisli) 

Aug. 1814 

June 18, 1815 

mer. ^ Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776 

Nov. 30, ibid 

- June 12, 1&31 

Sept. J3, 1642 

- - 1651 
July 1778 



".n) 



■ (Charles II.)* 



Wyoming massacre 
York (Canada) captured by Ameri- 
cans - - - April 27, 1813 
York Town (surrender of Cornwallis) 

Oct. 19, 1781 

B. C. 

Zama (Scipio and Hannibal) ■ ■ 202 
Zela ( Coisar : veni, vidi, vici) - 47 

A. D. 

Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Eugene) - 1697 
Zurich 1799 



;AV ARIA, House OF. The dukedom founded in tlie eleventh century: this 
house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of the Guel- 
phian family ; Henrj^ Guelph was made duke of Bavaria by Conrad II., em- 
peror of Germany, who reigned in 1024. Otho, count Wittelpatch, was 
made duke in 1179 ; and Maximilian I. elector in 1624. Bavaria was 



* This battle and defeat of Charles put a period to the civil war in England, 
N. B, — Many of the above battles are described more fully under each name. 



BEA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 19£ 

erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1805 ; and obtained by 
the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the whole of tlae Italian and 
German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. This 
kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian cham- 
ber recommends freedom of the press, &c., by almost unanimous vote, Oct, 
17, 1847. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Montes, the king's mistress, 
Feb. 9, 1848. Violent movement at Munich; the king abdicates in favor of 
his son, Maximillian II., March 22, 1848. 

KINGS OF BAVARIA. I 1825 Louis, 13th October ; — abdicated, 

1805 Maximilian Joseph, the preceding elec- I Maixh 22, 1848. 

tor, created king. | 1848 Maximilian II. 

LiAYEUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wrought by 
Matilda, the queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest, 
from the signature of theawill of the Confessor down to the crowning of 
William, 1066. — Rapin. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered 
by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compart- 
ments showing the train of events, commencing with the visil^of Harold to 
the Norman court, and entling with his death at Hastings ; it is now presei ;ed 
in the town-house of Rouen. — Agnes Strickland. 

BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This 
weapon was invented at Bayonne, in France (whence the name), about 1670. 
According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in 
1603, " with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter 
with so formidable a novelty." 

BAZAAR, OR Covered Market. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar 
of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has 
several times held 30,000 men in order of battle. 

BEADS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used by 
Dervises and other holy men of the East. They were in general use in 
Roman Catholic devotions, a. d. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceased 
persons for the repose of whose souls a certain nunijjer of prayers were re- 
cited, which the devox^t counted by a string of beads. — Butler. 

BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them. 
The Tartars, out of a -eligious principle, waged a long and bloody war with 
the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their 
beards after the rite:, of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the 
time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the 
beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 b. c. Beards were worn 
by the Romans, 297 b. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews. 
In England, they were not fiishionable after the Conquest, a. d. 1066, until 
the thirteenth century, and were discontinued ■ at the Restoration. The 
Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few 
years ; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave, 
was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut ofi" the beard by force. 

BEARDS ON WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the 
battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724 : her beard 
measiu-ed 1^ yards. A Avoman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushy 
beard, and her whole body covered with hair. — Diet, de Trevoux. The 
great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very long stiff beard. 
In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard. 

BEAUVAIS, Heroines of. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by 
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men. the womeii 
under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distin- 
guished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege/july 10, 
1472. In memory of their noble exploits during the siege, the females of 



l96 THE world's progress. [ BEl 

Beauvais walk first in a procession on the anniversary of tlieir deliverance 
— Henault. 

BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at 
the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry II. say, in a moment 
of exasperation, "What an unhappy prince am I, who have not aboirt me 
one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon 
Becket's assassination ; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedral 
of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when 
he cried out, "I charge you, in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any 
other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late trans- 
actions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church ; but 
not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed 
him on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured without a 
groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in 
1220; and were taken up and burned in the reign of Henry VIII. 1539. — 

Stowe. 

» 

BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the 
skins of beasts. — Whittaker. Tliis was the custom of the early Greeks and 
Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after- 
wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was used 
in the royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth cen- 
tury. The Romans were the first who used feathers. 

BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in 
his famous retreat, 401 b. c. Beer was drunk generally in England in the 
thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty 
paid on "afe called here" one quart of the best thereof was to be sold foro, 
penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. In England the number of retailers in 
1834 amounted to about 60,000. See Brewers. 

BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abun- 
dance of honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus, 
in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was 
admired in the earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on 
bees, 741 b. c. There are 292 species of the bee, or apis genus, and 111 in 
England. Strange to say, bees were not originally natives of New England : 
they were inti-oduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since 
spread over the whole continent ; the first planters never saw any. — Hardie's 
America. 

BEET-ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. Margraff" first produced 
sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent 
sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bo- 
naparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery of 
sugar from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. 

BEGUINES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 
1207. The '• Grand Beguinage " of Bruges is the most extensive of modern 
times. — Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they 
could, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to impec- 
cability. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a 
branch of the order in 1311. 

BEHEADING — or Decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Nor- 
mandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by 
WilHam the Conqueror, 1074, when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, North- 
ampton, and Northumberland, was first so executed. — Salmon's Chron. 
English history is filled with instances of this mode of execution, particu- 



BEL ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



19/ 



larly in the reigns of Henrj"- VIII., and Mary, when even women of the noblest 
blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.* 
BEHRING'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the service of Rus- 
sia whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents 
of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about 
ihirtj'-nine miles, 1728. 
BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, 
and anciently the territory of the Belgae, who were conquered by Julius 
Cajsar, 47 b. c. Under the dominion of France so late as a. d. 1369 ; formed 
into a kingdom in 1831. 

Became an acquisition of the house of 

Austria .... 1477 
Charles V. annexed the Netherlands to 

the crown of Spain - - -1556 

Seven provinces, under William, prince 
of Orange, revolt, owing to the tyranny 
of Philip 11.; freed- - - 1579 

The ten remaining provinces are given 

to the archduke - - - 1598 

These again fall to Spain - - - 1648 

Seven again ceded to Germany - 1714 

And three to France - - - 1748 

Austrians expelled ; but their rule after- 
wards restored . . . . 1789 
The French entered Belgium Nov. 1, 1792 
United to France - Sept. 30, 1795 
Placed under the sovereignty of the 

house of Orange - - -1814 

The revoluiion commences at Brussels 

Aug. 25, 1830 
The Provisional Government declares 

Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830 
The Belgian troops take Antwerp ; the 
Dutch are driven to the citadel, from 
whence they cannonade the town, 

Oct. 27, 1830 
Belgian independence acknowledged 

This last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian 
question ; by the decision of which, the treaty of November 15, 1831, was 
maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs, 
offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared in- 
admissible. 

BELGRADE. Battle of, between the German and Turkish armies, in which 
the latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men, fought 1456. Belgrade 
was taken by Solyman, 1522 ; and re-taken by the Imperialists in 1688, from 
whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in 
1717 {see next article), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks. 
It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach, in 
1790. 

BELGRADE, Siege op. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was undei- 
taken in May, 1717, under prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, the 
Tui'kish army, of 200,000, approached to relieve it, and a battle was fought, 
in which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after which Belgrade surrendered. 
Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieges. 



by the Allied Powers, announced by 
Van der Weyer - - Dec. 26, 1830 

Duke de Nemours elected king; but 
his father, the king of France, refuses 
his consent - - Feb. 3, 1831 

M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent 
of Belgium - - Feb. 24, 1831 

Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected 
king - - - July 12, 1831 

He enters Brussels - - July 19, 1831 

The king of the Netherlands recom- 
mences the war - Aug. 3, 1831 

[France sends 50,000 troops to assist 
Belgium, and an armistice ensues.] 

A conference of the ministers of the five 
great powers is held in London, which 
terminates in the acceptance of the 
24 articles of pacification - Nov. 15, 1831 

Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter 
ol Louis Philippe - - Aug. 9, 1832 

The French army returns to France 

Dec. 27, 1832 

Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ; much 
mischief ensues - - April 6, 1834 

Treaty between Holland and Belgium, 
signed in London - April 19, 1839 



* Among other instances (besides queens of England), may be mentioned the Lady Jane Grey, 
beheaded, Feb. 12, 1554 ; and the venerable countess of Salisbury — the latter remarkable for her 
resistance of the executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to 
do it; telling him, that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pur- 
sued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at lencth took it off, aftei 
mangling the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. She was daughter 
of George, duke of Clarence, and last of the royal line of Plantagcnet." May 27, liAl.—Hume. 



l98 THE world's progress. [ BEiV 

BELL, BOOK, and CANDLE ; an ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish 
churcli. used in excommunication, which see. 

BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learning. We owe the revival of the belles- 
lettres in Europe, after the darkness of previous ages to Brunetto, Latini, 
and other learned men in diflerent countries, about a. d. 1272. — Gen. Hist. 
Learning greatly promoted by the Medici family in Italy, about 1550. — Fon- 
tana. Literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England, about 
this time. The belles-lettres commenced in England in the reign of Eliza- 
beth, and flourished in that of Anne. 
ELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor of 
them, about 569 b. c. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, the 
potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furna- 
ces of the Romans. 

■JELLS. Used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. The 
responses of the Dodonsean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. — Strabo. 
The monument of Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted 
by bells. — Pliny. Introduced bj' Paulinus, bishop of Nole, in Campagna, 
about A. D. 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothair II., 
king of France, was frighted from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the 
bells of St. Stephen's church. The second Excerption of our king Egbert 
commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his church. 
Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX., as a defence, hj ring- 
ing Ihem, against thunder and lightning, about 900. First cast in England 
by Turkeytel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor im- 
proved the invention, and caused the first tunable set to be put up at 
Croyland abbey, 960. — Slowc. 

Great Bell of St. Pauls, weighs - lbs. 8,400 I St. Peter's, at Rome - - lbs. 18,607 

Great Tom of Lincoln - - 9,894 Great Bell at Erfurth - - 28,224 

Great Tom of Oxford - - - 17,000 | St. Iv-an's Bell, Moscow - - 127.836 

Bell of the Palazzo, Florence - 17,000 | Bell of the Kremlin - - 443,772 

The last is the great unsuspended bell, the wonder of travellers. Its metal 
alone is valued, at a veiy low calculation, at i'66,565 sterling. In its fusion 
great quantities of gold and silver were thrown in as votive offerings by the 
people. 

BELLS, Baptism of. They were early anointed and baptized m churches. — 
Du Presnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were 
baptized by the name of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, 
&c., in 1501. — Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was bap- 
tized by the name of Duke of Angouleme, in 1816. On the Continent, in 
the Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with religious 
solemnity. — Ashe. 

BENEDICTINES. An order of monks founded by Benedict, who was the 
first that introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in 
the beginning of the sixth century. No religious order has been so remark- 
able for extent, wealth, and men of note, as the Benedictine. It spread 
over a large portion of Europe, but was superseded in the vast influence it 
possessed over other religious communities, about a. d. 1100. The Bene- 
dictines appeared early in England ; and William I. built them an abbey on 
the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, 1066. 
William de Warrenne, earl of Warren, built them a convent at Lewes in 
Essex, in 1077. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are denomi- 
nated Benedictine dames. — Leigh. Of this order, it is reckoned that there 
have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archb-shops, 4G0C 
bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, and 3600 saints. 
Their founder was canonized. — Baronius. 



BEN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 199 

BENEFICES. Clerical benefices originated in the twelfth century ; till then 
the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should 
become vacant in the space of sis months were given by pope Clement VII. 
to his nephew, in 1534. — Notitia Monastica. The number of benefices in 
England, according to parliamentary returns, is 10,533, and the number of 
glebe-houses 5,527 ; these are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries, 
prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church pre- 
ferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels 
about 12,000. The number of benefices in Ireland is 1456, to which there 
are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no 
glebe-houses. — See Church of England. 

BENEFIT OF CLERGY. A privilege first enjoyed only by clergymen, but 
afterwards extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and pai-- 
ticularly manslaughter. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin 
book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two ; and 
if the ordinary said " Legit ut clericus," the ofiender was only burnt in the 
hand, otherwise he suSered death, 3 Edward I., 1274. This privilege was 
abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as also the 
claim of sanctuary, by Henry VIII., 1513. — Stowe. Benefit of clergy was 
wholly repealed by statute 7 and 8 George IV., June 1827. 

BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC CHARITIES, &c., m the Unite: 
States. The known voluntary contributions by citizens of Boston alone, 
during 45 years, ending 1845, was ascertained to be (see details in American 
Almanac, 1846) as follows : 

For miscellaneous objects (such as 
monuments, &c.) - - - 438,321 



For theological education and other 

religious objects - - #1,054,966 

For purposes of instruction - 1,09.5,594 

For charitable purposes - - 2,162,412 



Total - $4,751,293 

[Exclusive of the contributions in chiirches, for the poor, &c. The popula- 
tion of Boston, in 1800, was about 25,000 ; in 1845, about 114,000. Few 
cities can boast of such munificence, in proportion to the number of in- 
habitants.] 

BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES— some of the principal in the United States. 

Formed. Income. 



Form.ed. Income, 
Amer. Board of Com. Foreign 1849. 

Missions - - - 1810 - 1260,897 

Amer. Sunday Sch. Union - 1824 207,764 

" Bible Society - - 1816 - 284,514 
■ " Tract Society - - 1814 - 308,428 

" Home Miss. Society - 1826 - 157,460 



1849. 

Amer. Education Society - 1816 - $32,754 

" Colonization Society 1819 17,414 

" Seamen's Friend Society - 23,497 

Miss. Soc. Methodist Church 1819 - 99,635 

Presbyterian Board Missions - 126,013 



United States ship, Jamestown, sailed from Boston for Cork, loaded with provisions, to be 
given to the distitute Irish, March 28th, 1847. The frigate Macedonian sailed from 
New York on same errand, July 8, 1847. 

Abbott Lawrence gave $50,000 to Harvard College, for scientific department, June, 1847. 

BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no 
record. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in 
1340, when it became independent, until 1560. It afterwards fell to the 
Mogul empire. — See India. 

The English were first permitted to 

trade to Bengal - - a. d. 1534 

Factories of the French and Danes - 1664 
First factory at Calcutta - - 1690 

The settlements first placed in a state 

of defence - - - -1694 

Calcutta bought, and fortified - - 1700 
Its garrison consisted of only 129 sol- 
diers, of whom but 55 were Europeans 1706 



Calcutta taken by Surrjah Dowla ; and 
the dreadful affair of the Black-hole- 17.56 

Retaken by Colonel Clive - - 1757 

Imperial grant, vesting the revenues of 
Bengal in the Company, by which 
the virtual sovereignty of the country 
was obtained - - Aug. 12, 1765 

Celebrated India-bill ; Bengal made the 
chief presidency - - June 16, 1773 

See India. 



^00 THE world's progress. [_ BET 

BERESINA, Battle of. Total defeat of the French main army by the Rus- 
sians on the banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of 
it when escaping out of Russia. The French lost 20,000 men in the battle, 
and in their retreat the career of their glory was closed, Nov. 28, 1812. 

BERGEN, Battle op, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, April 
14, 1759. The allies again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19, 
1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4,000 men; 
and on the 6th, they were again defeated before Allcmaer, losing 5,000 men. 
On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention by which he 
exchanged his army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, whose works were deemed impregnable, taken by the 
French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was 
made by the British, under Graham, to carry the fortress by storm, but it 
was defeated ; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut off, and a 
dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, 
March 8, 1814. 

BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163. Its 
five districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subse- 
quently made the capital of Prussia. This city was taken by an army of 
Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760, but they were obliged to retire m 
a few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the 
French entered Berlin, and from its palace Napoleon issued his famous 
Berlin decree. — See next article. 

BERLIN DECREE, a memorable interdict against the commerce of England. 
It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all Enghsh- 
men found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as 
prisoners of war ; the whole world, in fact, was to cease from any commu- 
nication with Great Britain : issued by Bonaparte from the court of the 
Prussian king, shortly after the battle of Jena (which, for the time, decided 
the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806.— See Jena. 

BERMUDAS, or SOMMERS' ISLES, discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, 
in 1527 ; but they were not inhabited until 1609, when sir George Sommers 
was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute of 9 James I., 
1612. Awful and memorable hurricane here, October 31, 1780. Another, 
by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven 
ashore, July 20, 1813. 

BERNARD, MOUNT St. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian 
army by this pass into Italy ; and it was by the same route that Bonaparte 
led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, 
fought June 14, 1800. 

BERNARDINE MONKS. This order was founded by Robert, abbot of Mo- 
leme, in the twelfth century. On the summit of the Great St. Bernard is a 
large community of monks, who entertain in their convent aU travellers 
gratis for three days. — Brooke. 

BERWICK. ' This town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the 
English and Scots ; and while England and Scotland remained two king- 
doms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because it 
stood on their side of the river. Berwick was burned in 1173, and again in 
1216. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England, 1333 ; and 
after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to Eng- 
land in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards 
to general Monk. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 1603), the forti- 
fications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected. 

BETHLEHEM, the birth-place of Christ. The Bethlehemite monks, who 



BIB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 201 

had an order in England in 1257, are named from this once distinguished 
city. It now contains a chm-ch, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the 
form of a cross ; also a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where 
they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid ; another, called 
the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethlehem is 
much visited by pilgrims. — Aslie. 

BEYROUT. This city, which was colonized from Sidon, was destroyed by an 
earthquake, a. d. 566. It was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the 
Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into 
the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman em- 
pire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. Total defeat of the Egyp- 
tian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacua- 
tion of Beyrout, the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 
and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840. ^ 

BIARCHY". When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons twins, 
Eurysthenes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence 
should be given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established 
the first biarchy, 1102 b. c. The descendants of each reigned alternately 
for 800 years. — HerodoHs. 

BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by 
seventy-two interpreters, by the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; it is thence 
called the Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at 
Alexandria, 277 e. c. — Josep/ms. It was commenced 284 b. c. — Lenglet. In 
283. — Blair. The Jewish sanhedrim consisted of seventy or seventy-two 
members ; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventj^-two translators of 
Josephus. — Hewlett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and 
each pair translated the whole; and on subsequent comparison, it was 
found that the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or a letter. — Justin 
Martyr. 

BIBLE, Ancient copies of the. The oldest version of the Old and New Tes- 
tament belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, which was writ- 
ten in the fourth or fifth century, and published in 1455. The next in age 
is the Alexandrine MS., in the British Museum, presented by the Greek 
patriarch to Charles I., and said to have been copied nearly about the same 
time. The most ancient copy of the Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo, 
about A. D. 1000 ; and the copy of Ben Asher, of Jei'usalem, was made about 
1100. 

BIBLE, Bishops'. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch ; bishops Davis and 
Sandys, the Historical Books : bishop Bentham, the Psalms, &c. ; bishop 
Home, the prophets ; bishop Grindal, the Minor Prophets ; bishops Pai'k- 
hurst and Barlow, the Apocrypha ; bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts ; and 
archbishop Parker, the remainder. Printed a. d. 1568. 

BIBLE, Division of the. The Bible was divided into twenty-two books by the 
Jews, the number of letters in their alphabet. The Christians divided the 
Bible into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was made 
by the rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and 
a part into verses, by archbishop Langton, who died in 1228; and this 
division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 1534. 

BIBLE, Editions, OF the. The vulgate edition, in Latin, was made by St. Je- 
rome, A. D. 405 ; and is that acknowledged by the Catholic church to be 
authentic : it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1450 — 55. (See 
Books.) The first perfect edition in Enghsh was finished, as appears from 
the colophon, by Tindal and Coverdale, Oct. 4, 1535. A revision of this 
edition was made, 1538-9. This last was ordered to be read '■'■> churches. 



202 



THE world's progress. 



[bil 



1549. In 1604, at the conference at Hampton-court (see Conference), a new 
translation was resolved upon, which was executed 1607-11, and is that now 
generally used in Great Britain. J. Eliot's Indian Bible, one of the first 
books printed in North America, at Cambridge, 1663. The Bible was first 
printed in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. Permitted by the pope t-o be trans- 
lated into the language of the Catholic states, 1759. The Bible was printed 



Spanish 


-1478 


Russian 


-1581 


Manks - 


-1771 


German - 


- -1522 


Hungarian 


- - 1589 


Italian 


- - 1776 


English 


-1534 


Polish 


- 1595 


Bengalee 


-1801 


French - 


- -1535 


Modern Greek - 


- - 1633 


Tartar 


- - 1813 


Swedish 


-1.541 


Turkish 


- 1666 


Persian 


-1815 


Danish - 


- - 1550 


Irish 


- - 1685 


African 


- - 1816 


Dutch 


-1560 


Portuguese 


- 1748 


Chinese 


-1820 



Editions of t.he Old and New Testament, separatelj^ appeared in several in- 
stances at earlier dates, particularly in European languages. The Polyglot 
Bible, edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, 
Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1657. — 
Wood's Fasti. Oxon. 

BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have 
made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, 
are the following : — The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was 
formed 1698; Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701; 
Society, in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1709 ; French 
Bible Society, 1792 ; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1801 ; Hibernian 
Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812 ; American 
Bible Society (which now has numerous branches), founded 1816 ; Ameri- 
can and Foreign Bible Society (Baptist), founded at New- York, 1838. A 
bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. 

BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark: 
with us, the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act 
respecting it was passed 5 Edward I. 1276. — Viner's Statutes. Declared to 
be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 James I. 1602. Subjected to the 
same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 George IE. 1794. — Statutes 
at large. 

BILL OF RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution, 
was obtain ^d from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. This bill recognized the 
legal privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding the employment of all 
manner of arts and expedients to avoid it, Charles was constrained to pass 
it into a law. The Bill of Rights, declaratory of the rights of British subjects, 
passed 1 William and Mary, February 1689. This is the only written law 
respecting the liberties of the people, except Magna Charta. — Virier's 
Statutes. 

BILLS OF EXCHANGE. Invented bj^ the Jews, as a means of removing their 
property from nations where they were persecuted, a. d. 1160. — Anderson. 
Bills were used in England, 1807. — The onlv legal mode of sending money 
from England, 4th Richard II., 1381. Regulated, 1698— first stamped, 1782 
— duty advanced, 1797 — again, June 1801 ; and since. It was made capital 
to coimterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous 
speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions of 
pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. 
The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many 
statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 George IV. 
1828. A new act regulating bills of exchange, passed 3 Victoria, July 1839. 

BILLS OF MORTALITY for London. These bills were first compiled about 
A. D. 1536, but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1593, after the 



BIS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 20o 

great plague of that year ; and however imperfect they still are, they yet 
afford valuable mat-erials for computation on the duration of life ; no com- 
plete series of them has been preserved. The following are returns, show- 
ing the numbers at decennial distances, within the last sixty years : — 



Iti the year 1780, Christenings 
1790, Christenings 
1800, Christenings 
1810, Christenings 
1820, Christenings 
1830, Christenings 
1840, Christenings 



16,634 


In the 


year 1780, Burials 


18,980 




1790, Burials - 


19,176 




1800, Burials 


19,930 




1810, Burials - 


26,158 




1820, Burials 


27,028 




1830, Burials - 


30,387 




1840, Burials 



- 20,507 
18,038 

- 23,068 
19,892 
19,348 
23,524 

- 26,774 

BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by whom, and by the Germans, Dutch, 
and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe. — 
Nouv. Diet. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an 
artist, in the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate biUiard-tables were 
introduced in England in 1827. 

BIRDS. Divided by Linnseus into six orders ; by Blumenbach into eight ; and 
by Cuvier into six. Man is especially enjoined not to harm the nest of the 
bird : " If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree, or 
on the ground, whether they be young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon 
the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the 
young." — Duteronomy, xxii. 6. 

BIRMINGHAM, England. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, a. d. 872 ; 
but its importance as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of Wil- 
liam III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by prince Rupert in 1643. 
The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Mat- 
thew Boulton, in 1764. 

BIRTHS. Parish registers of them^and of marriages and burials, were insti- 
tuted by Cromwell, earl of Essex, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The births of chil- 
dren were taxed in England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30Z. — of a common 
person, 2s. — 7 WiUiam III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of 
four children at a birth are numerous ; but the most extraordinary delivery 
recorded in modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg, who had five 
children at a birth, September 3. 1783. — Phillips. The wife of a man named 
Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-market, London, had five children at 
a birth, in October 1800. — Annals of London. 

BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the in- 
spection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer ; but 
now it means only that person who has the government of church affairs in 
a certain district. In England, the dignity is coeval with Christianity. St. 
Peter, the first bishop of Rome, was martyred a. d. 65. The bishops of 
Rome assumed the title of pope in 138, the rank was anciently assumed by 
all bishops ; but it was afterwards ordained that the title of pope should 
belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair. — Warner. 

BISHOPS OF ENGLAND. The first was appointed in a. d. 180. See York, 
London. They were made barons, 1072. The Conge d'' Elire of the king 
to choose a bishop originated in an arrangement of king John with the 
clergy. Bishops were elected by the king's Congi d' Elire, 26 Henry "VIII. 
1535. Seven were deprived for being married, 1554. Several suffered mar- 
tyrdom lender queen Mary, 1555-6. See Cranmer. Bishops were excluded 
. from voting in the house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1640. 
Twelve were committed fur high treason, in protesting against the legality 
of all acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes, 
1641. Regained their seats, Nov. 1661. Seven were sent to the tower for not 
reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, contrived to bring 
the Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil power, and were tried and acquit- 



204 THE world's progress. [ BLA 

ted, June 29-30, 1688. The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Bancroft) and 
five bishops were suspended for refusing to take the oaths to WilUam and 
Mary, 1689, and were deprived 1690. — Wa,rner's Eccles. Hist. The sees of 
Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An 
order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to 
be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be 
created thei-eupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded 
in 1846. — See Manchester. 

BISHOPS OF IRELAND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this 
country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first 
planted at Saiger, was founded a. d. 402, thirty years before the arrival of 
St. Patrick. 

BISHOPS OF SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. The 
see of St. Andrew's was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts, who, 
according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of 
Regulus, a Greek monk of Patrse, about a. d. 370. The bishops were deprived 
of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the revo- 
lution, 1688-9. Warners Eccles. Hist. — There are now, however, six bishops 
belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz : Aberdeen, Brechin, Edin- 
burgh, Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's. 

BISHOPS, Precedency of, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII. to be vcxt to 
viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540 ; and they have the title of 
Lord, and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and 
York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of 
London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of all bishops ; the 
others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in 
Ireland between the bishops of Meat^ and Kildare for precedency was de- 
cided in favor of the former, who now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin. 
The others rank according to consecration. 

BISHOPS IN AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Sea- 
bury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at 
Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New- York and Penn- 
sylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, 
Feb. 4. 1787 ; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop 
of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789. 

BISSEXTILE OR LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was throvra into every 
fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course. 
It originated with Julius Csesar, who ordered a day to be counted before 
the 24th of February, which among the Romans was the 6th of the calends, 
and which was therefore reckoned twice, and czWudi bissextile: this added 
day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, 45 b. c. — See Calen- 
dar and Leap Year. 

BITHYNIA. Conquered by Croesus, about 560 b. c. ; and again by Alexander, 
332 B. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty; but its last king bequeathed 
it'to the Romans, 40 b. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure, 
except that from its ruins rose the Othman Turks, who, in a. d. 1327, took 
Prusa its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possessed 
Constantinople. 

BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the 
scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for the 
inspection of visitors under Henry VIIL, 1535, in order to blacken them and 
hasten their dissolution ; hence the vulgar phrase " I'll set you down in the 
black book." 

BLASPHEMY. This crime is recognized both by the civil and'canon law of 



BLO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 205 

England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the 
tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 William 
III., 1696-7.— Stetetes at large. In England this offence has been subjected, 
on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eaton 
was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A pro- 
testant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the 
same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar, 
and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among 
other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as 
late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous 
writings, subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen's 
Bench. 
BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms was introduced, and cecame heredi- 
tary in families in France and England, about a. d. 1192, owing to the 
knights painting their banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish 
them in the crusades. — Dugdak. 

BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India. Known 
in ancient Gaul. — Pliny. In the last century an improved chemical system 
was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 
1768. There are now immense bleachfields in both countries, particularly 
in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renferew, and in the 
vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of Berthollet was 
introduced in VJ^t.^—Blanchiment des Toiles. 

BLENHEIM, Battle op ; between the English and confederates, commanded 
by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal 
Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated 
with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among 
the latter : the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. 
The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor of 
Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest 
seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim. 
Fought Aug. 2, llOL— Hume. 

BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punish- 
ment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the mid- 
dle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of 
sight. Blinding the conquered was a practice in barbarous states ; and a 
"whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century. 
See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from 
their heads. See article Eastern Empire. 

BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides. — Freind. Blisters 
are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aretseus, a 
physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — Le Clerch Hist, of Physic. 

BI<O0D, Circulation of the, Ihroiigh the lungs, first made public by Michael 
Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cisalpinus published an account of 
the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas ; improved 
afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Father 
Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves 
which serve for the circulation ; but the honor of the positive discovery of 
the circulation of the blood belongs to Harvey, an English physician, by 
whom it was fully confirmed, 1628. — Freind' s Hist, of Physic. 

BLOOD, Drinking of. Anciently a mode was tried of giving vigor to the sys- 
tem, by administering blood as a draught. Louis XI., in his last illness, 
drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed 



206 THE world's progress. [ BCEO 

strength, 1438. — Renault. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix. , 
and to the Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition repeated by the apostles at 
the council of Jerusalem, Acts xv. 

BLOOD, Transfusion op. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed that 
the declining strength and vigor of old people might be repaired by trans- 
fusing the blood ofyoiing persons, drawn from their veins, into those of the 
infirm and aged. It was countenanced in France by the physicians, and 
prevailed for many years, till the most fatal eSects ensued from the opera- 
tion. Some of the principal nobility having died, and others turned raving 
mad, it was suppressed by an edict. Attempted in France in 1797. Prac- 
tised more recently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in England 
(but the instances are rare) since 1823. — Med. Jour. " One English physi- 
cian, named Louver, or Lower, practised in this way ; he died in 1691." — 
F^reincfs Hist, of Physic. 

BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's 
household, and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, 
and had got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued 
by his friends. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the 
regal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower : yet, notwithstanding these 
and other offences, he was not only pardoned, but had a pension of X500 
per annum settled on him by Charles II. 1673. 

BLUE STOCKING. This term is applied to literary ladies, and was originally 
conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most 
active promoters of the society was Benjamin Stillingfleet, the distinguished 
naturalist and miscellaneous writer, who always wore blue worsted stock- 
ings, and hence the name : the society existed in 1760, et seq. — Anec. of 
Bowyer. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have 
worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montague ; and this pecu- 
liarity also fastened the name upon accomplished women. 

BOARD OF TRADE and PLANTATIONS. Charles II., on his restoration, 
established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole com- 
merce of the nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and 
plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of superin- 
spection was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the affairs of trade ' 
was appointed, Sept. 2, 1786. 

BOATS. Their invention was so early, and their use so general, the art cannot 
be traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in Eng- 
land in the reign of the Conqueror: the flat-bottomed boat was again 
brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat was 
first suggested at South Shields ; and one was built by Mr. Greathead, the 
inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790. 

BOCCACCIO'S BOOK, II Decamerone, a collection of a hundred stories or 
novels, not of moral tendency : feigned to have been related in ten days, and, 
as is said by Petrarch, " possessing many charms." A copy of the first 
edition (that of Valdafer, in 1471) was knocked down, at the duke of Rox- 
burgh's sale, to the duke of Marlborough, for £2260, June 17, 1812. This 
identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas, 
June 5, 1819. 

BCEOTIA, the country of which Thebes was the capital. Thebes was equally 
celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortunes 
of its kings and heroes. The country was kno^vn successively as Aonia, 
Messapia, Hyantis, Ogygia. Gadmeis, and Boeotia; and it gave birth to Pin- 
dar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminondas, and the accomplished 
and beautiful Corinna. 



BOl] 



DICTIONARY OF PATES. 



207 



BCEOTIA continued. 

Arrival of Cadmus, the founder of Cad- 
mea - - - b. c. 1493 

Reign of Poly dore - - -1459 

Labdacus ascends the throne - 1430 

Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, 
and dethrone Laius - - - 1388 

CEdipus, not knowing his father Laius, 
kiUs him in an affray, confirming the 
oracle as to his death by the hands of 
his son 1276 

CEdipus encounters the Sphinx, and re- 
solves ber enigmas - - 1266 

War of the Seven Captains - - 1225 

Here the greatness of this country ends. 



Thebes besieged and taken - b. c. 1216 

Thersander reigns in Thebes - - 1215 

Tlie Thebans abolish royalty, and ages 
of obscurity follow - - - 1125 

Battle of Chaeronea, in which the The- 
bans defeat the Athenians - - 44? 

Epaminondas defeats the Lacedemo- 
nians at Leuctra, restores his country 
to independence, and puts it in a con- 
dition to dictate to the rest of Greece 37 1 

Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the The- 
bans and Athenians, near Chaeronea - 338 

Alexander destroyed Thebes, the 



capital, 3B5 e. c. when the house of Pindar alone was left standing 
the inhabitants were either killed or sold as slaves. — Strabo. 



and all 



BOGS. Commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose 
soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated 
water. Acts relating to Ireland, for their drainage, passed, March, 1830. 
The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scot- 
land, at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England, at near 1,000,000 of acres. 

BOH, a fierce barbarian general, son of Odin, lived 60 b. c. The exclamation 
of his name petrified his enemies, and is yet used to frighten children. 

BOHEMIA. This country was originally governed by dukes : the title of king 
was obtained from the emperor Henry IV. The kings at first held their 
territory of the Empire, but they at length threw off the yoke : the crown 
was elective till it came into the house of Austria, in which it is now here- 
ditary. — See Germanij. 



The Sclavonians, seizing Bohemia, are ] 

ruled by dukes - - a. d. 550 

City of Prague founded - - - 795 

Introduction of Christianity - - 894 

Bohemia conquered by the emperor 
Henry III., who spreads devastation 
through the country - - - 1041 

The regal title is conferred on Uratislas, 
the first king - - . - 1061 

The regal title is farther confirmed to 
Ottoacre I. - - - - - 1199 

Reign of Ottoacre 11., who carries his 
arms into Prussia - - - 1258 

Ottua ;re, refusing to do homage to the 
emperor Rodolphus, is by him van- 
quished, and deprived of Austria, 
Styria, and Carniola - - - 1282 

In the reign of Winceslas III. mines of 
silver are first discovered, and agri- 
culture is encouraged and improved 
(eJ seq.) . . - . 1-284 

Winceslas IV. becoming odious for Ms 
vices, is assassinated - - - 1305 

John, count of Luxemburgh, is chosen 
to succeed .... 1310 

Silesia is made a province of Bohemia 1342 

King John slain at the battle of Crecy, 
fought with the English - - - 1346 



John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two 
of the first Reformers, are burnt for 
heresy, which occasions an insurrec- 
tion ; when Sigismund, who betrayed 
them, is deposed, and the Imperialists 
are driven from the kingdom 1415 & 1416 

Albert, duke of Austria, marries the 
daughter of the late emperor and 
king, and receives the crowns of Bo- 
hemia and Hungary - - - 1437 

The succession infringed by Ladislas, 
son of the king of Poland, and George 
Podiebrad, a protestant chief 1440 to 14.58 

Ladislas VI., king of Poland, elected 
king of Bohemia, on the deatli of Po- 
diebrad 1471 

The emperor Ferdinand I. marries 
Anne, sister of Louis the late king, 
and obtains the crown - - 1527 

The elector palatine Frederick is driven 
from Bohemia - - - - 1618 

The crowri is secured to the Austrian 
family by the treaty of - - 1648 

Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia - 1742 
-1744 
- 17-57 
-1775 
-1806 



Prague taken by the Prussians 
The memorable siege of Prague 
Revolt of the peasantry 
The French occupy Prague 
See Germany. 

BOILING TO DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Henry 
VIII., 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been 
poisoned by Rouse, the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the oflence of 
poisoning was made treason, and it was enacted to to be punislied by boil- 
ing the criminal to death ! Margaret Davie, a young woman, sufl'ered in the 
same manner for a similar crime, in 1541. 



208 THE world's progress. [boo 

BOLOGNA. Distinguished for its many rare and magnificent specimens of 
architecture. Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theo- 
dosius, A. D. 433. Pope Julius II., after besieging and taking Bologna, made 
his triumphal entry into it with a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting 
(as Erasmus observes) for the vicegerent of the meek Redeemer, Nov. 10, 
1506. Here, in the church of St. Patronius, which is remarkable for its 
pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of the seventeenth 
century. Taken by the French, i 796 ; by the Austrians, 1799 ; again by the 
French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; restored to the pope in 1815 ; 
Austrians expelled by the people, August 8, 1848. 

BOMBAY, India. Given as part of the marriage-portion of the princess Cath- 
erine of Portugal, on her marriage with Charles II., 1661. Granted by Wil- 
liam lU. to the East India Company in 1688, and it now forms one of the 
three presidencies. An awful fire raged here, and a number of lives were 
lost, Feb. 27, 1803.— See India. 

BOMBS, invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a 
century after. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously 
used only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in 
France, in 1681. — Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, 
and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen- 
inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs. 

BONDAGE, OR VILLANAGE, was enforced under William I. A villain in 
ancient times meant a peasant enslaved by his lord. A release from this 
species of servitude Avas ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574. See 
Villain. 

BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to have 
been practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather im- 
perfectly understood. — Bdl. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at 
Paris, about 1600, led to the general study of bone-setting as a science. 
— fVcind's Hist of Physic. 

BOOKS. Ancient books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees ; and 
bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parch- 
ment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that 
country. Books whose leaves were vellum, were Invented by Attalus, king 
of Pergamus, about 198 b. c, at which time books were in volumes or rolls. 
The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyi-us, rolled and charred, and matted 
together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three 
inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of 
Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world ; and in 
profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still 
more ancient are preserved. 

BOOKS, Pricks of. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy 
of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography, 
by Alfred, about a. d. 872. The Roman de la Rose was sold for above 30Z.,- 
and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat; and 
they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold at 
prices varying from lOZ. to 40?. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value 
of some volumes is very great. A copy of MacUin's Bible, ornamented by 
Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guineas.— jB^'T^fcr. A yet more 
superb copy is at present insured in a London office for 3,000?. — Times. II 
Decamerone of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the duke of Rox- 
burgh's sale by the duke of Marlborough for 2260/.. June 17, 1?>\2.— Phillips. 
A copji" of the "Mazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book ever 
printed (hj Guttemberg at Mentz in 1455) was sold at auction in London 



BOO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 209 

in April 1846 for 500Z. This copy, the only one known to exist exeept 19 
in public libraries, is now in a private library in New York. 

BOOKS, Printed. The first printed books were trifling hymns and psalters, and 
being printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The 
first printing was, as a book, the Book of Psalms, by Faiist and SchseflPer, his 
son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works weve printed many years before ; 
but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed 
works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity 
on Faust; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was finished in 
1460. See article Devil and Dr. Faustus. The second printed was Cicero de 
Officiis, 1466. — Blair. The first book printed in England was The Game and 
Play of the Chesse, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Liturgy, 
in 1550. The first classical work printed in Russia was Corn. Nepotis Vitce, 
in 1762. Ldccian's Dialogues was the first Greek book printed in America 
(at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of astronomy and geometry were all de- 
stroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552. — 
Stowe's Chronicles. 

The above is from Haydn; but according to Pettigreto, {Biblio. Sussex.) 
the first book printed with movable types was tlie Latin Bible, printed by 
John Gnttemberg at Mayence, about 1455. It was in two folio volumes ; 
and so excellent was the workmanship, both in type, ink, paper, and press- 
work, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions 
for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible, 
as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies 
are now known to exist — all but one being in public libraries in Europe. 
[See previous article.] Specimens of the block books, printed with engraved 
wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Biblia Pauperum, 
done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of 
New York. 

BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is 
supposed to have been bound about a. d. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards 
was bound in the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the 
book on which our kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation 
oath, was bound in oaken b6ards, nearly an inch thick, a. d. 1100. Velvet 
was the covering in the fourteenth century ; and silk soon after. Vellum 
was introduced early in the fifteenth centurj'- ; it was stamped and orna- 
mented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth 
binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831. Caoutchouc, 
or India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes introduced 1841. 

BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book- 
keeping, was taken from the course of algebra which was published by 
Burgo, at Venice, then, a great commercial stalCj in the fifteenth century. 
It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Book- 
keeping in 1569. — Anderson. 

BOOK TRADE of Great Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new 
works published in successive years is thus stated : 

Gt. Brit. France. Germany. 

1828 - 842 - — - 5,654 

laSO - 1,142 - — - 5,926 

1834 - 1,220 - — - 6,074 

The number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under 
the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount to 
55,474, or 1681 each year. 

England. —Ttid Avhole number of books printed in England during 14 years, 
from 1666 to 1680, was 3,550 ; equal to 253 yearly ;— but deducting the 



Gt. Brit. France. Germany. 
1836 - 1,332 - — . 7,891 

1849 - — . _ . _ 

1850 - — - 7,208 - — 



210 THE world's progress. [boo 

reprints, pamplilets, single sermons, and maps, the annual average of new 
books may be computed at much less than 100. 
The number of new works, exclusive of "all pamphlets and other tracts," 
issued during 56 years, as appears from a " Complete Catalogue of Modern 
Books published from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," was 
5,280 ; equal to a yearly average of 94. 
The number of new works, exclusive of reprints and pamphlets, issued 
during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,096 ; equal to 372 
each year. 
The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, in- 
cluding reprints altered in size and price, but excluding pamphlets, was, 
according to the London Catalogue, 19,860 : — deducting one fifth for reprints, 
we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year. 

Mr. McCulloch estimates the nimiber of volumes of new publications pro- 
duced annually in Great Britain (exclusive of reprints, pamphlets, and 
periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,500 ; and the average 
impression of each volume at 750 copies ; — annual total, 1,125,000 volumes : 
— value at 95. a volume, £506,250. "The number of reprinted volumes, 
particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the 
reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of news- 
papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new 
copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about 
£750,000." 

France. — The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased 
since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive 
work {Notions Statistiques sur la Librarie)^ published in 1827, estimated the 
number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French 
press in 1816 at 66,852,883 ; and in 1825, at 128,011,483 ; and we believe 
that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if any 
thing inferior. 
The first six months of the year 1837, as stated by the "Foreign Quarterly 
review," there were printed in France, 3.413 works, in French and other 
languages ; also 571 engravings and lithographs. 

Germany. — The book-trade of Gei-many is greatly facilitated by the book- 
fairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Micheelmas, which are attended by the 
booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the neighboring countries, 
as France, Switzerland, Denmai'k, &c. This trade began to flourish in 1814 ; 
the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000 ; but 
the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded 
5,000 in 1827 ; and it now exceeds 7,000. 

"An Augsburg paper states." (says the " Foreign Quarterly Review," 1836,) 
" that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000,000 of ^t)lumes are annually printed 
in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names of 
more than 1,000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are now 
living upwards of 50,000 persons who have written one or more books. The 
total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimated 
from 5 to 6,000,000 dollars." 

Russia. — In the year 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were 
published in Russia, exclusive of 46 periodicals. 

Sweden. — There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden ; 10 in Stock- 
holm, 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in Norkoping, and 1 in several other 
places. 
BOOK-TRADE op thr UNITED STATES. The number of new works which 
appeared in the United States, in 1834 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, forming 



nOK. J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 211 

1,300 volumes, and the cost of which may be estimated at ^1,220,000. In 
1836, the number was considerably increased, and the cost of the books 
published in that year cannot be computed at less than S 1,500,000. Boston, 
New York; Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount. 
Another statement for the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, is as follows : — originals 
1,030, reprints, 854 ; total, 1,884 ; — number of volumes printed (1,000 for 
each edition), 1,884,000. 

In most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and more 
frequent in the United States than in any other countrj^. Many reprinted 
English works have here passed three or four editions, while the publishers 
of the original in England have but 'one. In one instance, the sale cf a 
book in America amounted to 100,000 copies, whereas in England onty four 
editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of 

The amount of literary productions in America has more than doubled 
during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling establishments 
amounted in 1836, to $ 1,350,000. 

The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and im- 
ported literary productions in 1834 : 

Original. Rej^rint. 

Education - - 73 - 9 

Divinity - - - 37 - 18 

Novels and Tales - 19 - 9.5 

History and Biography - 19 - 17 

Jurisprudence - - 20 - 3 | 

Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful 
predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived from 
foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the 
United States ; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may 
be formed from the circumstance, that, of some of the most popular com- 
pilations in geography, from 100,000 to 800,000 copies have been sold in ten 
years ; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent 
income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years, 
the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly 
doubled. 

[The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in the Booksellers^ Advertiser, edited hy 
G. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of publi- 
cations in successive years : but the following list is compiled from the semi-montnly register 
in the Literary World.] 

American Vvbi.ications— January to June, 1849. 







triginal. 


Reprint. 


Poetiy 


• 


- i 


3 


Travels 


. 


- 8 


10 


Fine Arts - 


. 


- S 





Miscellaneoi 


.IS works 


59 


- 43 





Original. . 


Reprint, i 


Original, Reprint. 


Education 


36 


^ 


Travels - - - 21 - 7 


Divinity - 


- 25 


25 1 


Metaphysics - - 3-8 


Novels and Tales 


18 - 


28 ! 


Miscellaneous - - 25 - 10 


History 


- 20 - 


12 1 


Law ) 


Biography 


15 - 


6 


Juvenile > not ascertained. 


Political Economy 


3 





Periodical ) 


Medicine 


12 


11 





Science 


- 11 


9 


For six months - 200 - 128 


Poetry 


11 


6 1 


Total, 328. 



The number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclu- 
sive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals. 

BOOTS. They are said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were 
made of iron, brass, or leather ; of the last material some time after their 
invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them about 
907 B. c. 

BORODINO OR MOSKWA, Battle of. one of the most sanguinary in the 
records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812, between the French and Russians ; 
commanded on the one side by Napoleon, and on the other by Kutusoff, 



5^12 THE world's progress. [ BOl 

240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the 
loss of the other was so immense ; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon, 
for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The 
road being thus left open, the French entered Moscow, Sept. 14, with little 
opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now took place, which preserved 
the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the 
French military power over Europe. See Moscow. 

BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term 
has been applied to such towns as send members to parliament, since the 
election of burgesses in the reign of Henry HI. 1265. Burgesses were first 
admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 — and into the 
Irish, 1365. 

BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the j'ounger son 
inherits. Its origin is thus explained : in feudal times the lord is said to 
have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassal's bride, 
and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in con- 
sequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenui'e is 
mentioned as occurring k. d. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abohshed 
by Malcolm HI. in ¥)^l.~Haydn. 

BOSPHORUS, now called Circassia. The history of this kingdom is involved 
in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian, 
from the Cimmcri, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Arcliean- 
actes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by 
order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 b. c. Mithridates conducted a pris- 
oner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a pro- 
vince of the empire, a. d. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the 
Turks, Sept. 8, 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under ad- 
miral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dardanelles. 

BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here com- 
menced the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the peoi^le, 1770. 
The celebrated " Tea-party" here, took place 1773. The port closed by par- 
liament 1774. British army evacuated Boston in March 1776. [See Lexing- 
ton and Blinker Hill.] The cause of Amei-ican freedom was nowhere more 
actively sustained than by the people of Boston. Benjamin Franklin was 
born here, Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration 
of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822. 
Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 18,038; in 1810, 33.250; in 1820, 43,298; 
in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons. 

BOSWORTH FIELD, Battle of, the thirteenth and last between the houses 
of York and Lancaster, in which Richard HI. was defeated by the earl of 
Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485. 
The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the 
battle was fought, and Henry was so impatient to be crowned, that he had 
the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil con- 
tests between the "Roses," many of the most ancient families in the king- 
dom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings lost 
their lives. 

BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany. 
The Historia, Plantaruvi of Theophrastus, written about 320 b. c. Authors 
on botany are numerous from the earlier ages of the world, to the close of 
the 15th century, when the science became better understood. The study 
was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Csesalpinus, and others, between 
1535 and 1600. — Mdchior Adam. The system and arrangement of Linnteus, 
the first botanist of modern times, made known about 1750. Jussieu's sy.s- 



BOU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 213 

tem, in 1758, At the time of Linnasus's death, a. d. 1778, the species of 
plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of 
species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000. 

BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Britain, 
The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived 
at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by cap- 
tain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of 
herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson, 
about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See Neiv South Wales and 
Ti-ansportation. 

BOTTLES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558. — See Glass. The 
art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans 
at least before 79 a. d., for these articles and other vessels have been found 
in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads Avas 
blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8. 

BOULOGNE, France. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France 
upon the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels, 
and sinking five. Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here 
with about fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840. — See next article and France. 

BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited 
much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration was made in 
1804. In that year, Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, 
and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to invade England. The 
coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of 
defence ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into 
volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely 
for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the inva- 
sion. 

BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, in the United States. Award of the king of the 
Netherlands on the ^boundary between Maine and the British possessions, 
Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of 
Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostock, 1838-9, 
suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New 
Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S. 
army, March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washing- 
ton, 1842. Oregon boundary — 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern 
boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington, 
June 1846. 

BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodi- 
ties — a new principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament. 
The first bounties granted on corn, were in 1688. First legally granted in 
England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been 
granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. — Elements of Commerce. 

BOUNTY, MUTINEERS of the Ship. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounty, 
armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put 
their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka. 
one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of 
Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly 
4000 miles, in which their preservation was next to miraculous. The muti- 
neers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three 
were executed. See Pitcairn's Island. 

BOURBON, House op. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of 
Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage 
with the heiress of the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarro, justly 



214 THE world's PROGE-ESS. [ B07 

styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. The 
crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaran- 
teed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. — Rapin. The Bom-bon Family Compact 
took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791, and were 
restored, 1814. Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch 
was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830, 
a consequence of the revolution of the memorably days of July in that 
year. — See France. 

BOURBON, Isle of, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French 
first settled here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered 
to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are 
styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February 
1829, by whicli immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the 
Island. See Mauritius. 

ROURDEAUX (or Bordeaux) was imited to the dominions of Henry II. of 
England, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black 
Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the 
battle of Poitiers, in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years : his son, 
Richard II., (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian 
statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1748. Bourdeaux was entered by the 
victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814. 

BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Bourignon, a fanatic, 
who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France, 
Holland, England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and 
some thousands of sectarists, about 1670. She maintained that Christianity 
does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatu- 
ral impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Light of the 
World., in which, and in several other works, she maintained and taught her 
pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate. 
She died in 1680. 

BOWLS, OR BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth 
century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I. 
plaj^ed at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at 
Tunbridge. — Memoircs de Gramviont. 

BOWS AND ARROWS. See Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to 
Apollo. Known in England previous to a. d. 450. The use of them was 
again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066 ; and greatly encour- 
aged by Richard I., 1190. — Baker's Chronicle. The u.sual range of the long- 
bow was from 300 to 400 yards ; the length of the bow was six feet, and 
the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and 
were discharged by a trigger. 

BOXING, OR PRIZE-FIGHTING, the ■pugilatus of the Romans, and a favorite 
sport with the British, who (possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an 
advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decid- 
ed by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and 
a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court — Broughton's amphitheatre, 
behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened in England to teach 
boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring," 
selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c., 
the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing 
have declined. 

BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl of 
Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his 
genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures 
in vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-le- 



bra] dictionary of dates. 215 

Bow church, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and 
September to November — endowed 1691. 

BOYNE, Battle op, between kmg William III. and his father-in-law, James II., 
fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing 
1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that mimber. James 
immediately afterwards fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to 
France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle. 

BRABANT. It was erected into a duchy a.d. 620, and devolved upon Lam- 
bert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip 11. of 
Burgundy, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the 
seventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant, 
and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the 
great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746 
— again in 1794 by their Republic ; and it now forms part of the kingdom 
of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgium. 

BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients ; we read 
of them in almost all nations ; those that were called armillce were usually 
distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions. — Nouv. Diet. 
Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are 
female ornaments to the present day. 

BRAGANZA, House op, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and 
bloodless revolution in Portugal, a. d. 1640, when the nation, throwing off 
the Spanish yoke, which had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of 
Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign. — Abbe 
Vertot. 

BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Py- 
thagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metemp- 
sychosis; aird it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to 
India on purpose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive 
their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to 
their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. 
They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoy- 
ments. — SLrabo. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the de- 
positaries of the whole learning of India. — Holwell. 

BRANDENBURGH, Family op, is of great antiquitj^, and some historians say 
it was founded by the Sclavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, which 
signifies Guard of the Forests. Henry I., surnamed the Fo^vler, fortified 
Brandenburgh, a. d. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He be- 
stowed the government on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of 
Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927. 
The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nurem- 
berg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia. 

BRAND YWINE, Battle of, between the British royalist forces and the Ameri- 
cans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell 
to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777. 

BRASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in tlie 
seventh generation from Adam. — Bible. Brass was known among all the 
early nations. — Usher. The Britons from the remotest period vrere acquainted 
with its use.— Whittaker. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to the 
ground, 146 b. c, the riches he found were immense, and during the confla- 
gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together, 
formed the valuable composition since known under the name of Corinth- 
ian Brass. This, however, may wvU be doubted, for the Corinthian artists " 
had long liofore obtained great credit for their mothcKl of combining grold 



216 THE world's progress. [bee 

and silvei with copper ; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that 
Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articles 
made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig 
nificant, were yet highly valued. — Du Fresnoy. 

BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese. Avho was 
driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the Land of the 
Holy Cross ; but it was" subsequently called Brazil on account of its red 
wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. The 
gold mines were first oijened in 1684 ; and the diamond mines were discov- 
ered 1730 (see Diamonds). The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, 
the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution 
took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Don 
Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated the 
throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826 ; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infant 
son, now emperor, April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil 
war ensued. — See Portugal. 

BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the 
first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method 
of making bread from wheat, and Avine from rice, 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hisi. 
Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages ; see Exodus xii. 15. 
Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 b. c. During the siege of 
Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which 
had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made 
from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a. d. 1594. — 
Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of 
barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread; 
and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been 
eaten as bread in some parts of tlie world : near Moscow is a portion of 
land Avhose clay will ferment when mixed with flom-. The Indians of Lou- 
isiana C?) eat a white earth with salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat 
a white unctuous earth. — ■ Gixig ; Phillips. ^ 

BREAKWATER at PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendous work 
was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the 
great, August 12 1812. It was designed-to break the swell at Plymouth, 
and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 360 feet in breadth at the 
bottom, and more than thirty at the top. and consumed 3,666,000 tons of 
granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a 
million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of 
the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. 

BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 937 b. c. The 
breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in 
the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Armor. 

BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; by the 
Spaniards in 1625 ; and again by the Dutch in 1637. Charles II. resided 
here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See Restoration. Breda was 
taken by the French in 1793, and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The 
French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the power of 
France ceased here. 

BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It Avas 
Avorn by the Dacians. Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Itaty, 
it is said, it Avas Avorn in the time of Augustus Csesar. In the reign of Ho- 
norius, about a. d. 394, the braccari, or breeches-makers, were expelled from 
Rome ; but soon aftcrvA^ards the use of breeches Avas adopted in other coun- 
tries, and at length it became general. 



BRl] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 217 

BREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of 
Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757 ; they were driven 
out by the Hanoverians in 1758 ; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen 
was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its indepen- 
dence was restored in 1813. See Hanse Toions. 

BRESLAU, Battle op, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under 
prince Bevern, who was defeated, but the engagement was most bloody on 
both sides, Nov. 22, 1757, when Breslau was taken ; but was regained the 
same year. This city was for some time besieged by the French, and sur- 
rendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813. 

BREST. It was besieged by Julius Csesar, 54 b. c. — possessed by the English, 
A. D. 1378 — given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and a 
British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. 
The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling, 
1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The 
magazine again destroyed bj'' a fire, July 10, 1784. From this great, depot 
of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England 
during the late war. 

BRETHREN in INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting 
formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a coun- 
try, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of 
England, 1066. 

BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with France at Bretigny, and bj'' which Eng- 
land retained Gascony and Guienne, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, 
Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her preten- 
sions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England was also to 
receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long 
prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. 

BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church 
of Rome. It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and 
both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among 
the ecclesiastical orders about a. d. 1080 ; and was reformed by the councils 
of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. The 
quality of tj'pe in which the breviary ^^'as first printed gave the name to the 
type called brevier at the present daJ^ 

BREWERS. The first are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo- 
Saxon ancestors. — T'nulal. " One William JMnrle, a rich maultman or bruer, 
of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with gold, 1414." — Stowc. There 
are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 in 
Ireland : these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which 
there are in England about 1400 ; there are, besides, 28,000 victuallers, &c., 
who brew their own ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers, 
many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brev/ers and 
the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer. 

BRIBERY. In England an indictable offence to bribe persons in the adminis- 
tration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the 
land for bribery, in 1288; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. Wil- 
liam de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanged for bribery 
in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,000Z. for the like offence, 1616. Mr. 
Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord 
Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords, for soli- 
citing a bribe, January 1784. 

BRIBERY at ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable 
ofience. Messrs, Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for l)ribery at 
10 



218 THE world's progress. [ BRj 

an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803 ; 
and several similar instances have occurred since. 

BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt, 
Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about a. d. 44. Made 
under the directioTi of Alfred the Great, about 886. — Saxon Chroji. The 
size regulated bv order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed, 1784. The number of 
bricks which paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, the 
number exceeded 1,100,090,000 ; and in 1840 it amounted to 14,000,000,000. 
See Building. 

IJRIDAL CEREMONIES. Among the more rational ceremonies observed by 
I he ancients, was the practice of conducting the biide to the house of her 
spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned ; it originated with the 
Tiiebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence on 
her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to her 
parents ; it is mentioned 880 b. c. 

BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a royal palace of king John, near 
Fleet-ditch, London ; it was built anew by Henry VIII. in 1522, and was 
given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this'' 
name throughout England. The first London Bridewell was in a locality 
near to Bride's well; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why simi- 
lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name. 

BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expedients for their construction so 
various, their origin cannot be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient 
bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos 
is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. 
Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was 
built in A. D. 103. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its 
frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could 
scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were 
invented to account for it At Shaffhausen an extraordinary bridge was 
built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide : there was a pier in the 
middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a 
man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons 
heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by 
the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July 
29, 1848. 

BRIDGES IN ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and 
were fortified with planks and merlined ; the first bridge of Stone was built 
at Bow, near Stratford, a. d. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest 
erected in these realms, and not surpassed by anj^ in the world, except in 
China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are 
Blackfriars, completed 1770 ; London, (rebuilt) 1831 ; Southwark, of iron, 
1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Severn, 
in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the 
Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845. 

BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was 
begun by the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in 
that country, in 1758 : Mr. Brindley was the architect. The canal com- 
mences at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at Barton-bridge is 
an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the 
navigable river Irwell ; its length is twenty-nine miles. 

BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but imcertain 
date. Briefs are the letters of the pojDe dispatched to princes and others on 
public affairs, and are usually "written short, and hence the name, and are 
without preface or preamble, and on jjaper ; in..wliic]i particulars th ~ »'•« 



BRI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 219 

distinguished from bulls. The latter are ample, and always written on 
parchment ; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St. 
Peter ill a boat, and always in presence of the pope ; they are used for graces 
and dispensations, as well as business. 
BRIENNE, Battle of, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and 
the French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2d February, 1814. The 
allies were defeated with great loss ; this was one of the last battles in which 
the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon. 

BRISTOL. This city, one of the principal in England, was built by Brennus, 
a prince of the Britons, 380 b. c. It was granted a charter and became a 
distinct county in the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Glouces- 
ter, in his defence of his sister Maude, the empress, against king Stephen, 
1188. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655. 
Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the iccorder, into 
the city, attended by a large police and special force, to open the sessions. 
He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, a riot en- 
sued, wiiich was of several days' continuance, and which did net terminate 
until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some 
of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned, 
and many lives lost, Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832; four 
were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during 
his trial by court-martial, Jan. 9, same year. 
BRITAIN. The earliest records of the history of this island are the manu- 
scripts and poetrj' of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the 
Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of Britain. Bri- 
tain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, 
the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to 
only one. — Pliny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Csesar, 
55 B. c, but they made no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his gen- 
erals, Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty 
pitched battles with the natives, a. d. 48 and 44. The conquest was com- 
I^leted by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, a. d. 85. 

First invasion of Britain by the Romans, 
under Julius Caesar - - b. c. 55 

Cymbeline, king of Britain - - 4 

Expedition of Claudius into Britain, a. d. 40 

London founded by the Romans - 49 

Caractacus carried in chains to Rome • 51 

The Romans defeated by Boadicea; 
70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61 

A vast army of Britons is defeated by 



Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at 
York - - - - A. D. 30e 

The Roman forces are finally with- 
drawn from Britain - 420 to 426 

The Saxons and Angles are called in to 
aid the natives against their northern 
neighbors the Picts and Scots - 449 

Having expelled these, the Anglo-Sax- 
ons attack the natives themselves, 



Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - 61 : driving them into Wales - - 455 



Reisr, of Lucius, the first Christian kinj^ 
of Britain, and in the world - - 179 

Severus keeps his court at York, then 
called Eboracum - - - 207 

He dies at York - - - - 211 

Carausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne 
of Britain - - - - 286 

He is killed by Alectus, who continues 
the usurpation - - - - 293 

Constantius recovers Britain by the de- 
feat of Alectus - - - - 296 



Many of the natives settle in Armorica, 

since called Brittany - - - 457 

The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided 

into seven kmgdoms - - - 457 

Reign of the renowned Arthur - - 506 

Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and 

establishment of Christianity - - 596 
Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, 

began his reign - - - 678 

The Saxon Heptarchy ends - - 828 

See England, and also Tabular Views, p. 
75, &c. 

That Britain formerly joined the Continent has been inferred from the simi- 
lar cliffs of the opposite coasts of the English Channel, and from the con- 
stant encroachments of the sea in still widening the channel. For mstaucc, 
a large part of the cliffs of Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810. 
Phillips's Annals. 
BRITISH MU.SEDM. The origin of this ereat national in.stttution was th- 



220 THE world's PHOGRESS. [ BRtt 

grant by parliament of 20,000Z. to the daugliters of sir Hans Sloane, in pay- 
ment for his fine hbrary, and vast collection of the productions of nature 
and art, which had cost him 50,000/. The library contained 50,000 volumes 
and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertu were enumerated in the cat- 
alogue of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 1753 ; and in the same 
year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the recep- 
tion of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased 
to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species of 
curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art, and by the transference to its 
rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries, the Elgin marbles, 
&c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Bucking- 
ham-house by George III. — See Cottonian Library, and other collections. 

BROAD SEAL of ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the 
crown, by Edward the Confessor, a. d. 1048. — Baker's Chron. 

BROCADE. A silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and en- 
riched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chi- 
nese. — Johnson. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians. 
— Anderson. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons, 
in 1757. 

BROCOLI : an Italian Plant. — Pardon. The white and purple, both of which 
are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of 
Cj'prus, in the seventeenth century. — Anderson. About 1603. — Burns. The 
cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng- 
land and came into great abundance about 1680. — Anderson. 

BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in Eng- 
land. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was 
enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9 
William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by act 
6 George I. 1719, and 10 George II. 1736. — Statutes at large. See Pawn- 
brokers. 

BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and various 
other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian 
statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Vend6me at Paris, (demolished Aug. 

10, 1792,) was the most colossal ever made ; it contained 60.000 lbs. weight 
of bronze. Bronze is two pai'ts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added 
one fifteenth of lead and silver. 

BROTHELS, were formerly allowed in London, and considered a necessary evil, 
under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bank- 
side, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winches- 
ter ; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's officers, and the severest 
penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married women, 8 Henry 

11. 1162. — Survey of London. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Pope 
SixtTis IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, 
which amounted to 20,000 ducats a year, 1471. — Ital. Chron. 

BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robert 
Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinc- 
tions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all other 
coiumunions. But the founder subsequently recanted his doctrines for a 
benefice in the church of England. — Coltins's Eccles. Hist. 

BRUCE'S TRAVELS, undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. The 
illustrious Bruce, the " Abyssinian Traveller,"' set out in June 1768, and pro- 
ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the 
desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jidda, passed some months in Arabia 
Felix, and after various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital of Abys- 



BUG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 221 

sinia, in Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14tli, 1770, he obtained the great object of his 
wishes — a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in 
1773, and died in 179J:. 
BRUNSWICK, House of. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of 
Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, bj^ his wife Cunegonde (the heiress of 
Guelph III., duke of Bavaria), a son who was Guelph IV., the great-grand- 
father of Henry the Lion. This last married Maude, daughted of Henry II. 
of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Bruns- 
wick family. The dominions of Henrj^ the Lion were the most extensive of 
any prince of his time ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's re- 
sentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed. 
The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family 
of Bavaria ; the duch}'^ of Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the 
house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he 
retired to England ; but on Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lxmenburg 
were restored to him. The house of Brunswick has divided into several 
branches. The present duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel is sprung from the 
eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from the second ; and from this 
last sprang the roj'al familj^ of England. A revolution took place at Bruns- 
wick, Avhen the ducal palace was burnt, and tlu^ reigning prince obliged to 
retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1830. 

BRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The 
memorable bombardment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches 
and 4000 houses were destroyed, 1695. Taken by the French, 1746. 
Again, by Dumouriez, 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug. 
25. — See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and 
tapestrj''. There is here a noble building, called the H6tel de Ville, whose tur- 
ret is 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 
feet high, which turns with the wind. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly 
furniture of 16 principal houses was demolished, in consequence of a dis- 
play of attachment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834. 

BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising 
money upon false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disas- 
trous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such 
projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Covipanies, and 
Law's Bubble. 

BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French, English, and 
Dutch, commenced their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon 
after the latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies. 
The principal commanders of the first expedition were, Montbar, Lolonois, 
Basco, and Morgan, who murdered thousands, and plundered millions. The 
expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, was undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont, 
in 1685 ; and that of Pointis, in 1697. 

BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Buchan, 
who promised to conduct them to the new Jerusalem, and prophesied the 
end of the world. She appeared in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, when 
her followers dispersed. 

BUCHAREST, Treaty of. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place 
between Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be 
the frontier limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent 
war between those powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. 

BUCKINGHAM PALACE, London. Buckingham-house, built 1703, was 
pulled down in 1825, and the new palace commenced on its site ; and after 



222 THE world's progress. [ BtTi, 

expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was com- 
pleted, and was taken possession of bj' queen Victoria, July 13, 1837. 

BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Proetus and Acri- 
sius, of Argos, about 1370 e. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam- 
nites, he took from them their bucklers, which were of gold and silver, 309 
B. 0. See article Arvior. 

BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles 11. ; 
but people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb, 
wore strings in their shoes some years after that period : these last were, 
however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them. 

RUDA; once called the Kej^ of Christendom. It was taken by Solyman U. at 
the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, 
and 200,000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda was 
sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hun- 
gary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperial- 
ists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. See 
Hungary. 

BUENA VISTA, B attle of, between the American force, of about 5,000 men, un- 
der general Taylor and general Wool ; and the Mexicans, about 20,000, imder 
Santa Anna : the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded. 
American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Ameri- 
cans the whole of the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 1847. 

BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It 
was taken by the British under sir Home Popham, J'une 21, 1806 ; and was 
retaken, after an attack of three days, Aug 12. the same year. The British 
suffered a great repulse here under general Whitelock, who was disgraced, 
July 6, 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1816 : 
the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Bue- 
nos Ayres and Monte Video, England and France blockaded the port of Bue- 
nos Ayres, Oct. 24, 1845 ; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas, 
defeated by the combined forces, Nov. 20, 1845. 

BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The 
shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abol- 
ished by Trajan, A. D. 98. Our ancient kings had jesters, who are described 
as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures ; they 
were employed under the Tudors. Some writers state that James I. con- 
verted the jesters into poet-laureates ; but poet-laureates existed long before ; 
Selden traces the latter to 1251. — Warton. 

BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone, 
and in the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone 
was early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every 
nation pursued a different system. The art of building with stone may be 
referred in England to Benedict, or Benet, a monk, about a. d. 670. The first 
bridge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick 
was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it 
in England, in 886. Brick-building was generally introduced by the earl of 
Arundel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. The increase 
of building in London was prohibited within three miles of the citj^ gates by 
Elizabeth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in one house, 1580. 

BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, a. d. 687; and are subdued by the 
emperor Basilius, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having taken 
15,000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one 
eye only to every hundredth man,- to enable him to conduct his countrymen 



BUO] 



DICTIONARY Of DATES. 



223 



home. Bulgaria was governed by Roman dukes till 1186; subdued by 
Bajazet, 1396. — Univ. Hist. vol. xvii. 

BULL, OR EDICT op the POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient 
use, and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal, 
deriving its name from bulla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and 
wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the 
name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden 
bull of the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden s^:ai; 
and was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet ol 
Nuremburg, A. D. 1856. Bulls denouncing queen Elizabeth and her abet 
tors, and consigning them to hell-fire, accompanied the Spanish Arma'la 
1588. 

BULL-BAITING, or BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of 
Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the figlits 
of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse- 
ment at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull-running was a 
sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sporls of England, Ave read of the " Eastei 
fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and 
huge bears were baited with dogs ;" and near the Clink, London, was the 
Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- 
bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish 
bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly through the influence 
of the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favor of the cus- 
tom. May 21, 1802. — Bwtler. It has since been declared illegal. See Cru- 
elly to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 1260 : abol- 
ished there, " except for piotis and patriotic purposes," in 1784. There was 
a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 specta- 
tors, on Sunday, June 14, 1840. 

BULLETS. Those of stone were in use a. d. 1514 ; and iron ones are first 
mentioned in the Pcedera, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close 
of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for 
musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stone, 
instead of iron. — Ashe. 

BUNKER HILL, Battle of, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe, 
and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss, 
1054 killed and Avounded ; American, 453. The latter obliged to retreat for 
want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has 
always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and 
is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which ^ 
the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. It Avas finished ' 
July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100,000, raised by voluntary 
contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a pro- 
cession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster ; president Tyler and 50,000 
people present, June 17, 1843. 

BUONAPARTE S EMPIRE op FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most 
extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most 
of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century. 
See his A'arious military and other achievements under their respective heads 
throughout the volume : — 



Napoleon bom at Ajaccio, in Italy, 

Aug. 1.5, 1769 
He first distinguishes himself in the 

command of the artillery at Toulon - 179-3 
He embarks for Egypt • May 10, 1798 
Is repulsed before Acre - May 27, 1799 
lie returns from Egypt - Aug. 23, 1799 



Deposes the French directory, and be- 
comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799 

Sends overtures of peace to the king of 
England - - - Jan. 1, 1800 

His life attempted by an " infernal ma- 
chine" - - - Dec. 24, 1800 



2-^4 



tj;k woiiLo't; puoghess. 



[buh 



son - - - June 22, 1815 

Intending to embark for America, he 

arrives at Rochefort - July 3, 1815 

He surrenders to Capt. Maitland, of the ' 

Bellerophon - - July 15, 1815 

Transferred at Torbay to the Northum- 

berland.axidi sails for St. Helena Aug. 8, 1815 
Arrives at St. Helena (where it is de- 
creed by the allied sovereigns he shall 
remain for life) - Oct. 15, 1815 

The family of Bonaparte excluded for 
ever from France by the law of am- 
nesty - - - Jan. 72, 1816 
Death of Bonaparte - May 5, 1821 
His will registered in England - Aug. 1824 
His son, ex-king of Rome, dies July 22, 1832 
The French chambers decree, with the 
consent of England, that the ashes of 
Napoleon be removed from St. Hele- 
na, and brought to France - May 12, 1840 
They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 1840 
The Belle Poule, French frigate, aiTives 
at Cherbourg with the ^«mains of 
Napoleon, in the care of ^he prince 
de Joinville - - Nov. 30, 1810 
They are interred with great solemnity 
in the Hotel des Invalides - Dec. 15, 1840 



BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE, conlinued. 

Elected president of the Italian, late Is defeated at Waterloo - June 18, 1815 

Cisalpine, republic - Jan. 25, 1802 ! Returns to Paris - June 20, 1815 

Elected consul for 10 years - May 8, 1802 j And abdicates in favor of his infant 

Made first consul for life - Aug. 2, 1802 l 

Accepts the title of emperor from the ! 

senate in name of the people May 18, 1804 i 

Crowned emperor by the pope Dec 2, 1804 

Crowned king of Italy - May 26, 1805 

Divorced from the empress Josephine 

Dec. 16, 1809 

Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810 

A son, the fruit of this marriage, bom, 
and styled king of Rome - March 20, 1811 

His overtures of peace to England re- • 
jected - - - April 14, 1812 

[The reverses of Bonaparte now follow 
in quick .succession.] 

He renounces the thrones of France 
and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of 
Elba for his retreat - April 5, 1814 

Embarks at Frejus - - April 28, 1814 

Arrives at Elba - - May 3, 1814 

Again appears in France ; he quits Elba 
and lands at Cannes - March 1, 1815 

Enters Lyons - - March 10, 1815 

Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 

Joined by all the army - March 22, 1815 

The allies sign a treaty for Iris exter- 
mination - - - March 25, 1815 

He abolishes the slave-trade March 29, 1815 

Leaves Paris for the army - June 12, 1815 

BURGESS, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England witli 
its corporations. Burgesses Avere called to parliament in England a. d, 1265 ; 
in Scotland, in 1326 ; and in Ireland, about 1365. Burgesses to be resident 
in the places which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V. 
1413. — Viner's Statutes. See Borough. 

BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. this crime, in England, was pun- 
ished with death. 

BURGOS, Siege of. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamanca, 
which was fought Jiily 22, 1812, and the castle M-as besieged by the British 
and allied army, and several attemjits were made to carry it by assault, but 
the siege was abandoned in October, same year. The castle and fortifica- 
tions were blown up by the French in June 1813. 

BURGUNDY. This kingdom begins in Alsace, a. d. 413. Conrad II. of Ger- 
many being declared heir to the kingdom, is opposed in his attempt to an- 
nex it to the empire, when it is dismembered, and on its ruins are formed 
the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence, Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Bur- 
gundy becomes a circle of the German empire, 1521. It falls to Philip 11. 
of Spain, whose tyi-anny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the 
Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy annexed to 
France, and formed into departments of that kingdom. 

BURIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body to eartk. 
The first idea of it was formed by Adam, on his observing a live bird cover- 
ing a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the most ancient graves. See 
Barrows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210. — 
Eusebius. The first Christian burial-place was instituted in 596 ; burial in 
cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in church-yards, 758. Vaults were 
erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in Eng- 
land, 1666. Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729 ; and woollen 
shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1673.. See Cemeteries. 

BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were in- 



BUU ] DICTIONARY- OF DATES. 225 

stituted in England by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1536. — Stowe. A tax 
was exacted on burials in England : for the burial of a duke, £50, and foi 
that of a common person 4s., under William III., 1695, and Geo. III. 1783. — 
Statutes. See Bitls of Mortality. 

BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It 
was thus named from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpe- 
trated being called Burke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by 
pressure, or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no 
marks of violence, were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose 
of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February, 1829. The 
crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London. 
The monster named Bishop was apprehended in November 1831, and exe- 

- cuted with Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor Italian 
boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a friendless wanderer, and therefore selected as 
being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar 
murders), December 5, same year. 

BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alom- 
pra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. — See India. 

BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among the Romans, Jews, 
and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest 
in the ascending and descending degrees. The Jews had two ways of burn- 
ing alive : one with wood and faggots to burn the body, the other by pour- 
ing scalding lead doAvn the throat of the criminal, cmnbustio animce, to burn 
the soul.— See Sitttees. 

BURNING ALIVE, in England. Even in England (see preceding article) burn- 
ing alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished 
heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonehenge. This 
punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered 
in this manner. — See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on ac- 
count of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir William Sawtree, 
parish priest of St. Osith, London, 8 Henry IV., February 9, 1401. In the 
reign of the cruel Mary numbers were burned, among others, Ridley, bishop 
of London ; Latimer, bishop of Rochester ; and Cranmer, archbishop of 
Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others 
suffered this dreadful death in Mary's reign.* 

BURNING THE DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the The- 
ban war ; it was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet Ho- 
mer abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was 
verj' general about 1225 b. c, and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the 
dead in graves should be violated ; and to this day the burning of the dead 
is practised in many parts of the East and West Indies. 

BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown 
to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful 
by the modern improvements of Settalla: of Tchirnhausen, 1680; of Bufibn, 
1747 ; and of Parker and others, more recently. The following are experi- 
ments of the fLi.«ion of substances made with Mr. Parker's lens, or burning 
mirror : 



* It is cninputeil, that during the three years of Mary's reisn in which these shocking violences 
and barbaviiies were carried on, there were 277 persons brought to the stake ; besides tho.se who 
were punished by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who suffered by fire were 
5 bisliops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, SI tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers, 
h'l womevi, and 4 children. The unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishops Gar- 
dner and Honner. The latter especially was a man of brutal character, who seemed to derive a 
vage pleasure in witnessing the torture of the sufferers. 



226 THE world's progress. [ BYZ 



Substances fused. Weight. Time. 

A topaz - - - 3 grains 45 seconds. 

An emerald - - 2 grains 25 seconds. 

A crystal pebble - 7 grains G seconds. 

Flint - - - - 10 grains 30 seconds. 

Cornelian - - 10 grains 75 seconds. 

Pumice stone - - 10 grains 24 seconds. 



BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS, contimi^d. 

Substances/used. Weight. Time. 

PiU'e gold - - 20 grains 4 seconds. 

Silver - - - 20 grains 3 seconds. 

Copper - - - 33 grains 20 seconds. 

Platina - - - 10 grains 3 seconds. 

Cast iron - ■ 10 grains 3 seconds. 

Steel - - - 10 grains 12 seconds. 

Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils immediately ; bones arc 
calcined ; and things, not capable of melting, at once become red-hot like iron. 

BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Bceotia, where Creon ordered 
Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 b. c. The Roman 
vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dress 
or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia 
was buried alive on the charge of incontinence, 337 b. c. The vestal- Sextilia 
was bui'ied alive 274 b. c. The vestal Cornelia a. d. 92. Lord Bacon gives 
instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; the fa- 
mous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, Presi- 
dent of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be immured in brick walls 
built .around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this 
species of torture until they died, October, 1831. — See Greece. 

BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is 
the same with the herma of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the 
inventor of moulds from which he cast wax figures, 328 b. c. — Pliny. Busts 
from the f;ice in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about 

A. D. 1466. — Vasari. 

BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were three classes : the Suarii pro- 
vided hogs, the Boarii oxen, and the hanii, whose office was to kill. The 
butchers' trade is very ancient in England ; so is their company in London, 
although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I. 1604. — 
Annals of London. 

BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the 
early Romans it was irsed only as a medicine — never as food. The Chris- 
tians of Egj^pt burnt butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third cen- 
tury. In 1675, there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow 
dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable 
butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba, 
than any butter made from cow's milk. — Mungo Park. 

BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England"; those covered with cloth were 
prohibited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal but- 
tons, 8 George I. 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement 
from any quarter of late years, although it has, notwithstanding, much im- 
proved. — PkilMps. 

BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round 
the globe, June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he dis- 
covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, Au- 
gust 16, 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill fortune 
at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, " Foul- weather Jack." — 
Bellchambe7's. 

BYZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, foimded by a colony of Athenians, 715 

B. c. — Eusebius. It was taken by the Romans, a. d. 73, and was laid in ruins 
by Severus in 196, Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantine in 338 ; and after 
him it received the name of Constantinople. See Constardinople 



CAD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 22''?' 



CABAL. A Hebrew word, used in various senses. The rabbins were cabalists, 
and the Christians so called those who pretended to magic. In English his- 
tory, the Cabal was a council which consisted of five lords in administration, 
supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellation 
of the CabaL, from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Clilford, the lord 
Ashley, the duke of Buckingham, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauder- 
dale, 22 Charles II. l&lO.—Hume. 

CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so early as the reign 
of Ina, king of the West Saxons, a. d. 690; Offa, king of the Mercians, 758, 
and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret 
deliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen friends, and the 
great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, now 
styled the privy council, was instituted by Alfred the Great, about a. d. 896. 
Spelman. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was recon- 
structed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members :* 

Lord president. 

Lord chancellor. 

Lord privy seal. 



First lord of the treasury. 
Chancellor of the exchequer. 



Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. 

President of the board of control. 

President of the boari of trade. 

Master of the mint. 

First lord of the admiralty. 



In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War, the Woods 

and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of 

Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of 

. the various reigns Avill be found under the head Administrations of England. 

CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times : a machine for making 
the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine-tenths, was invented 
in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making 
cables for ships of large size. Chain cables were introduced into the British 
navy in 1812. 

CADDEE, OR League of God's House. The celebrated league of independence 
in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons, to resist domestic tyranny, a. d. 1400 
to 1419. A second league of the Grisons M'as called the Grise or Gray 
league, 1424. 

CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive from his coun- 
ti-y on account of his crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed 
20,000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil ministers, and procure a 
redress of grievances." Cad'e entered London in triumph, and for some time 
bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer, Lord Saye, and 
several other persons of consequence. The insurgents at length losing 
ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, finding himself de- 
serted by his followers, fled : but a reward being offered for his apprehen- 
sion, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander 
Iden, sheriff of Kent, 1451. 

CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 530 b. c. — Priestley. 
One hundred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada, 

' The term cabinet council is of comparatively modem date, and originated thus : the affairs 
of state, in the reign of Charles I. were principally managed by the archbishop of Canterbury, the 
earl of Strafford, and the lord Cottington ; to these were added the earl of Northumberland, for or- 
nament; the bishop of London for his place, being lord treasurer; the two secretaries, Vaae and 
Windebank, for service and intelligence ; only the marquis of Hamilton, by his skill and interest, 
meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. These persons made up the committee of 
state, reproachfully called ihe junto, and afterwards, enviously, the cabinet council. — Lord Cr»A- 

RENDON. 



228 THE world's progress. [ CAL 

against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake, 1587. 
Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered, 
September 15, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he 
failed. Bombarded by the British in 1797, and blockaded by their fleet, 
under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by 
the British, on board whose fleet were 18,000 land forces, October 1800. 
Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca 
in 1812. Massacre of the inhabitants by the soldieiy, March 10, 1820. 
Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829. 
CjESARS, era of the ; or Spanish Era, is reckoned from the first of January 
38 B. c, being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was 
much irsed in Africa, Spain, and the south of France; but by a synod held 
in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. 
Pedro IV.. of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John 
of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal till 
1455. The mouths and days of this era are identical with the Julian calen- 
dar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the 
year; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine. 
CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the com- 
mander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to drown the enemy, 
broke down its embanlanents : his stratagem succeeded, and every man of 
■the besiegers perished ; but the city was at the same time overflowed by 
the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming 
flood, A. D. 1642. 
CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for 
the minarets of its mosques, and the splendid sepulchres of its caliphs in 
what is called the city of the dead : it was built by the Saracens, in a. d. 
969. Burnt to i^revent its occupation by the Christian invaders, called Cru- 
saders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, and their 
empire siibdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, June, 
1754; when 40.000 persons perished. Set on fire bj* a lady of the beglerbeg, 
Dec, 1755. Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798. 
Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitulated, June 27, 
1801. 
CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and held 
by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 1558, 
and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it 
occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was bom- 
barded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long 
exile from France, April 24, 1814. See France. 
CALCUTTA. The first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. It 
was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta 
was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants, 
in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort, 146 of the British were crammed 
into the Black-hole prison, a dungeon about 18 feet square, from whence 
twenty-three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was re- 
taken the following year, and the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supreme 
court of Judicatm-e established 1773. College founded here 1801. — See 
Bengal and India. 
CALEDONIA. Now Scotland. The name is supposed by some to be derived 
from Gael or Gaelmen, or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, 
who died a. d. 99, distinguishes this portion of feritian by the appellation of 
Caledonia; but the etymology of the word seems undetermined. Vener- 
able Bede says, that it retained this name until a. d. 258, when it was invaded 
by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scofia. The ancient inhabitants appei» 



oal] dictionary of dates. 229 

to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, who passed 
over from the opposite coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth 
century of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho- 
rities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven 
the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to 
the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits, 
customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlanders 
and the inhabitants of the southern borders, 



Caledonian monarchy, said to liave been 
founded by Fergus I., about - b. c. 330 

Tlie Picts trom the north of England 
settle in the southern borders - - 140 

Agricola carries the Roman arms into 
Caledonia, with little success, in the 
reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- 
bred 11. " - - - A. d. 79 

He is signally defeated by the forces of 
Corbred 80 

Christianity is introduced into Caledonia 
in the reign of Donald I. - ■ 201 



The country is invaded by the Scuyths, 
or Scots, and the government is over- 
thrown, about - - A. D. 300 

The Caledonian monarchy is revived by 
Fergus II. 40i 

After many sanguinary wars between 
the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Ken- 
neth II. obtains a victory over the Picls, 
unites the whoje counti-y under one 
monarchy, and gives it the name of 
Scotland - . - - 838 to 843 

See Scotland. 



The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the his- 
tory of the country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm III., surnamed 
Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermixed with many and improb- 
able fictions. 

CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means 
of this magnificent canal, the nautical intercourse between the western 
ports of Great Britain, and tliose also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Bal- 
tic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sum 
exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ; 
and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed, 
and opened in 1822. 

CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by 
almost all nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into 
ten months, comprising 304 days, a. d. 738 b. c. The year of Romulus was 
of fifty days less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than 
the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with 
any 6xed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 b. c. corrected this calendar, by 
adding two months ; and Julius Caesar, desirous to make it more correct, 
fixed the solar j^ear as being 365 days and six hours, 45 b. c. This ahnost 
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener- 
ally throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIH. 
The calendar of Julius Cajsar was defective in this particular, that the solar 
year consisted of 365 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes : and not of 
365 days six hours. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII. had 
amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox falling on the 11th, instead 
of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, 
that that year should consist of 365 days only ; and to prevent further irregu- 
larity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bis- 
sextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : thus, 
1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so ; but the year 
2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 
years, because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that 
period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to 
correspond with the true solar year ; and future errors of chronology are 
avoided. See New Style. 
CALICO. The well-known. cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India, 
which was discovered by tlic Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought 
to England by the East India Company, in 1631. Calico printing, and the 



230 THE wokld's progress. [ CAl 

Dutch loom engine, were first used in 1676. — Anderson. Calicoes were pro-; 
liibit€d to be printed or -worn, in 1700 ; and again, in 1721. They were first 
made a branch of manufacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cotton. 

CALIFORNIA, Lower, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror 
of Mexico, 1534 ; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate 
TJlloa, 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by 
Philip n. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego 
and Monterey, and was the first Spaniard in Upper California, 1602. 

CALIFORNIA, Upper, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Al- 
bion, 1596. The Spanish colonists having been expelled by the ill-used 
natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits, in 
1697. Jesuit missions and Presidios estabhshed in New ."'alifornia 1769. 
Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a province of Mexico, 
1824 ; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California ex- 
plored by the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with 
that of Fremont, overland, in 1811-3. Another expedition under Fremont, 
1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by 
Com. Montgomery, July 8, 1845. Com. Stockton takes possession of Uppci 
California May-August, 1846, and institutes United States military govern- 
ment. Movements of general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c,, 1846. Cali- 
fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. Gold 
placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, Februaiy, 1848. 
Great emigration from the United States commenced November, 1848. Con- 
vention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Con- 
stitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chcsen first governor, 
Dec. 1849. 

CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle; the title assumed by the Soplii of 
Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the succes- 
sors of Mahomet. The caliphat was adopted by Abubeker, the father of 
the Prophet's second wife, in whose arms he died, a. d. 631. In process of 
time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the civil power, and little but the 
title was left to the caliphs, and that chiefly in matters of religion. — Sir. T. 
Herbert. 

CALLIGRAPHY. Beautiful writing, in a small compass, invented by Callicra- 
tes, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472 
B. c. The modern specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and 
beautiful. In the sixteenth centurj', Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, 
creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the 
month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he 
presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle of a silver penny, 
enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accu- 
._ rately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty, 
the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574. 
— Holinshed. 

CALLAO, IN Peru. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, 
and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, a. d. 1687. 
The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inhabitants perished, 
with the exception of one man. who was standing on an eminence, and to 
whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat. 

i:ALOMEL. The mercurial compound termed calomel is first mentioned by 
Crollius, early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously 
known. The first directions given for its preparation were those announced 
by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was known some 
centuries before. 



cam] DIUTIOiN'ARY OF DATES. 231 

CALVARY', Mount. The place where the Redbemer suftered death, a. d. 33. 
Calvary was a small eminence or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated 
to the execution of malefactors. See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time 
of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount 
Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, a. d. 142. 
Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from all 
Christian countries. 

CALVINISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated re- 
former of the Christian church from the Romish superstition and doctrinal 
errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy ; but adopting the princi- 
ples of the Reformers, he fled to Angoulfime, where he composed his Iiisti- 
tutio Chrisbiana Religionis, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He 
subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he 
differed from Luther in essential points, still his followers did 'not consider 
themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A 
formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561, 
where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augs- 
burg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. 

CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric 
takes its name. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable sur- 
prise, in 1595. Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war 
of the French revolution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793, 
when the republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summons to 
surrender, that "he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to 
fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas. 
Colville, June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was 
occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court. 

CAMBRAY, League of. This was the celebrated league against the republic 
of Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and 
Spain ; and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in 
the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508. 

CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for ruffles. — Skakspeare. Cambrics 
were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliza- 
beth, 1580. — Stowe. The importation of them was restricted, in 1745 ; and 
was totally prohibited by statute of 32 George II. 1758. Readmitted ii 
1786, but afterwards again prohibited : the importation of cambrics is now 
allowed. 

CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta., and of most ancient standing, being fre- 
quently mentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians. 
Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and s\yord to be revenged o'. 
king William Rufus. The university is said to have been commenced bj 
Sigebert, king of East Angles, about a. d. 631 ; but it lay neglected during 
the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Cambridge now containh 
thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the mos 
ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe, and thu 
chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world. 

CAMERA LUCIDA. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about l^i— Wood's Ath. Ox. 
Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera ob- 
scm-a, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger 
Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural 
magic, about 1500. — Moreri. Sir I. Newton remodelled it. By the recent 
invention of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered perma- 
nent ; the last was produced in 1889. 

CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians, 
and continued to hold their religious meetings in the fields. — Biirncf. 



232 THE world's progress. [ CAl^ 

CAMP. All the eiLvly warlike nations had camps, which are consequently 
most ancient. The disijosition of the Hebrew encampment was, we are 
told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gauls had in- 
trenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encampments 
are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. The 
last camp in England was formed at Hyde Park in 1745. 

(JAMPEACHY-BAY. Discovered about a, d. 1520; it was taken by the Eng- 
lish in 1659 ; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678; and by the free- 
booters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up 
the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in 
1662. 

CAMPERDOWN, Battle of. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, south 
of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral 
Duncan,' over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter ; the latter 
losing fifteen ships, which were either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. 

CAMPO FORMIO, Treaty op, concluded between France and Austria, the 
latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, 
and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memor- 
able and humiliating treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the 
Rhine. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of the 
Venetian dominions in compensation for the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1797. 

CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, a. d. 
1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608, but it had been previously 
visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but was re- 
stored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was 
confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two 
provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates 
on this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel between Mr. Burke 
and Mr. Fox arose. 

CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Mon- 
treal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St. 
Eustace, Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and wei'e 
repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham, 
governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors, 
April 12, 1838. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again man- 
ifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at 
Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6 ; some skirmishes 
took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and several 
hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announced the suppression of the re- 
bellion in his disyatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor of 
Lower Canada proclaims martial law, and a reward of .£1,000 for Papi- 
neau. Doc. 5, 1837. M Leod (charged with the destruction of the Ca?-oZwie, 
American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12, 
1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United 
States against meddling with the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Met- 
calfe, governor-general, 1844. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general, 
took the oath, Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parlia- 
ment House by a mob (caiised by the dissatisfaction about the act for paying 
losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves), Aug. 15, 1849. 
Movements in favor of annexation to' the United States. Warning against 
such movements as high treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey, 
the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850. 

CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes 
over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth centiu-y. The 
canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Oceao 



CAN ] DICTIONARY UF DATES. 233 

was commenced in 1666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to tlie Seine, com- 
menced in 1675. That between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced 
1709. That from Stockholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That between 
the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between 
the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The first canal made in England was 
by Henry I., when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, a. d. 1134. 
That from the Durance to Marseilles, France, 83,000 metres, of which 17,000 
are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished July 8, 1847. In Eng- 
land, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the 
length of those only that are navigable — total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there 
are but SOO miles of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the 
Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles. — Williams. 

CANALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Act for cumraencing the great Erie canal 
in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1817. 
The canal (363 miles long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesa- 
peake and Delaware canal opened, &c., July 4, 1829. 

CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the Fortti- 
nate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparchus, 
about 140 B. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt, 
A.D. 1402; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which 
flourish here, about 1420. The canarj'-bird, so much esteemed in all parts 
of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it was brought into England in 1500. 

CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida, so famous in history. 
It was seized by the Saracens, a. d. 808, when they changed its name. Taken 
by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the Venetians, 1194, and held by them till the 
Turks obtained it, after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200,000 
men perished, 1669. 

CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax, 
or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the 
lower classes in England about a. d. 1300. At this time wax candles were 
little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The 
wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said 
to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of 
modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Candleberry Myrtle) are 
made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which 
is fragrant, and yields a bright light. 

CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feasl instituted by the early Christians, who conse- 
crated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the 
year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory .of the purification of 
the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, pre- 
sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light, 
this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice 
of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order 
of council 2 Edward VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. 

CANNJ2, Battle of. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to 
the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50.000 Africans, Gauls, and 
Spaniards ; and Paulus ^milius and Terentius Varro, 88,000 Romans, of 
whom 40 000 were slain.— i>zt;y. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels 
of rings, taken from the Roman knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage. 
Neither party perceived an awful earthquake which occurred during the 
battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood ; fought May 21. 
216 B. c. — Bossueb. 

CANNIBALISM has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform 
us that it was a primitive and universal cirstom, and many of the South 



234 THE WORLD S PROGPv.ESS. [ CAN 

American tribes and natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the 
present day, and the propensitj' for it prevails more or less in all savage 
nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh ; and the 
Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the reign of Henry I. 
The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals in 
America. See Anthropophagi. 

CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as a. d. 1338. According 
to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 1346 ; but 
this Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used bj' the English at 
the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by 
the governor of Calais, 6 Richard II. 1883. — Ripner's Fcedera. Louis XIV., 
upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed 
upon his cannon, "The last argument of kings." See ArtUlery. 

CANNON, Remarkable. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, cast 
in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in 
Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a jarodigious cannon eighteen 
feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet 
four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs ISOlbs. and its charge 
of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that it was made by one Simon, 
in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocket- 
pistol, which Avas presented to her b.y the States of Holland ; this piece is 24 
feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States, 
and a motto in Dutch, importing thus, 

" Charge me well, and sponge me clean, 
I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." 

Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A leathern cannon was 
fired three times in the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. 

CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, a. d. 380. — Usher. 
Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignitj' of canon 
existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. — Paschier. 
Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon 
law autho'", in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1154. — 
Slowe. 

CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the 
Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800. — Tallent's Tables. Saints have so 
accumulated, every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. — Henaidt. 

CANTERBURY. The Durovcrnum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, 
king of Kent, who reigned a. d. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during 
the.Heptarchj^ and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famous 
for the shrine of Becket (see Beclceb) and within it are interred Henry IV. and 
Edward the Black Prince. 

CANTERBURY, Archbishopric of. This see was settled by St. Austin, who 
preached the gospel in England a. d. 596, and converted Ethelbert, king of 
Kent. The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great 
favors upon Austin, who fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert's 
dominions. The church was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ, 
although it was formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas a. Becket, mur- 
dered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropo- 
litan of all England, and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency of 
all otncers of state, and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had 
formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a patriarch. 
This see hath yielded to the clnirch of Rome, 18 saints and 9 cardinals ; and 
to the civil state of England. 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St. 
Austin was the first bishop, 596. Tlie see was made superior to York, 1073. 



CAP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 235 

— See York. The revenue is valued in the king's books at £2816. ll $. 2d. — 

CANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects Avhich, when dried and pulver- 
ized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into 
medical practice by Aretseus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — 
Freind's History of J'kysic. 

CANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed 
up to the present time to trade. Merchants first arrived here for this pur- 
pose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of Eng- 
land surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating 
to this city will be found under tlie article China. In 1822, a fire destroyed 
15,000 houses at Canton ; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and 
more than 1000 persons in October 1833. 

CAOUTCHOUC, or Indian Rubber, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes 
by incision from two plants that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, 
called H/je.via caoutchoitc and Siflwiiia elasLica, and vulgarly called syringe 
trees. It Avas first brought to Europe from South America, about 1733. — 
See India Rubber. 

CAP. The Romans ^vent for many ages, without regular covering for the >ead, 
and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But ai one 
period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their 
slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark 
of infamj'', and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in 
France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear 
a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is referred to the year 1449 ; 
the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VII. 
into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A 
statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 20.^. (40 cts.) nor cap 
above 2s. U. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489. 

CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the 
French in 1632. but Avas afterwards restored ; and again taken in 1745 ; and 
re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the Eu'glish, when the garrison 
and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven 
ships of the French navy were captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng 
land at the peace of 1763. 

CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610: but it soon fell tb 
the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British 
settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the 
Dutch admiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. This Cape was confirmed to the Enghsh 
by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE; the geographical and commercial centre of the East 
Indies : it was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally 
called the " Cape of Tempests," and was also named the " Lion of the Sea," 
and the "Head of Africa." The name was changed by John II., king of 
Portugal, who augured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having 
reached the extremity of Africa. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage 
to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the 
Dutch, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Elphinstone and general 
Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802 ; again taken by 
sir David Baird and sir Home Popham, Jan. 8, 1806 ; and finally ceded to 
England in 1814. Emigrants began to arrive here from Britain in March, 
1820. The Caffres have made several irruptions on the British settlements 
here; and they committed dreadful ravages at Grahamstown. in Oct, 1834. 
Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 26, 1848. 



236 THE world's progress. [ CAP 

CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients under 
tlie name of Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered 
by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, a. d. 1446. 

CAPE ST. VINCENT, Battles op. Admiral Rooke, with twenty ships of war, 
and the Turke3'' fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, 
with a force vastly superior to his own, oft" Cape St. Vincent, when twelve 
English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or 
destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of 
the most glorious achievements of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, being- 
in command of the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, gave battle to the 
Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line ofi" this Cape, and signally defeated the 
enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several 
others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English 
peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of 
SOOOl. a year. 

CAPET, House of, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count 
of Paris and Orleans, tlie first of this race (which was called from him Cape- 
vigians). was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues, 
A. D. 987. — Henwult. 

CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temple was built 
to Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation laid by Tar- 
quinius Prisons. 616 b. c. The Roman Consuls made large donations to 
this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight of 
gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds 
were of brass, and its interior was decorated Avith shields of solid silver. De- 
stroyed by lightning, 188 b. c. ; by fire, a. n. 70. The Capitoline games in- 
stituted by Domitian, a. d. 86. 

CAPPADOCIA. This kingdom was fotmded by Pharnaces, 744 b. c. The suc- 
cessors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of 
Alexander the Great, after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes 11. 
became king of Cappadocia. 

Pharnaces is declared king - b. c. 744 mg the throne, poisons five of her own 



His successors are unknown for nearly 
three centuries. 

Reign of Ariarathes I. - - - 362 

Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria- 
rathes is crucified - - - - 322 
Defeat of the Parthians - - - 217 
Irruption of the Trocmi - - - 164 
INIithridates, surnamed Philopator, as- 
cends the throne - - - 162 
Orophernes dethrones Philopator - 161 
Attalus assists Philopator, and Oro- 
phernes dethroned - - - - 154 
Philopator joins the Romans against 

Aristonicus, and perishes in battle - 153 
His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp- 



children, the sixth and only remaining 

child is saved, and the queen put to 

death ..... 153 
This young prince reigns as Ari.arathes 

VII. 153 

Gordius assassinates Ariarathes VII. - 97 
Ariarathes VIII. assassinated . . 96 

Cappadocia declared a free country by 

the senate of Rome - - - 95 

The people elect a new king Ariobar- 

zanes 1. - - . - - 94 

His son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns . 65 

He is dethroned by Marc Antony - 38 

Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, 

dies, and bequeathes his .tingdom to. 

the Roman empire • a. d. 17 



CAPRI. The Caprese of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tibe- 
rius, and for the debaucheries he committed in this once delightful retreat, 
during the seven last years of his life : it was embellished by him with a 
sumptuous palace, and most magnificent Avorks. Caj^ri was taken by sir 
Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. 

(!APUCHIN FRIARS. A sort of Franciscans to whom this name Avas giA'en, 
from their Avearing a great Capuchoii, or coaa'1, Avhich is an odd kind of cap, or 
hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging doAvn upon their backs. The Capu- 
chins Avere founded by MatthcAv Baschi, about a. d. 1525. Although the 



CAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 237 

rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for their 
extreme poverty and privations.— ^s/ie. 

CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, about 1486 b. c. The 
covered cars {currus arcuati) were in use among the Romans. Triumphal 
cars Avere introduced by Romulus, according to some ; and by Tarquin the 
Elder, according to others. 

CARACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, a. d. 1498. The pit)vince 
declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by 
a violent convulsion of nature ; thousands of human beings were lost ; rocks 
and mountains split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened or 
their courses changed ; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed. 

CARBONARI. A dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for 
freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror 
in several states ; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian govern- 
ment in Sept. 1820. 

CARDINALS. Thej^ are properly the council of the pope, aLd constitute the 
conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or 
incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the 
eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the 
popes till A. D. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they 
ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes 
of the church, by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; 
and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1630 ; some say in 1623. — Du Cange. 

CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans ; but it is generally supposed 
that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI. 
during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought 
him to his grave. — Mezerai, Hist, de France. The universal adoption of an 
amusement wliich was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of 
wisdom. — Malkin. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin. — Daines 
Barrins^ton. Picquet and all the early games are French. Cards first taxed 
in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. 
In 1825, the duty being then 2s. &d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were 
stamped ; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 packs 
paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th 
Jan. 1840. — Pari. Reports. 

' ARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter: he 
first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by 
bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. — 
De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in ; 
and the productions in this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the 
initials H. B., aro political satires of considerable humor and merit. — Haydn. 

CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for manj^ ages a 
strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II., was 
made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken 
by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745. 

CARLSBAD, Congress of, on the affaii'S of Europe: The popular spirit of 
emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against despotic 
government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were com(! 
to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in Avhich the great conti- 
nental pov/ers decreed measures to repress the rage for limited monai-chies 
and free institutions, August 1, 1819. 

CARMELITES, or White Friars, named from jMount Carmel. and one of the 
four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141. 
Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They claim their descent in an nn- 



238 THE world's PIIOGRESS. [ CAB 

interrupted succession from Elijah, Elisha, &c. Mount Carmel Las a monas- 
tery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 2000 
feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides : it is often 
referred to in Jewish histories. 

" See spicy clouds from lowly Sharon rise, 
And Carmel's flowery top perfumes the skies." — Pope. 

CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English, 
amounting to about 850 persons, landed and settled here in 1667 ; and Caro- 
lina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See 
N. 4" S. Carolina. 

("ARPETS They were in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days of 
Amos, about 800 b. c. — Amos ii 8. Carpets were spread on the ground, on 
which persons sat who dwelt in tents: but when first used in houses, 
even in the East, we have no record. In the 12th century carpets were arti- 
cles of luxury ; and in England, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's 
splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every day in 
winter strewii with clean straw or hay; about a. d. 1160. The manufacture 
of woollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of 
Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had quitted France 
in disgust went to England, and established the carpet manufacture, about 
1750. There, as Avith most nations, Persian and Turkey carpets, especially 
the former, are most prized. The famous Axminster, Wilton, and Kidder- 
minster mairafacture is the growth of the last hundred j^ears. The manu- 
fiicture of Kidderminster and Brussels carpets has much advanced within 
fifteen years, at Lowell, Mass. and Thomsonville Conn. 

CARRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, who 
jToduced the first chariot about 1486 b. c. Carriages were known in France 
in the reign of Henry II. a. d. 1547 ; but they were of very rude construction, 
and rare. They seem to have been known in England in 1555; but not the 
art of making them. Close carriages of good workmanship began to be used 
by persons of the highest quality at the close of the sixteenth century. Hen- 
ry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was va- 
rious: they were first made in England in the i-eign of Elizabeth, and were 
then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses ; 
and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. They were first 
let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre; and hence their name. 
See Coaches. 

C'ARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Their author was Rene des Cartes, the French 
philosopher, who promulgated them in 1647. He was an original thinker: 
his metaphysical principle "I think, therefore I am," is refuted by Mr. Locke; 
and his physical principle, that "nothing exists but substance," is disprov- 
ed by the Newtonian philosophy. His celebrated system abounds in great 
singularities and originalities; but a spirit of independent thought prevails 
throughout it. and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. Des 
Cartes was the most distinguished philosopher of his time and country. — 
Dufresnoy. 

r.^RTHAGE. founded by Dido, or Elissa, sister of Pj'gmalion, king of Tyre, 
869 B. c. She fled from that tyrant, ^vho had killed her husband, and took 
refuge in Africa. Carthage became so jiowerful as to dispute the empire of 
the world with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars, and the total demo- 
lition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground, 146 b. c. 
when the flames raged during seventeen days, and many of the inhabitants 
perished in them rather than survive the subjection of their country. The 
Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace might remain of 
this once P'^wcrful republic. — Euscbius. 



CAS] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 239 



CARTHAGE, continued. 

Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Eyrsa. 

—Blair - - - b. c. 869 

First alliance of the Carthaginians with 

the Romans - - - - 509 

The Carthaginians in Sicily are defeated 

by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes. 

Herodotus, I. vii. - - 480 

They send 300,000 men into Sicily - 407 
The siege of Syracuse - - - 396 

The Carthaginians land in Italy - 379 

Their defeat by Timoleon - - 340 

They are defeated by Agathocles, and 

immolate their children on the altar of 



Hannibal, at the age of nine years, 
having first made him swear an eter- 
nal enmity to the Romans - b. c. 237 
Hamilcar is killed in battle by the Vet- 
tones . . - . . 227 
Asdrubal is assassinated - - - 220 
Hannibal subjects all Spain, as far as 

thelberus - - - - 219 

The second Punic war begins - - 218 

First great victory of Hannibal - - 217 

Hannibal crosses the Alps, and enters 

Italy with 100,000 men - - - 217 

Great battle of Cannas (which see) - 216 



Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods - 310 : New Carthage taken by Pub. Scipio - 210 
The first Punic war begins - -264 1 Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated 

The Carthaginians defeated by the Ro- | and slain in Italy - - - 207 

mans in a naval engagement - - 260 i The Carthaginians expelled Spain - - 206 

Xantippus defeats Regulus - - 255 1 Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege 

Re^ulus is crucified - - - - 256 ! to Utica - - - - - 204 

Asdrubal defeated by Metellus - - 251 j Hannibal recalled from ;(aly - - 203 

Romans defeated be'fore LilybcBum - 250 i Great battle of Zama (i.*/n'c7i see) -202 

End of the first Punic war - - 241 1 An ignominious peace ends the second 

War between the Carthaginians and I Punic war - . . . 201 

African mercenaries - - - 241 i The third Punic war begins - - 149 

Hamilcar Barcas is sent into Spain ; he Destructionof Carthage, which is burned 

takes with him his son, the famous i to the ground - ' - - - 146 

CARTHAGENA. or New Carthage, in Spain; built by Asiirnbal, the Ca. tba-' 
ginian general, 227 b. c. From licre Hannibal set out in his memorable 
march to invade Italy, crossing the Alps, 217 b. c. Carthagena, in Colombia, 
was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of 
£1,200,000 in 1697 ; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but 
he was obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege. 

CARTHUSIANS. A religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired 
from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of 
Dauphine. Their rules were formed by Basil VII., general of the order, and 
were peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not 
leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave; and their clothing was 
cwo hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The 
general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery, 
from which the order is named. — Auberti; Mirai Origines Cartlms. 

CARTOONS OF RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Va- 
tican, under Juhus II. and Leo X.. about 1510 to 1515. The seven of them 
that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of 
England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. These matchless works repre- 
sent — 1, The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2, the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter 
and John healing the Lame at the gate of the Temple ; 4, the Death of Ana- 
nias; 5, Elymas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness; 6, the Sacrifice to 
Paul and Barnabas, by the people of Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. 

CARVING. We have scriptural authority for its early introduction. See Ex- 
odiis xxxi. The art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 b. c. 
and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in Avood, next in stone, and 
s.fterwards in marble and brass. Dipoenus and Scyllis were eminent carvers 
and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 b. c. — Pliny. See arti- 
cle Sculptvres. Carvers of meat, called by the Greeks deribitarcs, are mention- 
ed by Homer. 

(.'ASHMERE SHAWLS. The district from whence come these costly shawls 
is described as being -the happy valley, and a paradise in perpetual spring." 
The true Cashmere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool than that 
Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666 ; but they were well 
imitated by the spinning at Bradforcl and the looms of Hudderslield 



240 THE world's progress. [ CAT 

Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thibetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, about 
the year 1650. — Bernier. 
CASTEL NUOVO, Battle of. The Russians defeated by the French army, 
Sept. 29, 1806. Castel Nuovo has several times sufiered under the dreadful 
visitation of earthquakes : in the great earthquake which convulsed all Na- 
ples and Sicily, in 1783, this town was almost obliterated. It is recorded 
that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance, 
looking back, saw no remains»of the town, but only a black smoke ; 4000 
persons perished; and in Sicity and Naples, more than 40,000. 

CASTIGLIONE, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories of the French 
arms, under genei-al Bonaparte, against the main ai'my of the Austrians, 
commanded by general Wurmser : the battle lasted five days successively, 
from the 2d to the 6th Julj'', 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in 
this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,- 
000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded. 

CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here 
about A. D. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in 
1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the 
whole of the Christian dominions in Spain were united in one monarchy, 1474. 
See Arragon and Spain. 

CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and 
built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the Anglo 
Saxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight oi 
steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the 
nobles, by permission of king Stephen, a. d. 11-35, and 1154: most of these 
were demolished by Henry II., who deprived the barons of such i^ossessions, 
on his accession, in 1154. 

CATACOMBS; the early depositories of. the dead. The name first denoted 
the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-places 
of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt ; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818, 
explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 j^ears 
ago: among others, a chef-d'amrre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psam- 
maticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental 
alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other na- 
tions had their catacombs ; there were some of great extent at Rome. The 
Parisian catacombs were projected a. d. 1777. The bodies found in cata- 
combs, especiallj 'hose of Egjqjt, are called mummies. See Embalming. 

CATANIA, OR C ATANE A . At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony 
from Chalcis, 753 b. c. Ceres had a teiuple here, in which none but women 
were permitted to appear. This ancient city is remarkable for the dreadful 
overthrows to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity 
to Etna, which has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava 
four miles broad and fift}' feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in 
a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in 
1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was nearly swal- 
lowed up, and in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried 
in the ruins of the city. An earthquake did great damage, and a number 
of i^ersons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817. 

CATAPHRYGIANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phry- 
gians, who followed the errors of Montanus. They made up the bread of 
the eucharist with the blood of infants, whom they pricked to death with 
needles, and then looked upon them as martyrs. — Pardon. 

CATAPULTS. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense 
weight, darts, and arrows ; invented by Dionysius-. 399 b.'c. — Joxphta. They 



CAUJ PICTIONARY OF DATES. 241 

were capable of throwing darts and javelins of four and five yards length.—' 
Pardon. 

CATHOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gre- 
goiy III. to Alphonsus I. of Spain, who was thereupon surnamed the Catho- 
lic; A. D. 739. The title of Catholic was also given to Ferdinand V., 1474. 
See Spain. 

CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family, 
having squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and extravagauce, 
and having been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated tlie ruin cf 
his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of the Romans, 
as dissolute as himself, to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and aei- 
Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero, 
whom he had resolved to murder ; and on seeing five of his accomplices 
arrested, he retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army. 
Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home, while Petreius 
attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them, and the conspir- 
ator was killed in the engagement, about the middle of IDecember, 63 b. c. 
His character has been branded Avith the foulest infamy, and to the violence 
he offered to a vestal, he added the murder of his own brother ; and it is 
said that he and his associates drank human blood to render their oaths 
more firm and inviolable. — Sallust. 

C ATO, SUICIDE OF. Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome." 
Cato, the Roman patriot and philosopher, considered freedom as that which 
alone " sustains the name and dignity of man:" imable to survive the inde- 
pendence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica. By this rash act of 
suicide, independently of all moral considerations, Cato carried his patriot- 
ism to the highest degree of political frensy ; for Cato, dead, could be of 
no use to his country ; but had he preserved his life, his counsels might 
have moderated Ctesar's ambition, and have given a different turn to public 
affairs. Feb. 5, 45 b. c. — Montesquieu. 

CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and 
desperate politicians, whose object was the assassination of the ministers of 
the crown, with a view to other sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages, 
and the overthrow of the government : tlie conspirators were arrested Feb. 
23, 1820 ; and Thistlewood and his four principal associates. Brunt, Davison, 
Ings, and Tidd, after a trial commenced on April 17th, which ended in their 
CO :viction, were executed according to the then horrid manner of traitors, 
on May 1, following. — Haydn. 

CAUCASUS. A mountain of immense height, a continuation of the ridge of 
Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited anciently 
by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the earth, it 
was covered with snow in some parts, and in others was variegated with 
fruitful orchards and plantations : its people were at one time supposed to 
gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived with- 
out making use of money. Prometheus was tied on the top of Caucasus by 
Jupiter, and continually devoured by vultures, according to ancient authoi-s 
1548 B. c. The passes near the mountain were called Caucasicc Porta, an(' 
it is supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Huns, ma^e their 
way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome, a. d. 447. — Strabo. Hera- 
dotus. 

CAUSTIC IN PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of 
burning the colors into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of Sicyon, was 
the inventor of this ijrocess. He made a beautiful painting of his mistress 
Glycere, whom he represented as sifting on tlie ground, and making gar- 
liinds of flowers; and from this circumstance the picture, which was 

11 



242 THE world's progress. [ CEM 

bought afterwards by Lucullus for two talents, received the name of Stepha- 
noplocon, 335 b. c. — Plinii Hist. Nat. 

CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those 
who espoused the cause of the king during the unhappy war which brought 
Charles I. to the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Round- 
heads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 1649. — Hume. 

TAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated for 
their cavalry, and for its discipline and eflSciency. Attached to each of the 
Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong, iu ten turmte ; the com- 
mander was always a veteran, and chosen for his exijcrience and valor. In the 
early ages, the Persians brought the greatest force of cavalry into the field: 
they had 10,000 horse at the battle of Marathon, 490 b. c. : and 10,000 
Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b. c. — Plutarch. 

CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1654, It 
was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch. 
These last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by 
the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in 
1814. In this settlement is produced the capsicum baccalum, or cayenne 
pepper, so esteemed in Europe. 

wELESTIAL GLOBE. A celestial sphere was brought to Greece from Egypt, 
368 B. c. A planetarixim was constructed by Archimedes before 212 b. c. 
The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus. 
The great celestial globe of Gottorp, planned after a design of Tycho Brache, 
and erected at the expense of the duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in 
diameter : and that at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is 
eighteen feet. See Globes. 

f 'ELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed from the Bernardins by 
pope Celestine V. in 1294. The order of nuns was instittited about the 
same period. 

CELIBACY, and the monastic life, preached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about 
A. D. 305. The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate 
places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at 
the council of Nice, a. d. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in 
692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy in 
1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Placentia, 
held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the follow- 
ing were imfriendly to matrimony: — Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bion, 
Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and IDiogenes ; and the folloAving 
among the moderns : — Newton, Locke, Boyle, Gibbon, Hume, Adam Smith, 
Harvey, Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, HamiDden, sir F. Drake, earl of Essex, 
Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn, 
Handel, Wolsey, Pascal, Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins, 
Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham. 

CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all 
their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow pre- 
cincts of a place reputed sacred, much less of amassing them in the bosom 
of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans 
were at a distance from their towns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in 
gardens — John xix. 41 ; and in fields, and among rocks and mountains — 
Matthew xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by the Romish 
clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being 
interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turks are hand- 
some and agreeable, and it is owing chiefly to the many fine plants that 
grow in them, and which they carefully place over their dead. It is only 



CEY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 243 

within a very few years tliat public cemeteries have been formed in these 
countries, although the crowded state of our many churchyards, and the 
danger to health of burial-places in the midst of dense populations, called 
for some similar institutions to that of the celebrated Phre la Chaise at 
Paris. Six public cemeteries have been recently opened in London 
suburbs. The inclosed area of each of these cemeteries is planted and laid 
out in walks after the manner of Pere la Chaise.* There are similar ceme- 
teries in Manchester, Liverpool, and other towns ; and in Ireland, at Cork, 
Dublin, &c. Some of the rural cemeteries of the United States, especially 
that at Mount Auburn, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill, Philadelphia 
(183-), and Greenwood, near New- York (1839), are far more beautiful in 
their natural features than any of those near London or Paris. 

CENSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and rate, and 
correct the manners of the people ; their power was also extended over 
private families, and they restrained extravagance. The two first censors 
were appointed 443 b. c. The office was abolished by the emperors. 

CENSUS. In the Roman polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and 
personal effects, delivered to the government upon oath every five years : 
established by Servius Tullius, 566 b. c. — Legal Polity of t/ie Roman State. 
In England the census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial 
periods, of which the last were the years 1811, 1821, and 1831 ; and the new 
census, 1841. 

CENSUS OP THE UNITED STATES, has been taken at six different periods, 
viz. 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1030, and 1840. The seventh census is taken 
this year, 1850. — See Population. 

CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Ro- 
man legion, which consisted of 100' men, and was called a centuria. He was 
distinguished by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand. By the 
Roman census, each hundred of the people was called a centuria, 566 e. c. 

CENTURY. The method of compirting by centuries was first generally 
observed in ecclesiastical history, and commenced from the time of our 
Redeemer's incarnation, a. d. 1. It is a period that is particularly regarded 
by church historians. — Pardon. 

CERES. This planet, which is only 160 miles in diameter, was discovered" by 
M. Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo, on the 1st. of Jan. 1801 . To the 
naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very high magnifying 
power show it with a distinctly defined diameter. Pallas, discovered by 
Dr. Olbers, is still smaller. 

CEYLON. The natives claim for this island the seat of paradise ; it was dis- 
covered by the Portuguese a. d. 1505 ; but it was known to the Romans in 
the time of Claudius, a. d. 41. The capital, Colombo, was taken by the 
Hollanders in 1603 ; and was recovered by the Portuguese in 1621. The 
Dutch again took it in 1656. A large portion of the country was taken by 
the British in 1782, but was restored the next year. The Dutch settlements 

■ Pere la Chaise takes its name from a French Jesuit, who was a favorite of Louis XIV., and 
.'lis confessor. He died in 1709 ; and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by 
this beautiful cemetery. It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the 
graves of the dead. The women in Egypt go weekly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, .and it is 
then usual to throw a sort of herb (our sweet-basil) upon the tombs: which in Asia Minor, and 
Turkey in Europe, are also adorned either with the leaves of the palin-tree, boughs of myrtle, or 
cypresses planted at the head and feet. Between some of the tombs is placed a chest of ornamentel 
stone, tilled with earth, in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cul- 
tivated by females, who assemble in croups for that duty. At Aleppo, there grow many mynlo?. 
which they diligently propagate, becau=!e they are be-uuiful, and remain long green, to put 'about 
their graves.— /lfa//e/; C/iandler ; Butler. 



244 THE world's PROGKESS. [ CHa 

were seized by the British; Trincomalee Aug. 26, 1795, and Jaffnapatam, in 
Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amiens 
in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred, or imprisoned 
by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sove- 
reignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. 

CILERONEA, Battles of. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians, 
and Tolmidas, their general, is slain, 447 b. c. Battle of Chferonea, in which 
Greece lost its liberty to Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating the confed- 
erate army of Thebans and Athenians of 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 b. c. Battle 
of Chasronea in which Arclielaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated by 
Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians are slain, 86 b. c. 

CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is saiu to 
be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of 
one mountain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the tirst 
chain-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the 
chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of 
Wales, July 1818. — See Menai Bridge. 

CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, and SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the 
Veneti, a people intimately connected with the BelgcB of Britain in the time 
of Cfesar, 55 b. c. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the 
royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an 
enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1666. Chain- 
pumps were first used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 

CHAISE OR CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a 
light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus Csesar, about a. d. 7. Aure- 
lius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajati, 
about A. D. 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See Chariot. 

CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced 
2234 B. c, and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 
331 B. c, being a period of 1903 years. These registers were sent by Callis- 
thenes to Aristotle. Chaldean Characters : the Bible was transcribed 
from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra. 

CHAMP DE MARS; an open square space in front of the Military School at 
Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to 
the r'ver Seine, with an area sufficient to contain a million of people. Plere 
was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous " federation," or solemnity of 
.swearing fidelity to the " jjatriot king" and new constitution. In the even- 
ing great rejoicings followed the pi'oceedings ; public balls were given by 
the municipality in the Champs Elysecs and elsewhere, and Paris was illumi- 
nated throughout. 1791, July 17, a great meeting of citizens and others held 
here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the " altar of the 
country" — left standing for some time afterwards — praying for the enforced 
abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under 
the eye of Bonaparte, May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the Champ de Mai. 

CHAMPION OF ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the corona- 
tion of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of English kings the champion 
still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one 
that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary 
in the Dymocke family. 

CHANCELLORS, LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks 
after the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerly, the 
ofiSce was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Maurice, afterwards 
bishop of London, was created chancellor in 1067. The first personage who 



cha] 



PICTiOiMARY OF DATKS. 



245 



was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his own 
judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office was 
more that of a high state functionary than the president of a court of justice. 
Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very 
ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a master in 1588, 
In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission ; but it 
was not until 1813 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice- Chancello?- 
was permanently held. 



LORD CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND, 

(From the time of' Cardinal Wolsey.) 
1515 Cardinal Wolsey. 
1530 Sir Thomas More (beheaded). 

1533 Sir Thomas Audley. 

1534 Thomas, bishop of Ely. 
1545 Lord Wriothesley. 
15J7 Lord St. Jolm. 

1547' Lord Rich. 

1551 Bishop of Ely again. 

1551 Sir Nich. lia.ve, Lord Keeper. 

1(353 Bishop of Winchester. 

1555 Archbishop of York. 

1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon. 

1579 Sir Thomas Bromley. 

15S7 Sir Christopher Hatton. 

1.592 Sir John Packering. 

1596 Sir Thomas Egerlon. 

1616 Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards lord 

Verulam. 
1625 Sir Thomas Coventry. 

1639 Sir John Finch. 

1640 Sir Edward Littleton, afterwards lord 

Littleton. 
1645 Sir Richard Lane. 
1648 In commission. 
1653 Sir Edward Herbert. 
1658 Sir Edward Hyde, aftericards earl of 

Clarendon. 
1667 Sir Orlando Bridgeman, L. K. 

1672 Earl of Shaflesbmy. 

1673 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of 

Nottingham. 
1682 Lord Guilford, L. K. 
1685 Sir George Jeffreys, lord Jeffreys. 
1690 In commission. 
1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir William Rawlin- 

son, and Sir Geo. Hutchins, L. K. 



\ 1692 Sir John Somers, afterwards lord 
Somers. 
1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K. 
I 1705 Lord Cowper, L. K. 
! 1710 In commission. 
j 1713 Lord Harcourt. 
1714 Lord Cowper again. 
1718 In commission. 

1718 Viscount Parker, afterwards earl of 
Macclesfield. 
I 1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. afterwards lord 
King. 
1733 Lord Talbot. 
1737 Philip, lord Hardwicke. 
1761 Sir Robert Henley, aftericards lord 

Henley, and earl of Northington. 
1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden. 
1770 Hon. Chas. Yorke, Jan. 18 ; died next 
day. 

1770 In commission. 

1771 Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley, succeed- 
ed as earl Bathurst. 

1778 Lord Thurlow. 

1783 Lord Loughborough and others 

April 9 
- Dec. 23 



(in comviission) - 
1-83 Lord Thurlow again - 

1792 In commission. 

1793 Lord Loughborough again. 

1801 Lord Eldon. - - April 14 

1806 Lord Erskine. - - Feb. 7 

1807 Lord Eldon again. - March 25 
1827 Lord Lyndhurst. - - April 20 
1830 Lord Brougham. - Nov. 22 

1834 Lord Lyndhurst again • Nov. 14 

1835 In commission. 

1836 Lord Cottenham. 



Jan. 16 

Aug. 31 

Julys 



1841 Lord Lyndhurst agam. 
' 1846 Lord Cottenham agaiii 

CHANCELLOR op IRELAND, LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by 
Richard I. a. d. 1186, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The 
office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct appoint- 
ment, in the reign of Henry III., GefiTrey Turville, archdeacon of Dublin, 
being so named, 1232. 

CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND. In the laws of Malcolm II. who reigned 
A. D. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tymes 
assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the 
nobility. The Chancellar sail be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for 
keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he maybe readie, baith day and 
nicht, at the kingis command." — Sir James Balfour. James, earl of Seafield, 
afterwards Findlater, was the last lord high" Chancellor of Scotland, the 
office having been abolished in 1708. — Scott. 

CHANCERY, COURT of. Instituted as early as a. d. 605. Settled upon a 
better footing by William I., in imi.—Stoice. This court had its origin in 
the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other 
courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or 
against infants, notwithstanding their minority ; and to or against married 



246 THE world's progress. I CHA 

women, notwithstanding tlieiv coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches 
of trust and confidence, for which there is no redress at common law, are 
relievable here. — Blackstone. 

EFFECTS OF SUITORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE FOLLOWING DECENNIAL PERIODS. 

1770 - Amount locteed - £.5,300,000 I 1810 - Amount lodged - £26,212,000 

1780 - ditto - - 7,741,000 | 1820 - ditto - - 34,208,785 

1790 - - ditto - 13.338,000 | 1830 - - ditto - 38,886,135 

1800 - ditto - - 19;8.34,000 | 1840 - ditto - - 39,772,746 

There are about 10,000 accounts. By the last official returns the number 
of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. — Pari. 
Returns. 

CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the 
souls of the donors. — Skakspeare. First mentioned in tlie commencement of 
the seventh century, Avhen Gregory the great established schools of chant- 
ers. — See Chayithig. 

CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemblage of 
inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-existed the formation of 
the world, and from which the universe was formed by the hand and power 
of a superior being. Thi.s doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from Avhom 
the succeeding poets have copied it ; and it is probable that it was obscurely 
drawn from the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of San- 
choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Ti"oy in 1193 b. c. 
See Geology. 

CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and the manner of harnessing horses 
to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 b. c. Chariot 
racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian 
officer, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, 28, 31, was, it is supposed, something in 
the form of our modern chaise with four wheels. Csesar relates that Cassi- 
belanus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 
war chariots about his person. The chariots of the ancients were like our 
phastons, and drawn by one horse. See Carriages, Coaches, 4'C. 

CHARITIES in the United States. — See Benevolence. In England there are tens 
of thousands of charit-able foundations ; and the charity commission reported 
to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amounted to 
£1,500,000 annually, in 1840. — Pari. Hep. Charity schools were instituted 
in London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic 
seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. 

CHARLESTON, S. C, was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of French 
refugees, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 
settled in Carolina, and some of them in Charleston : from them are de- 
scended many of the most respectable of the inhabitants. At the close of 
1779, the city was taken by the British, and held by them until ]May follow- 
ing. Population in 1790, 16,359 ; in 1810, 24,711 ; in 1820, 24.780 ; in 1830, 
30,289; in 1840, 29,261— (a decrease of 1,028 in ten years) including 14,673 
slaves. 

CHARTERS op RIGHTS. The first charters of rights granted by the kings of 
England to their subjects, were by Edward the Confessor, and by Henry }. 
A. D. 1100. The famoiis bulwark of English liberty, known as Magjia Chart.c 
or the great charter, was granted to the barons by king John, June 15, 1215. 
The rights and privileges granted bj^ this charter were renewed and ratified 
by Henry III. in 1224, et seq. Sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it 
had been confirmed above thirty times. Charters to corporations were of 
frequent grant from the reign of William I. See Magna Charta. 

CHARTERS, to the American colonies. That to Virginia granted by James I., 
1606 ; to Massachusetts, by the same, 1020, but withdrawn by Charles II., 



CHE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 247 

1684 ; that granted to Connecticixt by Charles II., 1665, was concealed in an 
aik to preserve it from the tyrannical Andros. General suppression of 
charter governments in America, 1688. 

CHARTER PARTY. The same species of deed or agreement as the ancient 
chirograph. A covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating 
to the ship and cargo. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry 
in., about 1243. 

CHARTISTS. The agitators for radical political reforms in England were so 
called from the Charter which they drew up and urged for adoption as th" 
law of the land, 1838. The petition for it, signed by about 5,000,000 names. 
Proclamation against tumultuous assemblies of the Chartists, Dec. 12, 1838. 
Chartist attack on Newport, Wales, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate, 
defeated, Nov. 4, 1839. Frost and others taken prisoner, tried, and trans- 
ported. Another Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common, near 
London, exciting great alarm (chiefly because of the recent revolution in 
Paris), April 10, 1848. The six chief demands of the Chartists are : 1. Uni- 
versal suifrage. 2. Vote by ballot. 3. No property qualification. 4. Annual 
parliaments. 5. Payment of members. 6. Equal electoral districts. 

CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and celes- 
tial charts, about 570 b. c. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by 
Bartholomew Columbus, with a view to illustrate his brother's theory respect- 
ing a western continent, 1489. Mercator's chartj in which the world is taken 
as a plane, was drawn, 1556. 

CHARYBDIS, a dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite another 
whirlpool called Scylla, on the coast of Italy. It was very dangerous to sail- 
ors, and it proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation 
of the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, as no whirlpool suffi- 
ciently tremendous is now found to coiTCspond to the description of the 
ancients. The words Incidit in Scijllam qui vult vitare Charybdim, became a 
proverb, to show that in our eagerness to avoid an evil, we fall into a greater. 

CHANTING, Chanting the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pa- 
gan ceremonies of the Romans, about a. d. 350. — Lenglet. Chanting in 
churches was introduced into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory 
the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church 
song. — Dufrcsnoy. 

CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), impri- 
sonment, and fine, 1 Hawk. L. C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted 
against cheats, 33 Henry VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning 
at any time more than 10^., or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, 
and wei-e to .suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711. — Black- 
stone's Comm. 

CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the 
process of making cheese from the Romans (who brought many useful arts 
with them) about the Christian ei'a. Cheese is made by almost all nations. 
Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire, make vast quantities ; the last alone, annu- 
ally, about 31,000 tons. The Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of Hunting- 
don, are as much esteemed as the cheese of Parma, and Gruyere of Switz- 
erland. In 1840 England imported, chiefly from the U. States, for home use, 
a quantity exceeding 10,000 tons. 

CHEMISTRY and DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish 
Moors, about a. d. 1150; they had learned them from the African Moors, 
and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early ages, ex- 
tracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine ; 



l!d4S THE world's ritOGRESS. [ CHI 

and embalming- Avas a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an 
early acquaintance Avith chemistry ; but the fathers of true chemical philo- 
sophy were of our own country; Bacon, Boyle, Hooke, Mayow, NeAvton, &c. 
The modern character of chemistry was formed under Beecher and Stahl, 
who perceived the connection of the atmosphere and the gases, with the 
production of phenomena. Bergman and Scheele were cotemporary with 
Priestley in England, and Lavosier in France ; then followed Thomson, Davy, 
and other distinguished men. 

CHERRIES. They were brought from Pontus, to Lucullus, to Rome, about 70 
B. c. Apricots from Epirus : peaches from Persia; the finest ph;ms from 
Damascus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and EgjqDt; citrons 
from Media; and pomegranates from Carthage; 114 b. c. The cherry tree 
was first planted in Britain, it is said, about a. d. 100. Fine kinds were 
brought from Flanders, and planted in Kent, and with such success that an 
orchard of thirty-two acres produced in one year jCIOOO, a. d. 1540. See 
Gardening. 

CHESAPEAKE, Battle of. At the mouth of the bay of that name, between 
the British admiral Greaves, and the French admiral De Grasse, with the 
naval force sent to assist the United States ; the former was obliged to retire, 
1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by a British fleet 
in 1812. The Chesapeake American frigate struck to the Shaniwn British 
frigate, commanded by captain Broke, after a severe action, June 2, 181B. 

CHESS, Game of. Invented, according to some authorities, 680 b. c; and ac- 
cording to others, in the fifth centurj' of our era. The learned Hyde and 
Sir William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject) that 
the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess-player 
Avas exhibited in England in 1769. 

CHEVALIER DEON. This extraordinary personage, who had been acting in 
a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time a 
minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial 
had in the King's Bench, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be 
ajvoman, July 1, 1777. He subsequently wore female attire for many years; 
yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it was manifest, by the dissection of 
his body, and other undoubted evidence, that he was of the male sex. — 
Bio. Die. 

CHILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the unnatural custom of expos- 
ing their infants — the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on 
highways — when they could not support or educate them; in such cases 
they were taken care of, and humanely protected by the state. The custom 
which long previously existed of English parents selling their children to 
the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. — 
Mat. Paris. At Darien, it was the practice when a widow died, to bury 
with her, in the same grave, such of her children as were unable, from their 
tender years, to take care of themselves. And in some parts of China, su- 
perstition has lent her hand to sanction the horrid deed of offering infants 
to the spirit of an adjoining river, first attaching a gourd to their necks to 
prevent them from immediately droAvning. 

CHILI. Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, a. d. 
1535. Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, regarding the Span- 
iards on their first visit as allied to the DiA'inity, collected for them gold and 
silver, amounting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent 
cruelties and rapacity of the iuA'aders. Chili was subdued, but not Avholly, 
in 1546. The Chilians fought for liberty at A'arious times, and Avith A^arious 
success, until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by San Martin over 



CHI ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



249 



the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released from its op- 
pressors, and declared independent. 
CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of the crown in England, on the chain 
of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of Bucking- 
hamshire, the stewardship Avhereof is a nominal office, conferred on members 
of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an 
office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again 
returned by his constituents : this custom has existed time immemorial. 

' 'HIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chim- 
neys, which were first introduced into these countries in a. d. 1200, when 
they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the 
stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys 
were general in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use of 
stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among 
them ; but this is disputed. 

CHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed 
many thousands of years before Noah's flood : but it is allowed by some author- 
ities to have commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Chri&t. By 
others it is said to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of 
the Bible, 2240 b. g. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the 
sun, moon, and planets, and were acute astronomers, in the reign of Yao, 
which is set down 2857 b. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until towards 
the close of the seventh century, b. c. when the history of China becomes 
more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 b. c, 
the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the countries on the 
coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history. — Lev.glet. 

Jesuit missionaries endeavor to esta- 
blish Christianity - - - - 1692 
The .Jesuits are expelled through their 
own misconduct - - - 1724 

ENGLISH INTBRCOUKSE WITH CHINA. 



Tlie Chinese state their first cycle to 
have commenced - - b. c 2700 

Tiie first of the 22 Chinese dynasties 
commenced - - . . 2207 



In the history of China, the first dates 
whicii are fixed to his narrative, by 
Se-ma-tsien, begin - - - 651 

Confucius, the father of the Chinese 

philosophers, born - - - 551 
Stupendous wall of China completed - 211 
The dynasty of Han - - - - 206 
Literature find the art of printing encou- 
raged 202 

Religion of Ta tse commenced • - 15 
Religion of the .'bllowers of Fo, com- 
menced about - - A. D. 60 
Embassy from Rome ■ - - 166 
Nankin becomes the capital - - 420 
The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin, 

flourishes .... 449 

Tlie Nestorian Christians permitted to 

preach their doctrines - - - 635 

They are proscribed, and extirpated - 845 
The seat of the imperial government is 

transferred to Pekin - - • 1260 

Wonderful canal, called the Yn Ho, 

completed about - - - 1400 

Euc;' ^ans first arrive at Canton - 1517 

Macao is granted as a settlement to the 

Portuguese - - - - 1536 

.Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope 

from Rome .... 1575 
The country is conquered by the East- 
em Tartars, who establish the pre- 
sent reigning house - - - 1644 
An earthquake throuEhout China buries 
300,000 persons ui Pekin alone - 1662 

11* 



Earl Macartney's embassy: he leaves 
England - - Sept. 26, 1792 

He is ordered to depart from Pekin, 

Oct. 7, 1793 

Edict against Christianity - - 1812 

Lord Amherst's embassy; he leaves 
England - - - Feb. 8, 1816 

[His lordship failed in the objects of 
his mission, having refused to make 
the prostration of ihe kou-tou, lest he 
should thereby compromise the ma- 
jesty of England.] 

The exclusive rights of the East India 
Company cease - April 22, 1834 

Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to super- 
intend British commerce - July 15, 1834 

Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, 

Nov. 7, 1831 

Commissioner Lin issues an edict for 
the seizure of opiuin - March 18, 1839 

British and otlier residents forbidden to 
leave Canton - - March 19, 1839 

The factories surrounded, and outrages 
committed - - March 24, 1839 

The opium destroyed during several 
days by the Chinese - June 3, 1839 

The British trade with China ceases, by 
an edict of the emperor, and the last 
servant of the company leaves the 
country this day - - Dec. 6, 1839 

Edict of the emperor interdicting all 
trade and intercourse with England 
for ever - - - Jan. 5, 1840 



250 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[cm 



CHINA, continued. 



Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of 
15 sail and several war steamers, hav- 
ing 4,000 troops on board, by orders 
from Sir Gordon Bremer - June 28, 1810 

Seizure of Capt. Anstruther - Sept. 16, 1840 

Lin deprived of his authority, and 
finally degraded; Keshin appointed 
imperial commissioner - Sept. 16, 1840 

Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the 
Chinese - - - Nov. 6, 1840 

Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great 
Britain, and 6,000,0(10 dollars agreed to 
be paid within ten days to the British 
authorities - - - Jan. '20, 1841 

Imperial edict from Pekin rejecting the 
conditions of the treaty made by Ke- 
shin - - - Feb. 11, 1841 

Hostilities are in consequence resumed 
against the Chinese - - Feb. 2-3, 1841 

Chusan evacuated - - Feb. 24, 1841 

Rewards proclaimed at Canton for the 
bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 
50,000 dollars to be given for i-ing- 
leaders and chiefs - Feb. 23, 1841 

Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bre- 
mer ; admiral Kvvan killed, and 459 
guns captured - - Feb. 26, 1841 

Sir Hugh Gough takes the command of 
the army - - March 2, 1841 

Heights behind Canton taken, and 94 
guns captured • - May 25, 1841 

The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, 
of which 5,000,000 are paid dowjt, 
and hostilities cease - May 31, 1841 

British trade re-opened - July 16, 1341 

Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Pottin- 
ger, who, as plenipotentiary, pro- 
claims the objects of his mission ; 
Capt. Elliott superseded - Aug. 10, 1841 

Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and 
destroyed - - Aug. 27, 1841 

The Bogue forts destroyed - Sept. 14, 1841 

The city of Tinghae taken, 136 guns 
captured, and the island of Chusan 
re-occupied by the British - Oct. 1, 1841 

Chin-hae taken, with 157 guns, many 
of them brass - - Oct. 10, 1841 



Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, 
on board the Cornwallis by sir Henry 
Pottinger for England, and Keying 
Elepoo and Neu-Kien on the part of 
the Chinese emperor - Aug. 29, 1&15 

CONDITIONS OF THE TREATY. 

Lasting peace and friendship between 
the two empires. 

China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part 
forthwith and the remainder within 
three years. 

The ports of Canton, Amoy, Poo-choo- 
foo, Ning-po, and Shan^-hae to be 
thrown open to the British. 

Consuls to reside at these cities. 

Tarifis of import and export to be esta- 
blished, ifec. &c. 

The emperor signifies his assent to the 
conditions - - Sept. 8, 1842 

Mr. Davis succeeds Sir Henry Pottinger 
as British commissioner • Feb. 16, 1844 

Bogue Forts captured by Gen. Aguilar 
and Sir John Davis, 836 pieces ol' ar- 
tillery seized and spiked - April 5, 1847 

Treaty between China and the Uni- 
ted States negotiated by Caleb 
Cushing, Aniierican Commis- 
sioner - • July 3, 1844 

ratified at Washington 

Jan. 16, 1845 

Alexander H. Everett appointed 
commissioner to China from the 
United States - - - 1845 

John W. Davis appointed commis- 
sioner from the United States - 1847 

CHINESE EMPERORS. 

The following is a list of those who have 
reigned for the lajst two centuries : — 

Chwang-lei 1627 

Shun-che ----- 1644 

Kang-he 1669 

Yung-ching .... 1693 
Keen-lung . ' - - - - 1736 

Kea-ding 1796 

Taou-kwang- - - - - 182] 

Sze-Hing, present emperor - - 1850 



The embassy of lord Macartney from England procured the first authentic 
information respecting; this empire : it appears that it is divided into 15 pro- 
vinces, containing 4402 walled cities; the population of the whole country is 
given at 333 000,000 ; its annual revenues at £66,000,000; and the army, in- 
cluding the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavalry; the rehgion 
is pagan, and the government is absolute. Learning, with the arts and sci- 
ences in general, are encouraged, and ethics are studied profoundly, and 
influence the manners of the people. See details in Williams's " Middle 
Kingdom." 
CHINA PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in history in 1531 ; 
it was introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain 
was made at Dresden in 1706 ; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 1752 ; at 
Eovv in 1758 ; in various other parts of England, about 1760 ; and by the 
ingenious Josiah Wedgwood, who much improved the British manufacture, 
in Staffordshire, 1762 etseq. 

CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, fabulous, and mythological. 
Like the Chaldeans, they represent the world as having existed some hun- 
dreds of thousands of years; and their annals and histories record events 



CHO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 251 

said to have occurred, and name philosophers and heroes said to have lived, 
more than 27,000 years ago. B3' their calculation of time, which must, of 
course, differ essentially from ours, they date the commencement of their 
empire 41,000 years b. c. — Abbe Lengkt. 

CHIPPEWA, Battles of. The British forces under general Riall were de- 
feated by the Americans under general Brown, July 5, 1814. Another ac- 
tion with the British, commanded by generals Drummond and Riall ; the 
latter taken prisoner at Bridgwater, near Chippewa, July 25, 1814. 

CHIVALRY. Began in Europe about a. d. 912. From the twelfth to the fif- 
teenth century it bad a considerable influence in refining the manners of 
most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties 
of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies. He devoted him- 
self to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect the distressed, to 
practise courtesy, to fulfil obligations, and to vindicate, in every perilous 
adventure, his honor and character. Chivalry, which OAved its origin to the 
feudal system, expired with it. — Robertson ; Gibbon. 

CHIVALRY, Court of. It was commonly after the lie-direct had been given, 
that combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of 
James I. the earl-marshal of England had ""the like jurisdiction in the court 
of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter 
and the marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. The following entries are 
found in the pipe-roll of 31 Henry I., the date of which has been fixed by 
the labors of the record commission : — " Robert Fitz Seward renders account 
of fifteen marks of silver, for the office and wife of Hugh Chivill. Paid into 
the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds;" p. 53. "William 
de Hocton renders account of ten marks of gold that he may have the wife of 
Geoffrey de Faucre i?i marriage, with her land, and may have her son ih 
custody until he is of age to become a knight ; he paid into the exchequer 
ten marks of gold, and is discharged." — Pari. Reports. 

CHOCOLATE. First introduced into Europe from Mexico about a. d. 1520. It 
is the flour of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, much used 
in Spain. It was sold in the London coffee-houses soon after their establish- 
ment, 1650.— Tte&r. 

CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time 
of Constantine. The choral service was first used in England at Canter- 
bury, a. d. 677. The service had been previously in use at Rome about 602. 
— See Chanting. The Choragus was the superintendent of the ancient 
chorus. — Warburton. 

CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form 
as the Asiatic cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries 
of the north, east, and south of Europe, and in the countries of Asia, where 
alone it had carried off more than 900,000 persons in its progress within two 
years, made its first appearance in England, at Sunderland, October 26, 1831. 
Proclamation, ordering all vessels from Sunderland to London, to perform 
quarantine at the Nore, December 4, 1831. Cholera first appeared at Edin- 
burgh, Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London. 
February 13 ; and in Dublin, March 3, same year. The mortality was very 
great, but more so on the Continent ; the deaths by Cholera in Paris were 
18,000 between IMarcli and August, 1832. Cholera first appeared on this 
continent at Quebec, June 8, 1832 ; and at New- York, June 27, 1832. Cho- 
lera again raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c. in 1836-7. It 
again appeared in Asia and the east of Europe in 1848, and raged in Lon- 
don, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Paris at intervals, in 1848-9. First ap- 
peared again on this continent in 1849, on the Mississippi, in New York in 



252 THE world's progress. [ CKR 

May, and continued more or less in various parts of the United States 
until November of that year. 

CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer 
of the world, signifies, in Greek, The Anointed, being the same with Mes- 
siah in the Hebrew, which the Jews called that Saviour and Deliverer whom 
they expected, and who was promised to them by all the prophets. This 
appellation is commonly put to our Jssus (signifying Savioiir), the name of 
the great object of our faith, and divine author of our religion. St. Clement, 
the earliest father, according to St. Epiphanius, fixes the birth of Christ oa 
the 18th of November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. two years before 
the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Cerinthus Avas the first 
Christian writer against the divinity of Christ, about a. d. 67. The divinity 
of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in a. d. 325, by two hundred 
and ninety-nine bishops against eighteen. 

CHRISTIAN. This name was first given to the believers and followers of 
Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, Acts xi. 26, in the year 38, accoi'd- 
ing to Bictlcr; in the year 40, according to Tacitus; and according to other 
authorities in the year 60. The Christians were divided into episcopoi, 
presbyteroi, diacouoi, pistoi, catachumens, or learners, and energumens who 
Avere to be exorcised. 

CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations ; it 
dates from January 1st, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th 
Olympiad, in the 753d of the building of Rome, and 4714th of the Julian 
period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very 
generally employed for some centuries after. We style the Christian era 
A. D. 1. It was fii-st used in modern chronology in 516. 

CHRISTIAN KING; Most Christian King; Christianissimus. This title was 
given by pope Paul II. to Louis XI. of France in 1469 ; and never was a 
distinction more unworthily conferred. His tjTanny and oppressions 
obliged his subjects to enter into a league against him ; and 4,000 persons 
were executed publicly or privatelj^ in his merciless reign. — Henault ; Fleury. 

CHRISTIANITY. Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of 
the Christians commenced a. d. 64. — See Perscciotions. Christianity was first 
taught in Britain about this time ; and it was propagated with some success 
in 156. — Bede. Lucius is said to have been the first Christian king of Bri- 
tain, and in the world : he reigned in 179. But the era of Christianity in 
England commenced with the mission of St. Austin in 596, from which time 
it spread rapidly throughout the whole of Britain.* It was introduced into 
Ireland in the second century, but with more success after the arrival of St. 
Patrick in 432. It was received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about 
201, when it was embraced by that king, his queen, and some of his nobility. 

Constantine the Great made his solemn In Sweden, hetween 10th and 11th centuries. 

declarationofthe Christian religionA.D. 312 In Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, 
Christianity was establislred in France 

under Clovis the Great - - 496 

In Helvetia, by Irish missionaries - 643 



In Flanders in the seventh century. 

In Denmark, under Harold - - 827 

In Bohemia, under Borzivoi - - 894 

In Russia, by Swiatoslaf - - 940 

In Poland, under Meicislaus I. - • 992 

In Hungary, under Geisa - - 994 

In Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. - 1000 



when they were returning from the 
holy wars - - - a. d. 1227 

In Lithuania, where Paganism was abo- 
lished, about .... 1386 

In China, where it made some progress 
(but was afterwards extirpated, and 
thousands of Chinese Christians were 
put to death) .... 1575 

In Greece, where it was once more re- 
established .... 1628 



* It is said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced one 
day to pass through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of great beauty who 
were set up for sale, he inquired about their country, and finding they were English Pagans, he is 
Raid to have cried out, in the Latin language, " Noii Angli, sed AngeU.furent, si assent Christimii," 



CHU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 253 

Christianity was propagated in varions parts of Africa, as Guinea, Angola, 
and Congo, in the fifteenth centuiy ; and in America and India it made some 
progress in the sixteenth, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the 
world. 

CHRISTMAS-DAY. A festival of the church, universally observed in com- 
memoration of the nativity of orrr Saviour. It has been denominated Christ- 
mass, from the appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to 
express that he was the Messiah, or The Anointed. It was first observed as a 
festival a. d. 98. Ordered to be held as a solemn feast, and Divine service to be 
performed on the 25th of December, by pope Telesphorus, about a. d. 137.* 
In the eastern primitive church, Christmas and Epiphany {ivhich see) were 
deemed but one and the same feast ; and to this day the church universally 
keeps a continued feast within those limits. The hc^ly and misleioe used 
at Christmas are remains of the religious observances of the Druids, and so 
with many other like customs. 

CHRONICLES. The earliest chronicles are those of the Chinese, Hindoos, 
Jews, and perhaps those of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all 
well-informed nations appear to have kept clironiclers, who were generally 
priests or astrologers, and who mingled popular legends with their records. 
— Phillips. 

CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no cer- 
tain authority. The most authentic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the 
•Tewish ; but owing to the negligence of the Jews, they have created abun- 
dance of difficulties in this science, and very little certainty can be arrived 
at as to the exact time of man}'- memorable events. The earliest epoch is 
the creation of the world, 4004 b. c. Theophilns, bishop of Antioch, was the 
first Christian chronologist, about a. d. 169. See the different eras through the 
volume. 

CHURCH. It is said that a church was built for Christian worship in the first 
century; and some will have it that one was built in England, a. d. 60. See 
Glastonbury. In the small island of Whitehorn, Scotland, are the remains of 
an ancient "church, Avhich Avas the first place of Christian worship, it is be- 
lieved, in that coimtry, and supposed to have been built before the cathedral 
at Whitehorn, in Wigtonshire, where Nenian was bishop in the fourth cen- 
tury. The Christians originally preached in woods, and in caves, by candle- 
light, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. Most of the early 
churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in London, in 
1087. The first Irish church of stone was built at Bangor, in the county of 
Down, by Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, who was prelate in 1134. — Gor- 
doii's Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial fortresses. Church- 
yards were permitted in cities in 742. 

CHURCH OF ENGLAND, (the present). Commenced with the Reformation, 
and was formally established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. This church 
consists of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops, exclusively of that of 
Sodor and Man ; and the other dignitaries are chancellors, deans (of cathe- 
drals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor 
canons, and priest vicars ; these, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, 

mat IS, " they would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time he was 
struck with an ardent desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk, named 
Austin, or Augustin, and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain, in the 
yc&r 596 — Goldsmith. 

' Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the 
Christians were assembled on ihi.'? day in great multitudes, to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered the 
doors to be shut, and the chutch to be set on fire, and six hundred jjerished in thi; burning p.ie. 
This was the commencement of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, a. d 303. 



254 THE world's PKOGUESS. [ CIN 

and c?id,pelries, make the number of preferments of the estabUshed chiirch, 
according to the last official returns, 12,327. The number of churches for 
Protestant worship in England was 11,742 in 1818. 

CHURCH OP IRELAND. Called, in connection with that of England, the 
United Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Tempo- 
ralities Act of William IV. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and 
eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which several have since ceased ; that act 
providing for the union of sees, and for the abolition of certain sees, accord- 
ingly as the present possessors of them die. There are 1,659 places of Prot- 
estant worship, 2,109 Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other 
houses of prayer. See Bishops. 

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its 
distinguishing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formulary of 
faith attributed to John Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1560. It 
was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567 ; was finally settled by 
an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and was afterwards secured bj'' the 
treaty of union with England in 1707. Previously to the abolition of episco- 
pacy in Scotland in 1688, there existed two archbishoprics and twelve bish- 
oprics, which Avere then dissolved ; but there are now six bishops. The 
Church of Scotland is regulated bj^ four courts — the General Assembly, the 
Synod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Session. See Presbyterians. 

CHURCH MUSIC, was introduced into the Christian church by Gregory the 
Great, in a. d. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England, at Can- 
terbury, in 677. Church organs were in general use in the tenth century. 
Church music was first performed in English in 1559. See Choir; Chanting. 

CHURCH-WARDENS. Officers of the parish chu-«h, appointed by the first 
canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in cA^ery parish Avere also 
appointed bj' the same body, and they continue noAV nearly as then consti- 
tuted. — Johnson's Canons. 

CHURCHING OF WOMEN. It originated in the JcAA'ish rite of purification, 
A. D. 214. Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any 
signal deliverance, and particularly after the delivery of Avomen. — IVheatley. 
It was a Jewish law that a Avoman should keep within her house forty days 
after her lying in, if she had a son, and eightj' if she had a daughter, at the 
expiration whereof she Avas to go to the temple, and offer a lamb Avith a 
young pigeon or turtle and in case of poverty, two pigeons or turtles. 
See Purification. 

CIDER. Anciently this beverage, Avhen first made in England, AA'as called wine, 
about A. D. 1284. When the earl of Manchester Avas ambassador in France, 
he is said to have frequentty passed off cider upon the nobility of that coim- 
try for a delicious Avine. It Avas subjected to the excise regulations in 
England, 1763, ct seq. A powerful spirit is draAvn from cider by distillation. — 
Butler. 

03MBRI. The Avar of the Cimbri, 113 e. c. They defeat the consul Marcus 
Silanus, 109 b. g. They defeat the Romans under Manlius, on the banks of 
the Rhine. AA'here 80 000 Romans are slain. 105 b. c. The Teutones are de- 
feated by Marius in two battles at Aquse Sextise (Aix) in Gaul, 200,000 are 
killed, and 70 000 made prisoners, 102 b. c. The Cimbri are defeated by 
Marius and Catullus as they AA-ere again endeavoring to enter Italy ; 120,000 
are killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 b. c. Their name afterwards sunk 
in that of the Teutones or Saxons. 

CINCINNATI. Ohio, the most populous city Avest of the Alleghanies in the 
United States, AA'as founded in 1789, hy emigrants from Ncav England and 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



255 



New Jersej'. Population in 1795, 500; in 1800, 750 ; in 1810, 2,510 ; in 1820, 
9,642 ; in 1830, 21,831 ; in 1810, 46,338. 

CINCINNATI, Society of. Establislied by the officere of tlie American«army, 
in 1783, after the Revolution, and still continued by them and their descend- 
ants. There was at one time a popular jealousy of this society as suggest- 
ing a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy ; but this has long since passed 
away, and the society is now but seldom mentioned. 

CIRCASSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanians. They contin- 
ued unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated ""imur ; but in the six- 
teenth century the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the 
Czar, Ivan II. of Russia. About a d. 1745, the princes of Great and Little 
Kabarda took oaths of fealty to that power. One branch of their traffic is 
the sale of their daughters, famed throughout the world for their beauty, 
and wliom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Tui'key and Persia : the 
merchants who come from Constantinople to i^ui'chase these girls are gener- 
ally Jews. — KlaprotKs Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia. 

CIRCULATING LIBRARY". The first in England, on a public plan, was opened 
by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had 
little encouragement in the undertaking, which in the end failed. — IPergu- 
soji's Biog. 

CIRCULATION of the BLOOD, and the motion of the heart in animals, con- 
firmed experimentally by William Harvey, the celebrated English physician 
and anatomist, between 1619 and 1628. See article Blood. By this dis- 
covery the medical and surgical art became greatly improved, to the benefit 
of mankind.— /'Vei«rf'5 Hist, of Physic. 

CIRCUMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 b. c. It was the seal of the covenant 
made by God with Abraham. — Josephus. Even to the present day many of 
the Turks and Persians circumcise, although not regarding it as essential to 
salvation ; but in some eastern and African nations it is rendered necessary 
by a peculiar conformation, and is used without any reference to a religious 
rite. — Bell. The festival of the Circumcision was originally called the Octave 
of Christmas. The first mention found of it is in a. d. 487. It Avas instituted 
by the church to commemorate the ceremony under the Jewish law to 
which Christ submitted on the eighth day of his nativity ; it was introduced 
into the Liturgy in 1550. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human en- 
terprises was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was 
first attempted, a. d. 1519.* The following are the most renowned of this 
illustrious class of men ; their voj^ages were undertaken at the dates affixed 
to their names. See Navigators. 



Magellan, a Portuguese, the first who 



entered the Pacific ocean 
Groalva, a Spanish navigator 
Avalradi, a Spaniard 
Mendana, a Spaniard - 
Sir Francis Drake, first English 
Cavendish, his first voyage 
Le Maire, a Dutchman - ' 
Quiros, a Spaniard 
Tasman, Dutch - 
Cowley, British 
Dampier, an Englishman 
Cooke, an Englishman 



1519 
1537 
1.537 

- 1567 
• 1577 
. 1585 
-1615 

- 1625 

- 1642 

- 1683 
-1689 

- 1708 



Clipperton, British - - a. d. 1719 

Roggewein, Dutch • - - 1721 

Anson (afterwards Lord) - • - 1740 

Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) - 1764 

Wallis, British - - - - 1766 

Carteret, an Englishman - - 1766 

Cook, the illustrious captain - - 1768 
On the death of Captain Cook, his last 

voyage was continued by King - JiT) 

Bougainville, French - - -1776 

Ponlocke, British • - - 178S 

Wilkes, American - - - - 1837 

D'Urville, French - • - ia37 



* The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was 
Magellan's, or Magelhoen's ; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a 
westerly course he returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. The voyage was com- 
pleted in three years and twenty-nine days ; but Rlasellan was killed on his homeward prissage, at 
the Philippines, in 1521. — Bull'ei: 



256 THi; world's progress. [ ciV 

Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, bj 
the Russians. The early navigators, equally illustrious, are named else- 
where. 

CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; 
the largest of them was called the Circus Maximus, which was built by the 
elder Tarquin, 605 b. c. ; it was of an oval figure ; its length was three stadia 
and a half, or more than three English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman 
feet. This circus was enlarged by Caesar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and 
was rebuilt by Augustus. All the emperors vied in beautifying it, and 
Julius Caesar introduced in it large canals of water, which on a sudden could 
be covered with an infinite number of vessels, and represent a sea-fight. — 
Pliny. 

CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June 1797. It was ac- 
knowledged by the emperor of Germany to be independent, by the treaty of 
Campo Formio {which see'), Oct. 17, following. Received a new constitution 
in Sept. 1798. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; Napo- 
leon was crowned king in May following, and was represented by his vice- 
roy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Italy. 

CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh 
century. They became so powerful that they governed almost all Europe 
in spiritual and temporal concerns. They observed a continual silence, ab- 
stained from flesh, lay on straw, wore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most 
austere. — De Vitri. 

CITIES. The word ciiy has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at 
which time even London was called Londonburgh, as the capital of Scotland 
is still called Edinburgh. The English cities were very inconsiderable in 
the twelfth century. Cities were first incorporated a. d. 1079. The institu- 
tion of cities has aided much in introducing regular governments, police, 
manners, and arts. — Robcftson. 

CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. — Livy. In England 
a citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carrj^ on a trade 
therein. — Camden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as 
freemen in several reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citi- 
zens of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) 
were obliged to wear minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered, 
with the peaks projecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; alder- 
men's wives made them of velvet, 1 Elizabeth, 1558. — Stowe. The title of 
citizen, only, was allowed in France at the period of the revolution, 1792, et seq. 

CIUDAD RODRIGO. This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French 
June 11, 1810; and it surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained 
in their possession until it was gallantly stormed by the British commanded 
by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. Wellington had made a previous attack upon 
Ciudad Rodrigo (Sept. 25, 1811), which ended in his orderly retreat from 
the ijosition. 

CIVIL LAW. Several codes come under this denomination of laws. A body 
of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was first 
collected by Alfrenus Varus, the Civilian, who flourished about 66 s. c. ; and 
a digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the Civilian, 53 b. c. The 
Gregorian laws were compiled a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian in 435 ; and the 
Justinian, 529-534. Many of the former laws having grown out of use, the 
emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them, which was called the Justinian 
code, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil 
law was restored in Italy, Germany, &c. 1127. — Blctir. Civil law was intro- 
duced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterwards 



CLE J DICTIONARY OF DATKiJ. 257 

arclibishop of Canterbury, in 1138. It is now used in tlie spiritual courts 
only, and in maritime affairs. See Laws. 

CIVIL LIST IN ENGLAND. This comprehends the revenue awarded to the 
kings of England, partly in lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The 
entire revenue of Elizabeth was not more than 600, 000^. and that of Charles I. 
was but 800,000Z. After the Revolution a civil list revenue was settled on 
the new king and queen of 700,000Z., the parliament taking into its own 
hands the support of the forces, both maritime and military.^ The civil list 
of George II. was increased to 800.000L ; and that of George III. in the 55th 
year of his reign, was l,O3O,000Z.' By the act 1 William IV. 1831, the civil 
list of that sovereign was fixed at 510,000Z. By the act of 1 Victoria, Dec. 
1837j the civil list of the queen was fixed at 385 OOOZ. ; and Prince Albert 
obtained an exclusive sum from parliament of 3O,O0OZ. per arm. 4 Victoria, 
1840. 

CLANSHIPS. These were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the same 
name, and originated in feudal times. — See Feudal Laws. They may be 
said to have arisen in Scotland, in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. 
Clanships and other remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scot- 
land (where clans ivere taken to be the tenants of one lord), and the liberty 
of the English was granted to clansmen. 20 George II., 1746. — Ruffhead. 
The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's 
feathers in his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. — 
Ckambers. 

CLARENDON, Statutes of. These were statutes enacted in a parliament 
held at Clarendon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous 
power of the clergy. They are rendered memorable as being the ground of 
Becket's quarrel -svith Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up 
under the title of the statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted 
without opposition, a. d. 1164. These stringent statutes were enacted to 
prevent the chief abuses which at that time prevailed in ecclesiastical 
affairs, and put a stop to church usurpations which, gradually stealing on, 
threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power. — Huvie. 

CLARION. This instrument originated with the Moors, in Spain, about a. d. 
800 ; it was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding their 
tenor and bass. — Ashe. Its tube is narrower, and its tone shriller than the 
common trumpet. — Pardon. 

CLASSIS. The name was first given by TuUius Servius in making divisions of 
the Roman people. The first of sis classes were called dassici, by way of 
eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics, 
573 B. c. 

CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to a primi- 
tive father, Clemens Romanus, a cotemporary of St. Paul; some say he 
succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. He died a. d. 102. — Niceron. Also the 
decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314, published by his successor. — • 
Boii-yer. Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine 
j^ears, then merged into a common monk. 

CLEMExMTINES and URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted 
for several years. The Urbanists were the adherents of pope Urban VI., the 
others those of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who took the title of 
Clement VII. All the kingdoms of Christendom according to their various 
interests and inclinations were divided between these two pontiffs ; the courts 
of France, Castile, Scotland, &c. adhering to Clement, and Rome, Italy, and 



258 THE world's progress. [ CLC 

England declaring for Urban. This contention was consequent upon the 
death of Gregory XI. 1378. — Hmiie. 

CLERGY. In the first century the clergy were distinguished by the title of 
presbyters or bishops. The bishops in the second century assumed higher 
functions, and the presbyters represented the inferior priests of the Levites: 
this distinction was still further promoted in the third century ; and, under 
Constantine, the clergy attained the recognition and protection of the secu- 
lar power. 

CLERGY IN England. They increased rapidly in number early in the seventh 
century, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness was 
forbidden among the clergy by a law, so eai-ly as 747 a. d. The first frnitf 
of the then clergy were assigned by parliament to the king, 1534. The cler- 
gy were excluded from parliament in 1536. .The conference between the 
Protestant and Dissenting clergy was held in 1604. See Conferenct. Two 
thousand resigned their benefices in the church of -England, rathei than 
subscribe their assent to the book of common prayer, including the thirty- 
nine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2. The 
Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, from which they had 
been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom xmder cSimes II., 1689. 
The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801. See Church of England. 

CLERK. The Clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen 
after the Norman custom from the sacred order ; and the otticers being cler- 
gy ; this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this day. — Black- 
stone's Comm. 

CLOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome 
158 B. c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesi- 
bius, about 140 b. c. Said to have been found by Caesar on invading Britain, 
55 E. c. The only clock supposed to be then in the world was sent by pope 
Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a. d. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, 
invented one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three feet in 
diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record, 
was made by a Saracen mechanic, in the 13th centurj'. 

Thescapement, ascribed to Gerbert,A.D. 1000 , den) and the younger Galileo con- 

A clock constructed by Richard, abbot '■ structed the pendulum - a. d. 1641 

of St. Alban's, about - - -1326 Christian Huygens contested this disco- 

A striking clock in Westminster - 1368 very, and made his pendulum clock 

A perfect one made at Paris by Vick - 1370 some time previously to - - 1658 

The first portable one made - - 1530 Fromantil, a Dutchman, improyed the 

In England no clock went accurately i pendulum, about - . - 1659 

before that set up at Hampton-court i Repeating clocks and watches invented 

(maker's initials, N. O.) - - 1510 by Barlow, about - - - 1676 

Richard HaiTis (who erected a clock in The dead beat, and horizontal escape- 

the church of St. Pauls, Covent-Gar- > ments, by Graham, about - - -1700 

The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested, and 
the duplex scapement invented bj^ Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes jewelled by Facio ; 
the detached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud, 
Arnold, Earnshaw and others. 

CLOCK, MAGNETIC. Invented by Dr. Locke of Cincinnati, 1847-8. 

CLOTH. Both woollen and linen cloth were known in very early times. Coarse 
woollens were introduced into England a. d. 1191; and seventy families of 
cloth-workers from the Netherlands settled in England by Edward III.'s in- 
vitation, and the art of weaving was thereby introduced, 1331. — Rpmr's Fa- 
dera. Woollens were first made at Kendal, in 1390. Medleys were manu- 
factured. 1614. Our fine broad cloths were yet sent to Holland to be dyed, 
1654. Dyed and dressed in England, by one Brewer, from the Low Coun- 
tries, 1667. The manufacture was discouraged in Ireland and that of linen 



coa] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 259 



countenanced, at the i-equest of both houses of pariiament, 1698. See 
Woollen Cloth. 

CLOVTS, Family of. Kings of France. The real founder of the French mo- 
narchy was Clovis I., who commenced his reign a. d. 481, and was a warlike 
prince. He expelled the Romans, embraced the Cliristian religion, and pub- 
lished the Salique law. On his being first told of the suflferings of Christ, 
he exclaimed, " O, had I been there with my valiant Gauls, how I would 
have avenged him !" Clovis imited his conquests from the Romans, Germans, 
and Goths, as provinces to the then scanty dominions of France : removed 
the seat of Government from Soissons to Paris, and made this the capital of 
his new kingdom; he died in 511. — Henault. 

COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a co- 
temporary with our Henry VIII., there were but two in Paris, one of Avhich 
belonged to the queen, and the other to Diana, the natural daughter of 
Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry IV. had one, but 
without straps or springs. The first courtier who set uj^ this equipage was 
John de Laval de Bois-Dauphiu, who could not travel otherwise on account 
of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France 
travelled on horseback, the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode 
behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in the reign of 
Mary, about 1553. — Priestley's Led. They were introduced much earlier. — 
Andrews' Hist. Great Brit. They were introduced by Fitz-Allen, earl of 
Arundel, in 1580. — Stowe. And in some years afterwards the art of making 
them. — Anderson's Hist, of Commerce. A bill was brought into parliament 
to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* — Carle. 
See Carriages. Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. 

COALITIONS. The great coalitions against France since the period of the 
French revolution, have been six in number ; and they generally arose out 
of the subsidizing hj England of the great powers of the Continent. They 
were entered into as follows : 



1st. The king of Prussia issues liis ma- 
nifesto - - - June 26, 1792 

2nd. By Great Britain, Germany, Rus- 
sia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey, 
signed - - - June 22, 1799 

3rd. By Great Britain, Russia, Austria, 

and Naples - - Aug. 5, 1805 



4tli. By Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, 

and Saxony - - Oct. 6, 1806 

5th. By England and Austria - April 6, 1809 
6th. By Russia and Prussia ; the treaty 

ratified at Kalisch - March 17, 1813 
See Treaties. 



COALITION MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated mia- 
istr}' of Mr. Fox and lord North, and which was. rendered memorable as an 
extraordinary union in political life, on account of the strong personal dis- 
like which had always been displayed by these personages, each towards 
the other. The ministrj- was formed April 5, 1783, and dissolved Dec. 19, 
same year. See Administrations. 

COALS. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, although they 
are not mentioned by the Romans in their notices of Britain, were yet in use 
by the ancient Britons. — Brandt. They were first discovered at Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne in 1234, some say earlier ; and others in 1239. Sea-coal was pro- 
hibited from being used in and near London, as being " prejudicial to human 
health ; " and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273. — Stowe. Coals 
were first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Richard U. 
1381. — Rymer's Feeder a. Notwithstanding the many previous comj^lainls 



* In the beginning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned ever 
emcc the Gutipowtier Plot, obtained his liberation Hearing that Buckingham was drawn about 
with six hort-cs in his coach (being the first that was so), he put on eight to his, and in that manner 
passed from the tower through the city. — Rapin. 



260 THE AVOELTd's PKUGRESS. [ COD 

against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in Lon- 
don in 1400 ; but coals were not in common use in England until the leign 
of Charles I., 1625. 

NUMBER OP CHALDRONS OP COALS CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS: 

1650 - - 160.000 chald. I 1800 - - 814,000 chald. i 1830 - - 1,.588,360 chald. 

1700 - 317,000 ditto. 1810 - - 980,372 ditto. 18:35 - 2,299,816 tons. - 

1750 - - 510,000 ditto. | 1820 - - 1,171,178 ditto. | 1810 - - 2,638,256 ditto. 

The coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland are 723 square miles in 
extent ; those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, arc 
also of vast magnitude ; and there are exhaustless beds of coal in Yorkshire. 
The coal in South Wales alone, would, at the present rate of consumption, 
supply all England for 2000 j'ears. — Blakeivell. It is supposed that there are 
now about 25,000,000 of tons consumed annually in Great Britain. — Phillips. 
Scotland teems with the richest mines of coal, and besides her vast collieries 
there must be vast fields unexplored. — Pennant. Fine coal is found in Kil- 
kenny, Ireland. Tlae first sliip laden with Irish coal arrived in Dublin from 
Newry, in 1742. — Burns. 

COALS IN THE United States. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylva- 
nia, first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles. 

COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen; they held, 
amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, 
after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian 
faith, 1665. 

COCHINEAL. The projjerties of this insect became known to the Spaniards 
soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was not known in 
Italy in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. — See Dyeing. 
The annual import of this article into England was 260,000 lbs. in 1830 ; and 
1,081,776, in 1845. 

COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece. 
It was instituted at Rome after a victory over the Persians, 476 b. c. ; and 
was introduced by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the 
reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on 
Shrove Tuesdaj"". Cock-fighting was prohibited, 39 Edward III., 1365; and 
again by Henry VIII. and Cromwell. Till within these few years there was 
a Cock-pit Royal, in St. James's-park : but this practice is happily now dis- 
couraged by the law. 

COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition (1) practised upon the credulous 
multitude by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance 
was that of a female ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she 
was a ghost : the deception, which arose in a malignant conspiracy, was 
carried on for some time at the house, No. 33 Cock-lane, London ; but 
it was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory 
and imprisonment, July 10, 1762. 

COCOA. Unknown in Europe until the discovery of America, about 1500, 
The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with almost whatever they stand in need 
of as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, 
clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, 
■iordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. — Ray. 

CODES OP LAWS. The laws of Phoroneus were instituted 1807 b. c. : those 
of Lycurgus, 884 b. c. ; of Draco, 623 b. c. ; of Solon, 587 b. c. Alfrenus 
Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 b. c. ; and Ser- 
vius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 b. c. The Gregorian 
and Hermoginian codes were pubhshed a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in 
435 • the celebrated code of the emperor Justinian, in 529— a digest from 



(;OIJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 261 

this last was made in 533. — Blair. Alfred's code of laws is the foundation 
of the common law of England, 887. — See Laws. 

CODICILS TO WILLS. C. Trebatius Testa, the civilian of Rome, was the 
first who introduced the use of this supplementary instrument to wills, 
about 31 B. c. 

CGEUR DE LION, OR the Lion-hearted. Tlie surname given to Richard Plan- 
tagenet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about a. d. 1192. 
This surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalized 
himself in the crusades and in his wars against England, about 1223. This 
latter prince had also the appellation of tbe Lion given !:im. 

COFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a 
beverage is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia 
Felix about a. d. 1454 ; and passed thence into Egj^pt and Syria, and thence, 
in 1511, to Constantinople, where coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M. 
Thevenot, the traveller, was the first Mdio brought it into France, to which 
country he returned after an absence of seven years, in 1662. — Chambers. Cof- 
fee was brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel Canopus, a Cretan, who 
made it his common beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. — Anderson.^ 

COFFEE and TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods 
is reported by the secretary of the treasury (see American Almanac, 1848) 
thus : — 



1821 - 


- Tea, 4,536,223 lbs. 


- - Coffee, 11,886,063 lbs. 


1830 - 


" 6,873,091 lbs. - 


" 38,363.687 lbs 


1885 - 


- " 12.331,638 lbs. 


" 91,753,002 lbs. 


1842 - - 


" 13,482,645 lbs. - 


" 107,387,567 lbs. 


lSi6 


- " 16,891,020 lbs. 


" 124,336,054 lbs. 



COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs, 
in Oxford, 1650. In that year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, 
brought home with him a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first 
house for making coffee in London, which he opened in George-j'ard, Lom- 
bard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the 
first house in that country. — Anderson. The Rainbow coffee-house, near 
Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657. 
Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Charles II., 1675. The 
proclamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea 
and coffee. 

COFFEE-TREES. These trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland in 1616; 
and were carried to the West Indies in the year 1726. First cultivated at 
Surinam by the Dutch about 1718. The culture was encouraged in the 
plantations about 1732. 

COFFINS. The Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of the cedar tree; ow- 
ing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities. — Thucy did.es. Coffins of 
marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been 
buried in one of gold : and glass coffins have been found in England. — Gough. 
The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us, is that of the burial of 
king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, a. d. 542 
— Asser. The patent coffins were invented in 1796. 

COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 b. c. The invention of 
coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose nu)ney 

* Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being in- 
formed by a 2oat-hci-d that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would Iher 
wake at night, and snort ami bound upon the hills, became curious to prove its virtues. He ac- 
cordingly tried it on liis monks, t6 prevent their sleeping at malias, and he found that it rhrd.c I 
their slumb.^TM. 



262 THE world's progress. feoi 

was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Phidon tyrant of Argos, 862 
B. c. Money was coined at Rome under - Servius Tullius, about 573 b. c. 
The most ancient known coins are Macedonian, of the fifth century b. c. ; but 
others are believed to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at 
Rome previously to 269 b. c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a sign that 
little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver 
were in use long before. Gold was coined 206 b. c. Iron money was used 
in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain. — Dufresnoy. Julius Caesar was the 
first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait 
on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and more 
simple days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upon 
their money : the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had re- 
ceived divine honors. 

COIN IN ENGLAND. The fii-st coinage in England was under the Romans at 
Camulodunum, or Colchester. English coin was of different shapes, as 
square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was 
used. Groats were the largest silver coin until after a, d. 1351. Coin was 
made sterling m 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and 
maney was found only in the cofiers of the barons. — Stowe 



The first gold coins on certain record, 
struck, 42 Henry III. - a. d. 1257 

Gold florin first struck, Ed. III. (Cam- 
den) 13.37 

First large copper coinage, putting an 



end to the circulation of private lead- 
en pieces, &c. - - . . 1620 
Halfpence and J'arthings coined - 1665 
Guineas first coined, 25 Char. II. - 1673 
Sovereigns, new coinage - - 1816 
Half-fariliings - - - - 1843 

Gold coin was introduced in six shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles 
followed, at six shillings and eightpence, and hence the lawyer's fee : aftei'- 
wards there were half and quarter nobles. Guineas Avei-e of the same size; 
but being made of a superior gold from sovereigns, guineas passed for 
more. SeeGuiiieas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 1826. 
See Gold. 

MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT. 



George III. and regency, 

gold - - £74,501,586 
George IV. - -41.782,815 
William IV. - - 10,827,603 
Victoria, to 1848, 32.370.814 



Elizabeth ■ - £5,832,000 1 .lames II. - - £3.740,000 

James I. ■ - 2,500,000 | William III. - - 10^511,900 

Charles I. - - - 10,500,000 i Anne - - - 2,691,626 

Cromwell ■ - 1,000,000 George I. - ■ 8,72.1,920 

Charles II. - - 7,524,100 | George II. • - 11,966,576 

The coin of the realm M^as about twelve millions in 1711. — Davenant. It was 
estimated at sixteen millions 1762. — Anderson. It was supposed to be twen- 
ty millions in 1786. — Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800. 
— Philtips. The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic 
currency is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of 
coin,1830. — Diike of Wellington. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching 
forty-five millions. See Gold. 

COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The coinage from 
that time to 1836 was thus : — 

Pieces. Value. 

Gold - - 4,716,325 - - $22,102,035 

Silver - - - 115,421,762 - 46,739,182 

Copper - - 77,752,965 - - 740,331 

Total - 197,891,502 - . $69,581,549 

1837 to 1SJ8 inclusive 145,389,748 - - $81,436,165 

Total in 56 years - 343,281,250 pieces. - $151,017,714 
The gold coinage consists of double eagles S'20, eagles, half eagles, quarter 
eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first de- 
posit of California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 1804 
ounces. Dec. 8. 1848. 



COI, J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 263 

COINING, lliis operation was originally performed by the metal being placed 
between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill was 
invented by Antonie Brucher, and introduced into England in 1562. An en- 
gine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improvements 
of the art were effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho. 1788, and subsequently. 
The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery 
at the mint, London, commenced in 1811. 

1 OLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to prtduce the same percep- 
tions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, 
the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost 
1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and 
in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. — Grcig. Perhaps the cold- 
est day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer was 
16" below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See 
Frosts, Ice. 

COLISEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in 
the jjlace where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been a. d. 
72. The splendid Colisseum of London, and one of its most worthy objects 
of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8. 

COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which 
were munificent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of liv- 
ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said 
to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, a. d. 1140; but some 
authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date 
is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at 
Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first 
doctors of those universities. Cambridge, Oxford, &c. 

Cheshunt College Ibuiided - a. d. 1792 Mareschal College, Aberdeen - a- d. 1591 

Doctor's Commons, civil law • -1670 

Durham "University - . . * * 

Edinburgh University - • - 1580 

Eton College 1441 

Glasgow University • - - 1451 



Maynooth College - - - 1795 

Physicians, London - - - - 1518 

Sion College .... 1329 
Sion College, re-founded • - - 1530 

Surgeons, London - - - 1745 



Harrow 1585 I Trinity College, Dublin - - - 1591 

Highbury College - - - 1820 ! University, London - - - 1826 

• King's College, Aberdeen • - - 1494 | Winchester College - - - - 1387 

King's College, London - - - 1829 

^'OLLEGES IN THE UNrrED States. The first established was Harvard, at 
Cambridge, Mass., by John Harvard, 1638; and this is now the most im- 
portant and best endowed in the United States. The second was William 
and Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third, Yale, at New Haven, 1700. Fourth, 
College of New Jersey, Princeton, 1746. Fifth, Columbia, New- York, 1754. 
Sixth, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1755. Seventh, Brown 
University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H., 1769. 
Ninth, Rutgers. New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the 
Revolution. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded 
1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. In 
1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States ; 42 theological schools ; 
12 law schools ; 36 medical schools. See list in American Almanac. Girard 
College opened Jan. 1, 1848. 

COLOGNE. A member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled 
from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it has since fallen into 
ruin. Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In 
the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi; and in the church of 
St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint and bones belonging to the 11,000 vir- 
gins said to have been put to death along with her. 

(vOLOMBTA. A rej)ublic in Sohth America, formed of slates which have 



264 THE world's progress. [ COl. 

declared their independence of the crown of Spain ; but its several chie^ 
have been contending- one against another, and each state has been a prey 
to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured. 

Battle of Carabobo, the Royalists wholly 

overthrown - - June 24, 1821 

Bolivar is named Dictator by the Con- 
gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1834 
Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 

formed - - - June 30, 1824 

Alliance with Guatimala - March 1825 



New Grenada, discovered by Colum- 
bus - - - - A. D. 1497 
Venezuela discovered - - - 1498 
IheCaraccas formed into a kingdom, 

under a captain-general - - 1547 

The history of those provinces under 
the tyranny and oppression of the Spa 



niards, presents but one continuous | Congress at Lima names Bolivar Pre- 

scene of^rapine and blood. sident of the republic - Aug. 182t) 

******* ' Bolivar's retui-n to Bogota - Nov. 18^0 

Confederation of Venezuela - -1810 He assumes the dictatorship - Nov. 23, 1826 

Independence formally declared - - 1811 ' Padilla's insurrection - April 9, ISiS 
Defeat of General Miranda - - 1812 | Conspiracy of Santander against the 

Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 i life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 1828 

Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of i Bolivar resigns his office of president of 

Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 the republic - - April 11, 1829 

Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- He dies - - - Dec. 17, 1830 

nezuela - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies ■ - May 26, 1840 

COLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it 
is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by 
Thrasymachus about 373 b. c.—Siddas. It was kno-\^Ti to Aristotle. Our 
punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. 
Tlie colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the 
sixteenth century. 
COLONIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each. 
The wliite and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained, 
amounts to about 2 500,000, and tlie slaves at the period of their emancipa- 
tion, were 770,280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van 
Diemen's Land, is 36,267 ; the aborigines of the latter place have not been 
ascertained. The act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British 
colonies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves (£20,000,000 sterling) 
was passed 3 &- 4 William IV. 1833. Bj' the provisions of this statute all 
the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on August 1, 
183i. 
COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing free 
people of color ou the coast of Africa, founded December, 1816, at Wash- 
ington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advo- 
cated by Jetferson as early as 1777, urged bj' Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the 
legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrod 
Washington; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Hemy 
Clay Liberia purchased 1821. 
COLOSSLS OP RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, 
erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the 
wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 b. c. It was thrown 
down by an earthquake 224 b. c. ; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens 
on their taking Rhodes in a. d. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg 
being extended on each side of tire harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could 
enter between. A'winding staircase ran to the top, from which could be 
discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt. 
The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been 
repaired ; but now the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, 
weighing 720,900 lbs , to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in 
transporting it to Alexandria — Dw Frcsnoy. 
COLTJaVlBIA, District op. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Vir- 
ginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the 
seat of ffovornmcnt. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown. 



COM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 265 

and Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia. Popula- 
tion in 1800, 14,093 ; in 1840, 43,712, including 8,861 free colored persons, 
and 4,694 slaves. 
COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyiic poetry. Susarion and 
Dolon were the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 b. c. They performed 
the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels, 
for which they were rewarded with a basket of figs and a cask of wine. — 
Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy, 
434 B. c, and Menander that of new, 320 b. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are 
extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statius Csecilius wrote upwards of 30 come- 
dies ; he flourished at Rome, 180 b. c. The comedies of Ltelius and Terence 
were first acted 154 b. c. The first regular comedy was performed in Eng- 
land about A. D. 1551. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy 
(the Sr.liool for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), and the best after- 
piece (the Critic), in the English language. — See Drama. 
COMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by 
Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets 
appeared, Avhich were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splen- 
dor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or 
the fourth part of the heavens, 135 b. c. — Justin. A remarkable one was 
seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337. — Stowe. These phenomena were first 
rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577. A comet, which terri- 
fied the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 
3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses, 
by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared- in 1769, which passed 
within two millions of miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared 
in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye. 
Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823. — See the three next articles. 
COMET, BIELA'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account 
of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but a point of 
the earth's path : it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian oflicer, 
Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was pre- 
dicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks. 
Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage 
was Nov. 27. Us third appearance was in 1839, and its fourth in 1845. 
COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly 
named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting 
its orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the 
three comets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolu- 
tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. 
COMET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest 
astronomer of England. — Lalancle. Doctor Halley first proved that many of 
the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same bodies, 
and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet 
of 1456, of 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of 
the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to 
the comets described as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, 
first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns 
— Viiiceh Astronoiny . The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in 
about seventy-six years: it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion on 
March 13 ; and its last appearance was in 1835. 
COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in 
the earliest ages. In later times it was spread over Europe by a confed- 
eracy of maritime cities A. D. 1241. — Sua Han se Towns. The discoveries of 
Columbus and the enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese. 'MiJarged the 
12 



266 THE world's PK.OGRESS. [ COM 

sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England, to engage 
extensively in its pursuit. — See the various articles connected with this subject. 

COMMERCE. See Navigation. 

COMMERCE, New- York Chamber of, instituted 1783. 

COMMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by Eng- 
land with any foreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings, 1 Edward 
I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward 11. 1308.— 
Anderson. See Treaties. 
COMMON COUNCIL of LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208. 
The charter of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, this being a Saxon appella- 
tion, and which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the people. 
COMMON LAW of ENGLAND. Custom, to which length of time has 
given the force of law, or rules generally received and held as law, called 
Lex non scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law 
derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (wLich was lost), a. d. 890. 
The common law of the United States is founded on that of England. — See 
Custom. Laws. 
COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of 
parliament, in 1548. The Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by par- 
liament, and the Directory {which see), set up in its room in 1644. A pro- 
clamation Avas issued against it, 1647. See Directory. 
COMMONS, House of. The great representative assembly of the people of 
Great Britain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with 
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of 
two Ivuiglits from every sliire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet 
the barons and clergy who Avere his friends, Avith a vieAv thereby to strengthen 
his OAvn power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry HI. This was 
the first confirmed outline of a house of commons ; and the first commons 
Avere summoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry HI. 1258. 
— Goldsmith. Stoice. According to other authorities, the first parliament 
formally conA'ened Avas the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265; and 
Avrits of the latter date are tlie earliest extant. Some historians date the 
first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward 1. 1294. The 
first recorded speaker, duly chosen, Avas Petre de Montfort in 1260 ; he was 
killed at the battle of EA'esham, in 1265. The city of London first sent 
members to parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminster was 
not represented in that assembly until the latter end of Henry VIII's life, 
or rather in the first House of Commons of EdAvard VI. The following 
is the constitution of the House of Commons since the passing of the 
Reform Bills {which see,) in 1832 : — 



English. — County members - 144 

Universities - ■ - 4 

Cities and boroughs - - 323—171 

Welsh. — County members - - 15 

Cities and Boroughs - - 14 — 29 



English and Welsh - 500 

Scotch. — County members - 30 

Cities and Boroughs - • 23- — 53 

Irish. — County members - - 64 

University - - ■ ■ 2' 

Cities and boroughs - - 39 — 105 



English and Welsh - 500 

Total (see Parliament) - 658 

COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. This Avas the interregnum between the 
decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles U. The form of the 
government Avas changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30, 
1649. Oliver CromAvell Avas made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Crom- 
AveU was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy Avas restored in the person 
of Charles II., Avho returned to London May 29, 1670. See England. 

COMMONWEALTH of ROME. Sec Rome. The greatest and most renoAvn- 
ed republic of the ancient world. It dates from 609 b. c, Avhen the goven> 



CON ] DICTIONAE.Y OF DATES. 26V 

mentof kings ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, tlie seventh 
and last king of Rome, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome 
advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. The whole of Italy 
received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Africa, Greece, Asia, Sy- 
ria. Egypt. Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, were successively sub- 
dued by her arms : so that in the age of Julius Csesar this republic had the 
Euphrates, Mount Taurus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east; 
Ethiopia, in the south; the Danube, in the north; and the Atlantic Ocean, 
in the west. The republic existed under consuls and other magistrates un- 
til the battle of Actium, from which we commonly date the commencement 
of the Roman empire, 31 b. c. 
COMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's supper, and was practised early in 
the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is 
said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth 
Lateran council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at 
least at Easter, 1215. The communion service, as now observed in the 
church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548. 

COMPANIES. Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be 
named the Steel-yard society, established a. d. 1232. The second company 
was the merchants of St. Thomas k Becket, in 124S.—Stoioe. The third was 
the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Thv re are 
ninety-one city companies in London ; the first twelve are 



1 Mercers 


- A. D. 1393 


7 Merchant Tailors - 


A. D. 146G 


2 Grocers - 


- - 1345 


8 Haberdasliers 


- 1447 


3 Drapers 


- 1439 


9 Salters - 


- - 1558 


4 Fishmongers 


- - 1384 


10 Ironmongers - 


- 1464 


5 Goldsmiths 


- 1327 


11 Vintners - 


- - 1437 


6 Skinners - 


. - 1327 


12 Clothworkers - 


- 1482 



COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have 
been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1, 
was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, 
in the same year, was scarcelj^ less memorable for its ruin of thousands of 
families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and 
1825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for 
taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were in- 
curred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were 
totally ruined. See Law's Bubble, and Bankrupts. 

COMPASS, The MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese, 
1115 B. c. ; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which self- 
moved, "jjointed towards the south, and safely guided travellers by land or 
water; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the 
invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, a. d. 
1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of 
Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid upon a 
couple of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja in- 
troduced the suspension of the needle as we have it now, 1302. Its variation 
was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging com- 
pass used by navigators were invented by William Barlowe, an English di- 
vine and natural philosopher, in 1608. — Biog. Die. The measuring compass 
was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602. 

CONCEPTION OF THE VIRGIN. This is a feast in the Romish church in 
honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or 
without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of 
Dec. bv the church, in 1889. Conckptionists. an order of nuns, established 
1488. " 



268 THE world's progress. [ CON 

CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, in 
1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and 
talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind perform- 
ed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and 
frequent. 

CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aristotle and 
Pliny, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It 
was first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published 
his classification of the Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in 
1685 ; and that of Largius in 1722. 

CONCLAVE FOR THE ELECTION of POPES. The cone ave is a range of small 
cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where me 
cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used 
for the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a 
pope. The conclave had its rise in a. d. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at 
Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in the 
choice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the 
magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo. shut the 
gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical p&lace till 
they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while 
they elect a pope. 

CONCORDANCE to the BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all 
the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transac- 
tions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made 
under the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who emploj'ed as many as 500 
monks upon it, a. d. 12-17. — Ahbh Lenglct. 

CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a 
prince and the pope, usuallj^ concerning benefices. The celebrated concordat 
between Napoleon Bonapaj-te and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul 
was made, in effect, the head of the Gallican Church, as all ecclesiastics 
were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15, 
1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontifl'was sign- 
ed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813. 

CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests,_A. d. 
1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage, 
both as to dignity and civil eflects, yet concubine~was a reputable title, very 
difierent from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is 
formed by giving the left hand instead of the right, and called half-marriage, 
is still in i;se in some parts of Germany. 

CONFEDERATION at PARISH. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this 
memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bas- 
tile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the 
people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790. See 

Champ de Mars, Bastilc. 

CONFEDERATION or the RHINE, or League of the Germanic States form- 
ed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league, 
the minor German princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to 
serve in case of war, and they established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. 
See Germanic Confederation. 

CONFERENCE. The celebrated rehgious conference held at Hampton Com t 
palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting 
ministers, in order to effect a general imion, at the instance of the king, 2 
James I. 1004. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which 



CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 269 

was esecnted in 1607-11, and is that now in general use in England and the 
United States ; and during the meeting some alterations in the church liturgy 
were agreed upon, but this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was 
done. A conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same 
view was held in 1661. 

CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted 
about A. D. 1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest, 
in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults acknowledged by the pe- 
nitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and if this be done 
with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved in 
heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifferent, 
by the council ; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the clwirch 
of England. — Burnet. 

CONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian hurch ; it was 
used by Peter and Paul ; and was general, according to some church au- 
thorities, in A. D. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian I'eligion 
bj^ an adiilt person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the 
church of England ; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into 
a saci'ament by the church of Rome. 

CONGE D'ELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to chap- 
ters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the 
interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had 
an arrangement with the clergj^' for the election of bishops. Bishops were 
elected by the king's Conge d Elire, 26 Henry VIII. , 1535. 

CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settle- 
ment of the affairs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses were held 
during the continental wars ; but the following were the most remarkable 
congresses of Europe : — 

Congress of Soissons - June 14, 1728 Congress of Carlsbad - Aus. 1, 1819 

Congress of Troppau • Oct 20, 1820 



Congress of Antwerp - April 8, 1793 

Congress of Radstadt - Dec. 9, 1797 

Congress of Chatillon - - Feb. 5, 1814 

Congress of Vienna - Nov. 3, 1814 



Congress of Laybach - May 6, 1821 

Congress of Verona - Aug. 25, 1822 

See Alliances, Conventions, Sic 



CONGRESS, U. S. A. The first Colonial Congress, composed of the delegates 
from nine of the colonies (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S. 
Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765.-Tim. Ruggles, Prest. The Continental Congress 
met at Phila. Sep. 5, 1774 : again May 10, 1775 : adopted Dec. Indep. July 4, 
1776; met at Bait. Dec. 20, 1776; at Phila. March 4, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa. 
Sep. 27, 1777; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777 ; at Phila. July 2, 1778; at Prince- 
ton, June 30, 1783; at Annapolis, Nov. 26, 1783; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 17"84; 
at N. York, Jan. 1785 ; and that continued to be the place of meeting until 
the adoption of the constitution, 1789 : removed to Phila. 1790 : to Wash- 
ington, 1800. 

CONVENTION, The, for forming the Constitution of the U. S. met at Phila. 
May 10, 1787 ; in session till Sep. 17, same year. 

CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general su- William Congreve, in 1803. 
They were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806, 
when they set a part of the town on flre, which burned for two days; they 
M'ere employed in various operations in the late war with much success, dis- 
charged by a corps called rocket-men. 

CONIC SECTIONS. Their most remarkable properties were probably known 
to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. Tlie study of 
them was cultivated in the time of Plato 390 b. c. The earliest treatise 
was written by Aristteus, about 380 c. c. Appolonius's eight books were 



270 THE world's progress. [ CON 

written about 240 b. c The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo; 
the ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper. 
CONJURATION and WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be felony by 
various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force against 
them in England in former times. See article Witchcraft. Conjuration was 
felony by statute 1 James I., 1603. This law was repealed 9 George II., 
1735 ; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a misde- 
meanor. — English Statutes. 
CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States : first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by 
a eolony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the English in 1635, the 
Dutch having previously built a foi't there, which they did not permanently 
hold. English colonj^ founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New 
Haven and Hartford united by a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This char- 
tor, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, was preserved in an oak, 
near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn, took an active part in 
the revolution; a number of its towns, Danbury, N. London, &c., burnt by 
the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states, 
adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. Pop- 
ulation 1713, 17.000: 1790, 237.946; 1810, 261,942; 1830, 297,655; 1840, 
309,978. 
CONQUEST, The. The memorable era in British history, when William duke 
of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the 
crown which had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the 
Confessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15, 1066. William has been 
erroneously styled the Cnnqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of England 
by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, and defeated 
his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwards held oiit against 
him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and cus- 
toms of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. For- 
merly the judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar 
who casually gave him the title of William the Conqueror, instead of Wil- 
liam I. — Seidell. 
CONSCRIPT FATHERS. Patres conscripii was the designation given to the 
Roman senators, and used in speaking of them, in the eras of the republic 
and the Caesars : becaiise their names were written in the registers of the 
senate. 
CONSECRATION. Tlia/ of churches was instituted in the second century, 
the temple of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a 
patron saint. Tl>? consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admit- 
.ted in the refoi-med religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in 
the latter church in 1549. — Stowe. 
CONSISTORY COURT m England. Anciently the Consistory was joined with 
the Hundred court, and its original, as divided therefrom, is found in a law 
of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The chief and most ancient Con- 
sistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, tod is called 
the Court of Arches. 
CONSPIRACIES AND INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN. Among the 
recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remark- 
able. They are extracted from Camdeii, Temple, Hume, and other authori- 
ties of note : — 

Of Anthony Babington and others, the Duke of Ormond, woiincled him, 

against Elizabeth - - a. d. 1.58G and would liave hanged him; and 

The Gunpowder Plot (lehich see) - 160.3 who afterwards stole the crown - 167i 

Insurrection of the fifth monarchy men The pretended conspiracy ot tlie French, 

against Charles II. - - -1660 Spanish, and English .Testdts to assas- 

Of Blood and his associates, who seized sinate Ch. II. revealed by the infa- 



con] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



271 



mous Titus Dates, Dr. Tongue, and 

others 1678 

The Meal-tub plot 1679 

The Eye-house plot to assassinate the 
king on his way to Newmarket. (See 
Rye-house plot) .... 1683 
Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against 
Q,ueen Anne. - „ - . 1703 



Of Colonel Despard and others, to over- 
turn the government - - - 1802 

Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when 
lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803 

Of Moreau, Pichegra, and Georges, 
against Bonaparte - Feb. 15, 1804 

Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the 
king's ministers. (See Cato-street) - 1820 



CONSPIRACIES, in or relating- to the United States. 



Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the i 

United States .... 1807 



John Henry's secret mission from the 
British government, to undermine 
the American union, exposed, Feb. 25, 1812 

CONSTANCE, Council op. The celebrated council of ^iri/tes (!) which con- 
demned the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to he burnt 
alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other, 
on May 30, following. Huss had complied with a summons from the coun- 
cil of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of aU nations in 
that city, and though the emperor Sigismund had given him a safe-conduct, 
he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague hastened to Constance to defend 
him, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of 
his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and 
treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of 
Wickliffe, our great reformer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration 
iS not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. — Hume. 

CONSTANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to 
Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French 
occupation of Algiers, fi^ere was fought a great battle between the Fi-ench 
and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault, 
but the French general, Daremont, was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 
12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantino the Great, who removed the 
seat of the Eastern Empire here, a. d. 828. Taken by the western crusaders 
who put the emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204. 
Retaken by Michael Palseologus, thus restoring the old Greek line, 1261. 
Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantino Palteologus, the last 
Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453. The city, taken by as- 
sault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing 
the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, 
and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house were massacred 
by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conquer- 
or. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125 
years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Europe 
See Eastern Empire and Turkey. 

CONSTANTINOPLE, Era of. This era has the creation placed 5508 years b. c. 
It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used 
in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesias- 
tical year towards the end of March; the day is not exactly determined. 
To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 
5509 from September to the end. 

CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Arcturus, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth, 
are mentioned by Job, about 1520 b. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constel- 
lations; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained 
in very early ages, our first direct knowledge was derived from Claud, 
PtolemfBus, about a. d. 140. 

CONSTITUTION of ENGLAND. See Magna Ckarla. It comprehends the 
whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which 



5://i THE world's progress. I CON 

it is presumptively held that every individual has assented. — Lord Somers. 
This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in 
this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought 
to govern at all times : and government is that by which he does govern at 
any particular time. — Lord Bolingbroke The king of England is not seated 
on a solitary eminence of power ; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the 
co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in 
the LAW. — Sherida?i. 
CONSTITUTION of the U. S. Adopted by the general convention of dele- 
gates from all the (then) states, May, 1787. Ratified by the several states 
at different times. See the respective states. / 

The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New 
York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced 
an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840. 

CONSTITUTION and GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution, 
capt. Hull, after an action of 30 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer- 
riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded, 
British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribiite the victory to 
the- superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important 
naval victory of the U. S., it caused a strong sensation. For others see 
Naval Battles. 

CONSULS. These oflScers were appointed at Rome, 509 b. c. They possessed 
regal authority for the space of a year : Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius 
Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the 
first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November 
9, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambacerfe, and Lebrun, were made consuls; and 
subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life, May 6, 1802. Com- 
mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in 
1485. 

CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary. In the two last wars voluntary contributions 
to a vast amount were several times made by the British people in aid of 
the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that 
in 1798, when, to support the war against France, the contributions amount- 
ed to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others, 
sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,OOOZ. ; and200,000i 
were transmitted from India in 1799. 

CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and 
were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from 
the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the 
schools of Wickliffe. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time, 
were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661. 

CONVENTIONS. See Alliances, TVeaties, &c. in their respective places through- 
out the volume. 

CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in a. d, 
270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. — 
Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took 
the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland. 
Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that 
of Heniy VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More 
than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The 
emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July 
31, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all 
the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in 
Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 convents. 



COP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 273 

CON'VICTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany 
Bay, was in 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk 
Island, Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New South Wales and Trans- 
poTtatio7i. 

COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the 
Endeavor, on his first voyage, July 30, 1768 ;* and returned home after hav- 
ing circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. _ Sir 
Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society, 
accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to 
explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. In 
his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-why- 
hee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February 14, 1779. His ships, the Eeso- 
lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780. 

COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems 
to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were 
incorporated in 1501. 

COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, a. d. 1443. In 1728 more 
than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace, 
valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 per- 
sons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arstiial, 
admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bom- 
barded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker : and in their 
engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen 
were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bom- 
bardment of three days, the citj" and the Danish fleet surrendered to admi- 
ral Gambler and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of 
eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun- 
boats, and immense naval stores. — See Denmark. 

COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is sup- 
posed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the rest of the 
planets to move round it in elliptical oi'bits. The heavens and stars are 
here imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to 
have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east. 
This system was published at Thorn, a. d. 1530 ; and may in many points be 
regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. — Gassendus. 

COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery is said to have 
preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two ves,sels of fine 
copper, precious as gold. — Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this 
metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes, 
soda, &c., Avill give a sensible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in 
water ; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least drop of water 
touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. — Boyle. Tlie 
mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the 
world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now 
forms an immense branch in the British trade : there are upwards of fifty 



' A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 176S, setting forth the advan- 
ages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit 
:il Venus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavor was, in consequence, 
prepared for that purpose, and the command of her given to Lieutenant James Cook. He sailed 
in .July 1768, touched at iMadeira and Rio de .Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous 
voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a comparison of the observa- 
tions made on this transit (.June 3. 17G9) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed 
by men of science, the sysiem of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood ; the 
distance of the sun from ihe earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1701, is now settled at 
10S,0;X),000 miles, instead of ;'';e commonly received computation, of 95,000,000.— J3(£«cr. 

12* 



274 THE world's progress. [ CO? 

mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of Wil- 
liam HI. 
COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius TuUius, used 
rude pieces of copper for money. — See Coin. In England, copper-money is 
of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into 
use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined 
by the crown, 23 Charles 11., 1672. Private traders had made them previ- 
ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scot- 
land in 1406 ; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland {which see) com- 
menced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797. 

COPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted in 
Germany, about a. d. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were in- 
vented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a 
mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply cop- 
per-plates and fine impressions indefinitely. — See Engraving. 

COPPERAS. First produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 

COPYRIGHT ON BOOKS, &c. in ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber 
regarding it, a. d. 1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 
1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the 
consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright furtlier secured by a statute en- 
acted in 1709. Protection of copyright in prints and engraving, 17 George 
III., 1777. Copyright protection act, 54 George III., 1814. Dramatic au- 
thors' protection act, 3 William IV., 1833. The act for preventing the pub- 
lication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV., 1835. The act of the 
17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International 
copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of mami- 
facture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Literary 
Proj)e rty . — Ha ydn. 

COPYRIGHT IN UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary 
property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah 
Webster, the lexicographer, May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it, 
April 29, 1802 — granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14 
years if the author is Uving. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for 
International Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Clay, Feb. 1, 1837. 
Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books 
to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library 
of Congress and oflice of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846. 

COPYRIGHT, Produce of. The following sums are stated to have been paid 
to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned. 

HISTORY. 



Fragments of English History, by 

CM. Fox - - - . £5,000 
History of England by Sir J. Mackin- 
tosh 5,000 

Ditto, by Linsard - - - - 4,633 

Life of Napofeon, by Sir W. Scott - 18,000 
History of England, by Macaulay, vol. 
1 and remainder, £600 per annum 
for ten years, say - - - 3,000 

Prescott's Historical Works are said to 
have produced to the author (who yet 
owns the copyright) before 1850 - ® 100,000 

BIOGSAPHY. 

Life of Wilberforce - - - £4,000 

LifcofByron, by Moore - - 4,000 

Lockhart's Scott (two years' use) - 12,500 



POETRY. 

Byron's Works (in all) - - £20,000 

Moore's Lalla Rookh - - - 3,000 

Rejected Addresses - - • 1,000 

Campbell's Pleasures of Hope (after 

ten years' publication) - - 1,000 

Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto - 1,500 

FICTION. 

It was estimated that Scott's novels 
produced for copyright at least - 250,000 

Bulwer received for his novels, each 

1,200 to 1.500 

Mari-yatt, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200 

Goldsmith's " Vicar" was sold by Dr. 
Johnson for - - - - 63 

Goldsmith received for " Animated 

Nature" - - - - 800 

Noah Webster is said to have derived 



lrving"s Columbu- (paid by Murray) - 4,000 ' Book 



$1000 per annum from his Spelling 



COR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 275 

CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs of 
leather ; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the 
third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of weed 
and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See 
Hemp. 

CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of 
the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of 
Paris in Nov. 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, which see. 

CORINTH. This city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus 
in 1376 B. c. In 146 b. c. the capital was destroj'ed by the Romans, but was 
rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and was among the first cities of Greece that em- 
braced the Christian religion. It Avas defended by a fortress called Acro- 
corinth, on a summit of a high mountain, surrounded with strong walls, 
The situation of this citadel Avas so advantageous, that Cicero named it the 
Eye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to the Romans, 
Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire. 



Corintli built on the ruins of Epliyra, 
iAbbe LengleV) . - b. c. 1520 

Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first 
called by its name - - - 1410 

Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon 
the city (.idem) - - - - 1375 

The Pythian games instituted, it is said 
by Sisyphus - - - - 1375 

The reign of Bacchus, whose successors 
are called Bacchids, in remembrance 
of the equity of his reign - - 935 

The Corinthians invent ships called 



A colony goes to Sicily, and they build 

Syracuse - - - B. c. 732 

Sea fight between the Corinthians and 

Corcyreans - - - . 664 

Periander rules and encourages genius ■ 

and learning .... 629 
Death of Periander - - . . 585 

The Corinthians form a republic - 582 

War with the Corcyreans . . 439 

The Corinthian war (which see) - • 395 
Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus - 242 
The Roman ambassadors first appear 



triremes ; vessels consisting of three : at Corinth .... 228 

benches of oars . - . 786, Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius 

Thelestes deposed, and the government j Avho sends to Italy the first fine paint- 

of the Prytanes instituted: Auto- ings there seen, they being part of the 

menes is the first on whom this dig- spoil (Livy) .... 146 

nity is conferred - . - 757 1 

CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture, 
aptly called by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the deli- 
cacy, tenderness, and beauty of the Avhole composition. The invention of it 
is attributed to Callimachus, 540 b. c. 

CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles 
were mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun b. c. 895, by a 
confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against 
the Lacedsemouians. The most famous battles were at Corouea and Leuc- 
tra, tvhich see. 

CORN OR GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who 
having taught the art to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 b. c. — 
Arundelicm Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making 
bread from wheat, and Avine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching 
Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 b. c— 
Univ. Hist. But corn provided a common article of food from the earliest 
ages of the Avorld, and baking bread Avas knoAAOi in the patriarchal ages. — 
See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century, 
by Coll ap Coll Fviiv<\.~Roberts' Hist. Anc. Britons. The first importation 
of corn of AA'hich Ave have note. Avas in 1347. Bounties Avere granted on its 
importation into England, in 1686. 

CORN LAWS IN England. Various enactments relative to the duty on " corn'- 
or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting its 
importation Avhen corn should bo 8O5. "per quarter," 1815. The "sliding- 
scale" of duties passed July 15. 1828. Another April 29. 1842; act fixing 



276 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ COB 

the duty on wheat at 4s. until Feb. 1849, and after that at Is. per quarter, 
passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of the Corn Laws — 
and the Anti-Corn Law League — which had been formed in 1841 was there- 
fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846. 

CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at 
Constantinople, in a. d. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was 
introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation 
of Henry III. took place, in the first instance, without a cro\\Ti, at Gloucester, 
October 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion in lieu of the 
crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, 
in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wishe&ch.—Mattheiu 
Paris. Rymer. 

CORONATION FEASTS, and OATH. The oath was first administered to the 
kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards 
canonized), to Ethelred II. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that 
now in use, was administered in 1377 ; it was altered in 1689. The f(^tes 
given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the cor- 
onation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of 
former times. 

CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in a. d. 925. Coroners for every 
county in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edward 
I. 1276. — Stowe. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Mal- 
colm II., about 1004. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria, 
coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of 
illness. Aug. 22, 1843. 

CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish 
the rank of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry 
III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles II. — Baker. 
But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbmy, was the first of 
the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. — Bcatson. It is uncertain when 
the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. — Idem. 

CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high anti- 
quity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries from 
Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break 
the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting sep- 
arate societies of every manual trade and profession. — Plutarch. 

CORPORATIONS. MUNICIPAL, in ENGLAND. Bodies politic, authorized 
by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and 
members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in 
law. any matter within the compass of their charter. — Covxl. Corporations 
were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to vari- 
ous towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Hemy I. granted charters, a. d. 
1100 ; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them 
to numerous large communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths, 
and conditions. — -Blackstone. 

CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cyrnos. The ancient inhabitants of this 
island were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, 
according to Seneca, when he existed among them. It was held by the Car- 
thaginians ; and was conquered by the Romans, 231 b. c. In modern times, 
Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730 ; and was sold 
to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first 
and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisoned in 
the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the be- 
nevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency 



COS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 277 

in 1756, he g&ve in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to his 
creditors, and died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel-street, Soho. 
The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet erected near his 
grave, in St. Anne's church. Dean-street : — 

" The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. 
But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; 
Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 
Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 

The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the Corsicans, 
in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vans, and fled to England, 1769, 
The people acknowledged George III. of England for their king, June 17, 
1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and he opened a parliament 
in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796 ; and the island was -elin- 
quished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared for the 
French. 

CORTES OF SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution oi 
Spain ; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a 
long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810; and they settled the new constitution, 
March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who 
banished many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or states- 
general were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been reg- 
ularly convened. 

CORUNNA, Battle of, between the British army under sir John Moore (who 
was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809. 

COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, 
and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Gre- 
cian stage. The Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italjj^ excelled in height- 
ening their charms artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes, 
Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered 
women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent, 
and are in general use. — Ashe. ' The females of France and Germany paint 
more highly than most other nations. — Richwrdson. A stamp was laid on 
cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as reallj'' or suppositiously beau- 
tify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obliged to take 
out licenses, 26th Geo. III. 1786. 

COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition, 
and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a 
plane. — Sclden. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography : the 
earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 b. c. — Blair. The first record 
of the latter is from Homer, who describes the shield of Achilles as rep- 
resenting the earth. — Iliad. See the articles on Astronomy and Geography 
respectively. 

COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia, 
Tartary, and Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys 
and the people of Natolia : they were formed into a regular army by Ste 
phen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the incursions 
of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body 
of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost in- 
vincibly. 

COSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to verj' remote 
antiquity. The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and 
graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm, 
wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a texture, 
and their garments, which were always white, were so clear and thin, thai 



278 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



I COT 



their bodies could be seen through them. — Ovid. As relates to costume 
worn on the stage, ^schylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who 
erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suited 
to their characters, about 436 b. c. — Parian Marbles. 

COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly was by the hand ; but 
about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny 
with eight spindles ; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylin- 
ders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of 
machinery in 1769 ; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crompton 
invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufac- 
ture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been since 
made. The names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in con- 
nection with this vast source of British industry ; and it is calculated that 
more than one thousand millions sterling have be- .^n yielded by it to Great 
Britain. Cotton manufacturers' utensils were prohibited from being export- 
ed in 177i. — Haydn. 

HISTORY OF COTTON, FOR OVER ONE HUNDRED YEARS. 

The following brief items of the hislonj of cotton, from 1730 to 1836, are taken from a South 

Carolina paper : — 



1730. Mr. Wyatt spins the first cotton yarn 
in England by machinery. 

1735. The Dutch first export cotton from 
Surinam. 

1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected 
at Bu-minghara, moved by mules or liorses ; 
but not successful in its operations. 

1749. Tlie fiy shuttle generally used in 
England. 

1^56. Cotton velvets and quiltings made 
in England for the first time. 

1761. Arkwright obtained the first patent 
for tlie spinning frame, which he further 
improved. 

1768. The stocking frame applied by 
Hammond to makins of lace. 

1773. A bill passeil to prevent the export 
of macliinery used in cotton factories. 

1779. Mule spinning invented by Hargra\'e. 

17S2. First import of raw cotton from 
Brazil into England. 

1782. Watt look out his patent for the 
steam-engine. 

1783. A bounty granted m England on the 
export of certain cotton goods. 

1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. Cart- 
wright — steam engines used in cotton fac- 
tories. 

1785. Cotton imported into England from 
the United States. 

1786. Bleaching first performed by the 
agency of the oxyniuriaiic acid. 

1787. First machinery to spin cotton put 
in operation in France. 

1789. bea Island cotton first planted in the 
United States ; and upland cotton first cul- 
tivated for use and export about this time. 

1790 Slator, an Englishman, builds the 
first American cotton factor)^, at Pawtucket, 
Rhode Island. 

1792. Eli Whitney, an American, invents 
the cotton gin, which he patents. 

1798. First mill and machinery for cotton 
erected in Switzerland. 

1799. Spinning by machinery introduced 
into Saxony this year. 



IS03. First cotton factory built in New 
Hampshire. 

1805. Power-looms successfully and widely 
introduced into England. 

1807. The revolution in Spanish America 
begins to furnish new markets for cotton 
manufactures. 

1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in the 
United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another 
by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia. 

1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa- 
tented by John Burn. 

1813. The India trade more free, and more 
British manufactures sent thither. 

1S14. The power-loom introduced into the 
United States ; first at Waltham. 

1818. Average price of cotton 34 cents — 
higher than since 1810. New method ol 
preparing sewing cotton by Mr. Holt. 

1819. Extraordinary prices for Alabama 
cotton lands. 

1820. Steam power first applied with suc- 
cess extensively to lace manufactures. 

1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erected. 
1823. First export of raw cotton from Egypt 
into Great Britain. 

1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to 
25 cents per pound. 

1826. Selfacting mule spinner patented 
in England by Roberts. 

1827. American cotton manufactures first 
exported to any considerable extent. 

1829. Highest duty in the United States on 
foreign cotton manufactures. 

1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced 
a machine from the United States into Eng- 
land for the purpose of making cards. 

1832. Duty on cotton goods imported int.T 
the United States reduced ; and in England 
it is forbid to employ minors in cotton mills, 
to work them more than ten hours per day, 
or more than nine hours on a Saturday ; m 
consequence they work at something else. 

1834. Cotton a't 17 cents. 

1835. Extensive purchases made of cottos 
lands by speculators and others. 

1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents. 



cou ] 



DICTIOISAKY OF DATES. 



279 



COTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great judgment 
by sir Robert Cotton, a. d. 1600 et seq. This vast trea.sury of knowledge, 
after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans 
during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 13 William 
III. 1701. It was removed to Essex-house in 1712 ; and in 1730 to Dean's- 
yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained 
damage by fire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 1753. 

COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred, to 
whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the busi- 
ness of the nation, that all resolutions passed through thi'ee councils. The first 
was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were 
admitted ; here were debated all aftairs that were to be laid before the 
second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the 
present priry council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was 
pleased to appoint. The third was a general- council or assembly of the na- 
tion, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot, to which quality and offices gave a right 
to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin 
of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of pai'liaments ; but the 
term cabinet coimcil is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clar- 
endon. — See Cabinet Comicil, Common Coimcil, Privy Council, &c. 

COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable 
Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils 
(the list of which would make a volume) either respected national churches 
or ecclesiastical government. Sir Harris Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils. 

The second Lateran, tenth General, In- 
nocent II. presided ; the preservation 
of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics, 
the principal subject, which occa- 
sioned the attendance of 1000 la- 
thers of the church - - A. D. 113'J 

The third Lateran, eleventh General ; 
held against schismatics - -1179 

Fourth Lateran, twelfth General ; 400 
bishops and 1000 abbots attended; 
Innocent III. presided - - - 1213 

Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under 
pope Innocent IV. - - - 1245 

Ot Lyons, the fourteenth General, under 
Gregory X. - - - - 1274 

Of Vienne in Dauphine, the fifteenth 
General; Clement V. presided, and 
the kings of France and Arragon at- 
tended. The order of the Knight 
Templars suppressed - - -1311 

Of Pisa, the sixteenth General ; Gre- 
gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, 
and Alexander elected 

Of Constance, the seventeenth General ; 
Martin V. is elected pope ; and John 
Huss and Jerome of Prague con- 
demned to be burnt 

Of Basil, the eighteenth General 

The fi llh Lateran, the nineteenth Gene- 
ral, begun by Julius II. - - 151ii 

Continued under Leo X. for the sup- 
pression of the Pragmatic sanction of 
France, against the council of Pisa, 
&c. till - - - - - 15' I 

Of Trent, the twentieth and last Gene- 
ral council, styled OEcumenical, as re- 
garding the affairs of all the Chris- 
tian world ; it was held to condemn 
the doctrines of the reformers, Luther, 
Zuinglius, and Calvin. — Abbe Lenglet 154r 



Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - a. d 

Of the western bishops at Aries, in 
France, to suppress the Donatists ; 
tliree fathers of the English church 
went over to attend it - 

The first (Ecumenical or General Ni- 
cene, held at Nice, Constantine the 
Great presided; Arius and Eusebius 
condemned for heresy. This council 
composed the Nicene Creed - 

At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana- 
sius was canvassed 

The first held at Constantinople, when 
the Arian heresy gained ground 

At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which 
lasted eighteen months 

At Sardis ; 370 bishops attended 

Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and 
Constantine obliged them to sign a 
new confession of faith 

The second General at Constantinople ; 
350 bishops attended, and pope Da- 
masius presided 

The third at Ephesus, when pope Ce- 
lestine presided 

Fourth at Chalcedon ; the emperor Jlar- 
cian and his empress attended 

The fifth at Constantinople, when pope 
Vigilius presided 

The sixth at Constantinople, when pope 
Agatho presided 

Authority of the six general councils re- 
established by Theodosius 

The second Nicene council, seventh Ge- 
neral ; 350 bishops attended - 

Of Constantinople, eighth General ; the 
emperor Basil attended 

The first Lateran, the ninth General ; 
the right of investitures settled by 
treaty betv/een pope Calixtus IL and 
the emperor Henry V. • , - 



335 



1409 



1414 
1431 



280 THE world's progress. [ cov 

COUNCILS, French Republican. The council of Ancients was an assembly 
of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. 
1, 1795, together with the council of Five Hundred ; the executive was a 
Directory of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St. 
Cloud, Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Sieyes, consuls pro- 
visoires. — See France. 

COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion 
were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward I., 1284. Coun- 
sel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William HI. 1696. 
Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel, 
6 & 7 William IV., Aug. 1836. 

COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king 
Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The 
division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were 
instituted in the reign of Alfred, 896. Counties first sent members to par- 
liament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259. — See 
CoTmnons, and Parliament. 

COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and 
Herodotus says tliat thej^ were common among the Persians. But it does 
not appear that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of 
Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 b. c. Couriers or posts are 
said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. 
The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the 
reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eager- 
ness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, a. d. 
14iSZ.—Hena%at. 

COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. — See Areopor- 
gitce. There were courts for the distribution of Justice in Athens, in 1272 
E. c. — Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other 
countries. 

COURT OF HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high 
constable was a judge, was called Curia M'ditaris in the time of Henry IV., 
and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the Stat^es of Bavaria, in order to 
prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April, 1819. In these 
countries, Mr. Josepli Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar in- 
stitutions. 

COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persons 
who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby 
mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects of 
the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between 
England and Scotland, was formed in 1643 ; it was declared to be illegal by 
parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662. 

COVENTRY. PEEPING TOM of. The great show fair of Coventry owes its 
origin to the following tradition: — Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such 
heavy taxes on the citizens, his ladj^, Godiva, moved by their entreaties, 
importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her 
riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to 
consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person ; and 
ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and win- 
dows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding to 
curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead ; and has been 
famed ever since under the name of Peeping Tom, and his effigy is shown 
to this day. To commemorate this event, a. d. 1057, at the great show fair 
the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accom- 



CRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 28 1 

panied by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to her 
limbs. 

COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security 
against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became general 
in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the 
teats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was re- 
warded by parliament with the munificent grant of ^10,000, June 2, 1802. — 
See Inoculation, Small-Pox, Vaccination. 

CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow with 
the spoils taken from the Franks, a. d. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII. 
in 1702 ; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the one 
side and the patriotic people on the other several times. Kosciusko expel- 
led the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered ito 
the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occu- 
pied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831. 
Its independence extinguished ; seized by the emperor of Austria, and in- 
corporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846. — See Poland. 

CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may 
be so called. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c. are also his, 
220 B. c. — Livy. 

CRANIOLOGY. The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German, 
started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803. Dr. Spurzheim fol- 
lowed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems 
to be rapidly gaining groimd ; it has now many professors, and in almost all 
countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The 
science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many differ- 
ent seats of the most prominent operations of the mind. 

CRANMER, LATIMER, and RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the list of Eng- 
lish martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Lati- 
mer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555>; and Cran- 
mer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556. His love of life had in- 
duced Cranmer, some time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a 
paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; and when he was led to the 
stake, and the fire was kindled round him, lie stretched forth his right hand, 
with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before 
the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, '■ This unworthy hand !" 
Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first 
martyr of the Christian church, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit!" 

CRAPE. A light kind of stuflf like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and 
twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said 
some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about a. d. 680. 
It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used 
for mourning. 

CRAYONS. They were known in France before a. d. 1422 — improved by 
L'Oriot, 1748. 

CREATION or the WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and Dufresnoy, 
4004 E. c. Josephus makes it 4658 years. — Whiston. The first date agrees 
with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old 
Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation : 
some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dia- 
logue entitled Critias, asserts his celebrated Atalahtis to have been buried 
in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. The Chi- 
nese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of 
years ; and we are told that the astronomical records of the ancient Chal- 



282 THE world's PROGKESS, [ CRl 

deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000 
years. 

CREATION, Era or the. In use by many nations. This era would be found 
convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting 
before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at 
a later period ; but, unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right 
time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at 
4700 B. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of the Talmud 
make it 5344 ; and difierent chronologers, to the number of 120, make it 
vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. Hales fixed it at 5411 ; but the 
Catholic church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a cor- 
rection as to the birth of Christ adds four years : tlierefore, it is now gener- 
ally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text. 

CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while 
after their time. — Pardon. It was introduced formally into public worship 
in the Greek church at Antioch, and subsequently into the Roman church. 
This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about a. d. 746. The 
Nicene Creed talies its name from the council by whom it was composed, iu 

A, D. 325. The Athanasian Creed is supijosed to have been Aviitten about 
340. — See Apostles', Nicene, and other creeds. 

CRESSY, OR CRECY, Battle of. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Ed- 
ward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip, 
king of France, Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs 
ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia ; James, king of 
Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; a number of French 
nobles, together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the 
English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich 
feathers, with the motto '• Ich Dien," in English, " I serve ;" and in memory 
of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng- 
land. — Froissart, Carte, Hume. 

CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies 
by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of 
crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several represen- 
tations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume 
of feathers ; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns 
above their helmets; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion 
on a cap of dignit.y. In later reigns, the crest was regularly borne as Avell 
on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses. 

CRETE. Now Candia, wliich see. This island was once famous for its hundred 
cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Minos established about 1015 

B. c. Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven won- 
ders of the woi-ld. Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 b. c. It 
was conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 808 ; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed 
into the hands of the Venetians, 1194 : and was taken from them by the 
Turks, in im'd.—PrieslUy. 

CRIME. " At the present moment," observes a popular English writer, "a 
one-fifteenth part of the whole i^opulation of the United Kingdom is sub- 
sisting b}'' the lowest and most degrading prostitution ; another fifteenth 
have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and 
every species of crime ; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denorni- 
- nated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary, and, 
as an almost necessary consequence, into crime."' A comparative \iew of 
foreign countries with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and 
ignorance on tlie great mass of the population. In North America pauper- 
ism is almost unlcnown, and one fourth of the people are educated ; pre- 



CRO J DICTIONAE.Y OF DATES. 283 

meditated murder is alone capital ; imprisonment for debt has, in several 
states, been abolished, and crimes, particiilarly of enormity, are exceedingly 
rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated, 
are comparative!}^ free from grave ofiences ; and France affords a remark- 
able illustration in the same waj^ But in the United Kingdom, the differ- 
ence is painfully exemplified : — 

Scotland. England. Ireland. 
Instruction to the people - - - 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35 

Criminals among the people - 1 in 5093 - 1 in 920 - 1 in 468 

There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several 
acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and miti- 
gate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law 
of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consolidating and 
revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest, 
passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by 
statute 4 William IV., 1834. See E.vecutions, Hanging, Triak,SLC. — Haydri. 

CRIMEA. The ancient Taurica Chersonesus. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193. 
The Genoese were expelled bj' the Crim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were 
tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large army, took 
possession of this country, in 1783 ; and it was ceded to them the following 
year; and secured to them in 1791. 

CRISPIN. The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Ci-ispin and Crispianus 
were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they tra- 
velled to Soissons, in France, about a. d. 303, to propagate the Christian 
religion ; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their main- 
tenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers ; but the governor of the 
town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. On 
this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them 
as their tutelar saints. 

CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b. c— Blair. Of this class 
were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern 
times, the Journal de Scavans was the earliest work of the system of period- 
ical criticism, as it is now known. It was originated by Dennis de Sallo, 
ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published 
at Paris, May 30, 1665, and continued for neai'ly a century. The first work 
of this kind in England, was called the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term 
being invented by himself ) published in Feb. 1703. The Wales of Litera- 
ture was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The Monthly 
Revicxo, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in 
England, was published 1749. The Critical Review appeared in 1756 ; the 
Edinburgh Review, in 1802 ; and London Qioarterly in 1809. The American 
Review, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The 
North American Review was established by Wm. Tudor in 1818; the Ameri- 
can Quarterly, by Robert Walsh, at Phila., 1827; the New York Review, by 
Prof C. S. Henry, 1835; the SoiMiern Quarterly, at Charleston, 1842. See 
Periodicals. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English 
courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought 
by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique i\pon his work, was de- 
termined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that criticism, however 
sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Reviews, &c. 

CROCKERY. In use, and made mention of as produced by the Egyptians and 
Greeks, so early as 1390 b. c. The Romans excelled in this kind of Avare, 
many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufacture. Crockery, 
of a fine kind, in various' household utensils, was made at Faenza, in Italy, 
about A. D. 1310; and it is still caWcdL fayence in French. See Earthenware. 



284 THE world's -progress. [ GUI. 

CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a royal crown is in the holy story 
of the Amalekites bringing Saul's crown to David." — Selden. The first Ro- 
man who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 b. c. The crown was first a fillet 
tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and 
also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first worn in En- 
gland by Alfred, in a. d. 872. The first crown or papal cap was used by 
pope Damasius II., in 1053; John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown, 
1276 ; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295 ; and Benedict XII, form- 
ed tlie tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crown 
with two circles. — Rainaldi. 
CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, 
Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on 
account of the shame attached to it : it was usuallj^ accompanied by other 
tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cap- 
padocia. when vanquished by Perdiccas, M'as discovered among the prison- 
ers ; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive, 
and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year 
of his age, 322 e. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constan- 
tine, A. D. 330. — Leiiglet. See Death, Punishment of. 
(URUSADES, OR Holy Wars. (In French, Croisades.) Undertaken by the Chris- 
tian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries, 
called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter 
the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted 
the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy 
Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in 
possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promul- 
gated his sacred doctrines. Ui'ban convened a Council of 310 bishops at 
Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian poten- 
tates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a 
general war, a. d. 1094. The first crusade was published ; an army of 300,- 
000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095. — Voltaire. The 
holy warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of 
Crois6s, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God's 
will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the 
end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind, 
cost the lives of 2,000,000 of men. — Voltaire. 
CUBA. Discovered by Columbus on his first voj^age, in 1492. It was conquered 
by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Mor- 
gan took Havana in 1669. See Buccaneers. The fort here was erected by 
admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken by admiral Pococke and lord 
Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of 
Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution, 
defeated May, 1850. 
CLTBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we read 
of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits. — Holden. The Fe- 
brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Eng' ish 
feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to ihe 
extremity of the middle finger. — Cahnet. 
CUCUMBERS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and 
Egypt, where, it is^said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the 
poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets. 
It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538. 
CULLODEN, Battle of. In which the English, imder William duke of Cum- 
berland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the yoimg Pretender, the 
last of the Stuarts, near Inverness, April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 men 



CYC] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 285 

m killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit, 
while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army prac- 
tised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless 
inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle. — Smollett. Immediately 
after the engagement. Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued 
wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,- 
000^. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were 
constantly in search. He at length escaped from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix, 
and died at Rome, in 1788. 
CURACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, the 
French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with 
' the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to % single British frigate. It 
was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a 
British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814. 

CURFEW BELL. From the French couvre feu. This w^s a Norman institii- 
tion, introduced into England in the reign" of William I , a. d. 1068. On the 
ringing of the cui'few at eight o'clock in the evening, all fires and candles 
were to be extinguished, under a severe penalt3^ — Ra-pvn. The curfew was 
abolished 1 Hen. I., a. d. 1100. 

CURRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England 
1533. The hawthorn currant-tree (Ribes oxyacanthoides) came from Canada 
in 1705. 

CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and con- 
sent. By lawyers and civilians it is defined lex non scripta, and it stands 
opposed to Lex scripta, or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is 
derived from a. d. 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law, 
and forty years in ecclesiastical cases. 

CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethel- 
red II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- 
lished 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith, 
for 20,000^. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth. — Stowe. They were 
farmed by Charles II. for 39O,O0OZ. in the" year l&m.—Davenant. 

In 1748 they amounted to - ;e2,000,000 

In 1808 ditto - - 9,973,240 

111 1823 ditto - . - 11,498,762 

In 1830 United Kingdom - - 17,540,323 

In ia35 ditto - - - 18,612,906 

In 1840 ditto - - 19,915,296 

The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool, 
M. ; on every last of hides, &d. ; and 2d. on every barrel of wine. — Annals 
of Dublin. Custom-house officers, and officers of excise, were disquahfied 
from voting for the election of members of parliament, by statute 22 George 
III., 1782. See Revenue. 

CUSTOMS (DUTIES) in the UNITED STATES. The amounts collected 

$15,005,612 

■ 20,098,714 

21,922,391 

19 391 311 

13^499^940 See Tariff. 

CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of llie 
week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen 
lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The 
cycle of Jupiter is sixty years or sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the 
time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years, by 
V'ictorins. .\.r).463. — Blair. 



In 1530 they amounted to - - jB14,000 

In 1592 ditto - - - 50,000 

In 1614 ditto - - 148,000 

In 1622 duto - - - 168,000 

In 1642 ditto - - 500,000 

In 1720 ditto - - - 1,555,600 



were, in 






1789-91 
1800 . 
1805 
1810 - 
1815 


- 84,399,473 

- 9,080,9.38 
12,936,487 

• 8,583,309 

- 7,282,942 


1820 
1825 
1830 
1835 
1840 



1845 - 


■ $27,528,113 


1846 - 


- 26,712.668 


1847 - 


- 23,747.864 


1848 - 


- 31,757,070 



286 THE world's progress. ^ [ DAG 

CYCLOPEDIA— See Encyclopedia. 

CYMBAL. The oldest musical instrument of which we have certain record. 
It was made of brass, like a kettle drum, and some think in the same form, 
but smaller. Xenophon makes mention of the cymbal as a musical instru- 
ment, whose invention is attributed to Cybele, by whom, we are told, it was 
used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 b. c. The 
ffistivals of Cybele were introduced by Scamander, with the dances of Cory- 
bantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 b. c. 

CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 396 b. c. — Diog. 
Laert. He lived in the ninety-fourth Olympiad. — Pardon. These philoso- 
phers valued themselves for contemning all worldly things, and even all 
sciences, except morality; they were very free in reprehending vice, and did 
all their actions publicly, and practised the greatest obscenities without 
blushing. — Idem. Diogenes was one of this sect. They generally slept on 
the ground. — Diog. Laert. 

CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love 
and pleasure. — Pliny. It was divided among several petty kings till the 
time of Cyrus, who subdued them ; it ranked among the proconsular pro- 
vinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 648; but 
recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus was reduced bj'' Richard I. of 
England, in 1191. Taken by the Turks from the Venetians, in 1570. — 
Priestley. 

CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus the Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of 
the CjTenaici, 392 b. c. Thej' maintained the doctrine that the supreme 
good of man in this life is pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual 
kind ; and said that virtue ought to be commended because it gave pleasure, 
and onlj' so far as it conduced thereto. The sect flourished for several ages. 
— Laer. Ar. Cicero. 

CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 030 b. c. Aristseus, who was the chief of the 
colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentap- 
olis, on account of its five towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apol- 
lonia, and Arsinoe. Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 
B. c. It is now a desert. — Priestley. 

CZAR, From Cffisar, a title of honor assumed by the sovereigns of Russia. 
Ivan Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and 
made many conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and 
returning in triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King). 
— Aspin's Chron. The courts of Europe consented to address the Russian 
Czar by the title of Emperor in 1722. — Idem. 

D. 

DAGUERREOTYPE. The name given to a process invented by M. Daguerre of 
Paris, in 1839, by which perfect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon 
thin copper plates, plated with silver. The images are produced by the ac- 
tion of light upon the iodine, through the focus of the camera obscura. An 
apparatus somewhat kindred in design, was in contemplation about the same 
time by M. Niepc^. and about 5 years previously by Henry Fox Talbot of Lon- 
don: the original idea, however, is traceable as far back as the days of Roger 
Bacon. By means of the Talbotype, a recent improvement upon the above 
process, pictures in colors are produced both on paper and plates. So im- 
portant a discovt'ry in the fine arts, was the Daguerreotype deemed by the 
French government that it awarded to its inventor a life pension of 6000 
francs. 



UAK ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 287 

DAMASCUS. This city was in being in the time of Abraham. — Gen. xiv. It 
is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, 
Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alex- 
ander ; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 b. c. It was taken by the 
Saracens, a. d. 633 ; by the Turks in 1006 ; and was destroyed by Tamerlane 
in 1400. It was in a journey to this place that the apostle Paul was miracu- 
lously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the 
gospel, about a. d. 50. Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachalic. 

DAMASK LINENS and SILKS. They were first manufactured at Damascus, 
and hence the name, their large fine figures representing flowers, and being 
raised above the groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the 
Dutch and Flemish weavers ; and the manufacture was brought to England 
by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between 
the years 1571 and 1573. — Anderson. 

DAMON AND PYTHIAS. Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was con- 
demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to 
go and settle some domestic affaii's, on a j^romise of returning at the appoint- 
• ed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his 
engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared, 
and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution ; but at 
this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. Dionysius was 
so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence, 
and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship, 387 b. c. 

DANCING. The dance to the measure of time Avas invented by the Curetes, 
1534 B. c. — Ensebhis. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to 
their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on 
the Roman stage, 22 b. c. — Usher. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced 
into England from Italy a. d. 1541. In modern times, the French were the 
first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country 
dance {contrc-daiise^ is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known. 
— Spelman. 

DANES, Invasions op the. The invasions of this people were a scourge to 
England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon 
Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under 
Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and 
ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy 
in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Nor- 
mans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912. 

DANTZIC. A commercial city in a. d. 997. — Busching. It was built, accord- 
ing to other authorities, by Waldemar I. in 1169. Seized by the king 
of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the 
French after a siege of four months. May 5, 1807? and by the treaty of Til- 
sit, it was restored to its former independence, under the protection of 
Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and after 
a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1. 1814. By the treaty of Parif- 
it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to 
the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10 000 head of cattle 
and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, April 9. 
1829. 

DARDANELLES, Passage of the. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called 
Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, commanding 
the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They were built by the emperor 
Mahomet IV., in 1659, and Avere nnmed Dardanelles from the contiguous 
toTn of Dardanns. The gallnnt cxpli.tit oi' forcing the passage; of the Dan 



288 THE world's progress. [ DEA 

danelles was achieved by the British squadron under admiral sir John 
Duckworth, Feb. 19, ISOY ; but the admiral was obliged to repass them, 
which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2, 
following, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of stone, 
each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships. 

DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from 
the province of Dauphine, which was ceded by its last prince, Humbert II. 
to Philip of Valois, on the condition that the heirs of the French throne 
should bear the arms and name of the province, a. d. 1343. — Priestley. 

DAVIS'S STRAIT. Discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, whose 
name it bears, on his voyage to find a North-west passage, in 1585. 

DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sun- 
set among the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced 
at midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in most places, at the 
present time, reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks 
strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as is done in all 
other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but par- 
tially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, Rome, 
and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English clocks. 
The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil 
day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is 
the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, day and 
night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of 
Scipio Nasica, 158 b. c. — Vossius de Scien. Math. 

DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise from the 
institution of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a 
long period in many churches, about a. d. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The 
original deacons were Philip, Stephen, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parme- 
nos, and Nicolas. The qiialifications of a deacon are mentioned by St. 
Paul, 1st Timothy iii. 8-13. 

DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb 
was made bj' Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about a. d. 1570. 
Bonet, who was also a monk, published a system at Madrid, in 1620. Dr. 
Wallis published a work in England on the subject, in 1650. The first 
regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Great Britain was opened in 
Edinburgh in 1773. 

DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, and INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. 
In 1810 there were 6 916 blind persons, or 1 in 2 467 of the population; 
7,659 deaf and dumb or 1 in 2 228; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979. 
There were in the United States 28 asylums for the insane, with about 
2,840 patients. 
Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have 
promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the 
United States, are Dr. Amariah Brigham, of Hartford; Dr. S. G. Howe, of 
Boston ; Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, Hartford. 

DEATH, Punishment op. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punish- 
ment among the Britons before 450 b. c. — Stoive. The most eulogized 
heroes of antiquity inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women suffered 
on the cross, the victims sometimes living in the most excruciating torture 
many days. A most horrifying instance'of death by torture occurs in the 
fate of Mithridates. an assassin of Xerxes. See a note to the article Persia; 
see also Ravillac; BoUin.g to Death; Burning to Death. Sic. Maurice, the 
son of a nobleman, was hanged, drav.-n, and quartered for piracy, the first 
execution in that manner in England. 25 Henry III.. 1241. The punishment 



DEL ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 289 

of death was abolished in a great number of cases by Mr. Peel's acts, 1824-9, 
in-other cases 1832, for forgery 1837. Capital punishment, except in cases 
of martial law, abolished by Prussia, and by German parliament, at Frank- 
fort, same day, August 4, 1848. 

DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the 
year, called so from decern, ten, the Romans commencing their year in 
March. Numa introduced January and February before the latter month, 
in 713 B. c, and from thenceforward December became the twelfth of the 
year. 

DECEMVIRI. Ten magistrates, who were chosen annually at Rome to go- 
vern the commonwealth instead of consuls ; first instituted 450 b. c. — Livy. 
The decemviral power became odious on account of their tyranny, and the 
attempt of Appius Claudius to defile Virginia, and the office was abolished, 
the people demanding from the senate to burn the decemviri alive. Con- 
suls were again appointed, and tranquillity restored. — See Virginia. 

DEEDS. They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages : the 
earliest known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds, is 
that of the indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby, and Robert, 
the son of John Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343. The English 
tongue was ordered to be used in all law pleadings in 1364. Ordei'ed to be 
used in all law-suits in May, 1731. 

DEFENDER of the FAITH. Mdei Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X. 
on Henry VIII. of England. The king' wrote a tract in behalf of the Church 
of Rome, then accounted Domicilium fidei CatholiccB, and against Luther, 
who had just begun the Reformation in Germany, upon which the pope gave 
him the title of Defender of the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs 
of Great Britain: the bull conferring it bears date Oct. 9, 1521. 

DEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded 
as having been made, by Eratosthenes, about 250 b. c. — Snellius. The first 
degree of longitude was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude 
was determined also), at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, whose most west- 
ern point was made the first general meridian, 162 b. c. Several nations 
have fixed their meridian from places connected with their own territories ; 
and thus the English compute their longitude from the meridian of Green- 
wich. See Latitude, Longitude, and the various Collegiate degrees. 

DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the six- 
teenth century by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to 
disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honorable appellation 
than that of Atheism. — Virot's Instruction Ciiretvcnne, 1563. Deism is a 
rejection of all manner of revelation : its followers go merely by the light 
of nature, believing that there is a God, a providence, vice and virtue, and 
an after state of punishments and rewards : it is sometimes called free-think- 
ing. The first deistical writer of any note in England, was Herbert, baron 
of Cherbury, in 1624. The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal, 
Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Hume, Holcroft, and Godwin. 

DELAWARE. The smallest of the TJ. States except R. Island. First settlcl 
in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphu 
and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by 11 c 
Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in 
1664. and then named Delaware. The duke of York granted it to Wni. 
Penn, in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 177'"). 
This state bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in 
the struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the TJ. S. by a unanimous 

13 



290 THE world's progress. [ DEN 

vote iu convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population -- 1790, 59,094; 1840, 78,085 ; 
including 2,605 slaves. 

DELHI. The once great capital of the Mogul empire : it is now in decay, but 
contained a million of inhabitants, in 1700. In 1738, when Nadir Shah 
invaded Hindoostan, he entered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine 
followed: 100 000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword; and plunder to 
the amount of 62,000,000Z. sterling was said to be collected. 

DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the temple of 
Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyons, 
1263 B. c. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came 
to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tem- 
])le was burnt by the Pisistratidae, 548 b. c. A new temple was raised by the 
Alcmseonidse, and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered 
by the people of Phocis of 20,000 talents of gold and silver; and Nero car- 
ried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning 
the temple was 449 b. c. The second sacred war was commenced c a Delphi 
being attacked by the Phocians, 356 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. 

DELUGE, THE GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the 
world 1536 ; and it began Dec. 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. The ark- 
rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follow- 
ing. The year corresponds with that of 2348 b. c. — Blair. The following 
are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales. 



Septuagint B.C. 3216 I Persian - B.C. 3103 
Jackson - 3170 Hindoo - - 3102 

Hales - - 3155 | Samaritan - - 2998 
Josephus - 3146 | Howard - - 2698 



Playfair - b. c. 2352 
Usher - - 2348 
Englisli Bible -2348 
Marsham - -2344 



Petavius - b. c. 2329 
Strauchuis - 2293 
Hebrew - -2288 
Vulgar Jewish 2104 



Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, bj^ the prediction 
(!) that another general deluge would occur, and arks were every where built 
to guard against the calamity; but the season happened to be a very fine 
diy one, a. d. 1524. 

DELUGE OF DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 b. c. according 
to Eusebiiis. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the 
general flood : but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely 
a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose 
course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and 
Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and 
aome of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnassus. 

DELUGE OF OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inun- 
dated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years ; it 
occurred before the deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 b. c. — Blair. BufFon 
thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from 
the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean. 

DEMERARA and ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were 
taken by the British, 1796, but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demarara 
and Essequibo again surrendered to the British under general Grinfield and 
commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed English colonies. 

DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbri 
and the Teutones, who were driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones 
settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were 
defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the 
Jutes ; and the general name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from 
Dan, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and marJ,\ a German word signi- 
fying country, i. e. Dan-mnrk. the country of Dan# 



DEN 1 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



291 



60 
750 



1014 
1157 



DENMARK, continued. 

Reign of Sciold, first king - B.C. 

The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings 
to the time of Ragnor Lodbrog - a. d. 

[Ragnor is killed m an attempt to in- 
vade England, and for more tnan 200 
years from this time the Danes were 
a terror to the northern nations of Eu- 
, rope, and at length conquering all 
England. See Danes.] 

Reign of Canute the Great 

Reign of Waldemar the Great 

Waldemar II., with a fleet of 1000 sail, 
makes immense conquests - - 1223 

Gothland conquered - - - 1347 

Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are 
united into one kingdom - - 1397 

Revolt of the Swedes - - -1414 

The nations reunited - - - 1439 

Copenhagen made the capital - - 1440 

Accession of Christian I., from whom 
the present royal family springs - 1448 

Christian II. is deposed, and the inde- 
pendence of Sweden acknowledged - 1523 

Lutheranisni established by Christian 
m. 1536 

Danish East India Company established 
by Christian IV. - - - - 1612 

Christian IV. chosen head of the Pro- 
testant league - - - - 1629 

Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades 
Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and 
makes large conquests ■ - 1658 

The crown made hereditary and abso- 
lute 1660 

Frederick IV. takes Ilolstein, Sleswick, 
Tonningen, and Stralsund ; reduces 
Weismar, and drives the Swedes out 
of Norway - - - 1716 et seq. 

Copenhagen destroyed by a fire which 
consumes 16-50 houses, 5 churches, the 
university, and 4 colleges - - 1728 

The peaceful reign of Christian VI., 
who promotes the happiness of his 
subjects ... - 1730 

Christian VII. in a fit of jealousy sud- 
denly confines his queen, Caroline 
Matilda, sister of Georse HI. who is 
afterwards banished. See Zell Jan. 18, 1772 



The counts Struensee and Brandt are 
seized at the same time, on the charge , 

of a criminal intercourse with the 
queen; and the former confessing to 
avoid the torture, both are beheaded 
for high treason - April 28, 1772 

The queen Caroline Matilda dies at 
Zell - - - May 10, 1775 

Christian VII. becomes deranged, and 
prince Frederick is appointed regent 17&i 

One- fourth of Copenhagen is destroyed 
by fire - - - June 9, 1795 

Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard 
Copenhagen, and engage the Danish 
fleet, taking or destroying 18 ships of 
the line, of whose crews 1800 are kill- 
ed. The Confederacy of the North 
(see Armed Neutrality) is thus dis- 
solved - - - April 2, ISOl 

Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart 
bombard Copenhagen, and seize the 
Danish fleet of 12 shins of the line, 15 
fr eates, and 37 brigs, &c. - Sept. 7, 1807 

Pomerania and Rugen are annexed to 
Denmark, in exchange for Norway - 1814 

Commercial treaty with England - 1824 

Frederick bestows a new constitution 
on his kingdom - - - 1831 

A new constitution oflered by Christian 
VIII. - - - Jan. 20, 1848 

Duchies of Schleswig and Hplstein de- 
mand separation from Denmark 

March, 1848 

The king grants freedom of the press 
and of public meetings - March, 1848 

Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re- 
volt and join the great German na- 
tion - - - March 26, 1848 

Prussia artds the duchies, and re-organ- 
izes the Grand Duchy of Posen 

March 26, 1848 

Danes victorious over the Germans, 
April 10 ; but driven out of Schleswig 

April 23, 1848 

Truce agreed upon (provisional govern- 
ment of 5 to rule the duchies mean- 
while) - - - July 10, 1848 

Armistice till March 1 , 1849, signed Aug. 1848 
(See Copenhagen.) 



KINGS OP DENMARK. 



. D. 714 

750 

770 
801 
809 
811 
812 
814 



849 
&56 
858 
873 
915 
920 
9Z5 
928 
930 
935 



Gormo I. 

Ragnor I.odbrog. 

Sigefrid. 

Godefrid. 

Glaus I. 

Hemming. 

Siward and Ringon, killed in a sea-fight. 

Harold and Regner; the latter made 

prisoner in Ireland, and died in a 

dungeon there. 
Siward II. deposed. 
Eric ; killed in battle. 
Eric II. 
Canute I. 
Frothon. 
Gormo II. 
Harold. 
Hardicanute. 
Gormo III. 
Harold III. 
Suenon. 



1014 Canute 11. the Great. 

1036 Hardicanute II. 

1041 Magnus I. 

1048 Suenon II. 

1079 Harold IV. 

lOSO Canute III. assassinated. 

1086 Olaus II. 

1097 Eric III. 

1106 Nicholas, killed in Sleswick. 

1135 Eric IV., killed at Ripen. 

11.38 Eric V. 

1147 Suenon III., beheaded by Waldemar 

for assassinating prince Canute. 
1157 Waldemar the Great. 
1182 Canute V. 
1202 Waldemar II 
1240 Eric VI. 
1250 Abel I., killed in an expedition against 

the Prisons. 
1252 Christopher I., jioisoned by the bishop 

of Arhus. 



292 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[dia 



1523 Frederick. 

1534 Christian III. 

1559 Frederick II. 

1588 Christian IV. 

1648 Frederick III. 

1670 Christian V. 

1699 Fredsrick IV. 

1730 Christian ^^. 

1746 Frederick V. 

1766 Christian vn. 

1808 Frederic VI. 

1839 Christian VIII. ilied Jan. 20, 1&43. 



DENMARK, continued. 

1259 Eric VII. assassinated. 

1286 Eric Vni. 

1319 Christopher II; (An interregnum of 

seven years.) 
1340 Waldemar III. 
1375 Glaus III. 
1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and 

Norway. 
1411 Eric IX., abdicated. 
1439 Christopher III. 

1448 Christian I. of the house of Oldenburgh. 
1481 John. 
1513 Christian II., confined 27 years in a 

dungeon, where he died. 

DENIS, St. An ancient town of Franco, six miles Ironi Paris to the nortli- 
ward, the last stage on the road from England to that capital, — fanions for • 
its abbey and church, the former abolished at the Revolution; the latter 
desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place of 
sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613. 

" DEVIL AND DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the 
policy to conceal his art, and to this policy M-e are indebted for the tradition 
of " The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of Gut- 
temberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at 
present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate 
those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at 
Paris, where printing was then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty 
ci'owns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal as- 
tonishment ; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and 
lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity 
of the copies increased the wonder ; informations were given to the police 
against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a great 
number of copies being found, they Avere seized. The red ink with which 
they were embellished was supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously 
adjudged that he was in league with the devil ; and if he had not fled, he 
would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned 
in those days for witchcraft, a. d. 1460. Nouv. Diet. See Printing. 

DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and 
which wai3 consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or 
wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and 
forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck. 
Aurelian was the first Roman em^icror who wore a diadem, a. d. 272. — 
T'dlemo7it. 

DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c. — Pliny. The first dial of the 
sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Qulrinus by L. Papirius 
Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. — Blair. In the times 
of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial. 
They were first set up in churches in a. d. 613. — Lenglet. 

DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East, where the 
mine of Sumbulpour was the first known ; and where the mines of Golconda 
were discoverd in 1584. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds. 
The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. From these last a diamond, 
weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, 
and was valued by M. Romeo de I'lsle at the extravagant sum of 224 mil- 
lions ; by others it was valued at fifty-six millions : its value was next stated 
to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 4O0,000Z. The diamond 
called the "mountain of light," which belonged to the king of Cabul, was 
the most superb gem ever seen ; it was of the finest water, and the size of 



die] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 293 



an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a half. The great dia- 
mond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr., 
troy. The empress Catharine II. offered for it 1(M,166Z. besides an annuity 
for life, to the owner, of 1041Z. which was refused ; but it was afterwards 
sold to Catharine's favorite, count OrlofF, for the first mentioned sum, with- 
out the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birth- 
day, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond weighed 
136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats ; it was sold to the king of France 
for 125,000Z. in 1720. 

DIANA, TEMPLE of, at EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world, 
built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect 
was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years M'cre employed in completing 
this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, 
and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons 
of Parian marble.) furnished by so many kings. It was set on fire on the 
night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus, 
who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him 
to destroy so magnificent an edifice, was the desire of transmitting his name 
to future ages, 356 b. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the 
Goths, in their naval invasion, a. d. 256, Uuiv. Hist. 

DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, in- 
stituted 498 B. c, when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, Avas ap- 
pointed. This oflice, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the 
Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J. 
'Csesar ; and after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, on the motion 
of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to 
exist in Rome, 44 b, c. 

DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing 
about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude reprtisentations 
somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who 
lived about 1100 b. c. — Morrison. Cyclopaedias were compiled in the fif- 
teenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaps 
the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in Latin ; he wrote one 
in eight languages, about a. d. WOO.— Niceron. The Lexicon Heptaglotton 
was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was pub- 
lished in 1696, " the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to 
think." — Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopedia, the first dictionary of the circle 
of the arts, sciences, &c., was published in 1728. The great dictionary of 
the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755. Francis 
Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768 ; and from 
this period numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature. 
Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two 
quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven in 1828. It was re- 
printed in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. Numerous 
abridgments and a new edition of the whole work have since been published. 
See Encyclopedia. 

DIET OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. The supreme authority of fMs empire 
may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princes undc: this name. . 
The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz. :— the college of electors, the 
college of princes, and the college of imperial towns, commenced with 
the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356.— See Golden Btdl. Diets otherwise 
constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. The 
diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179. 
The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in person, was 
held in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, was held in 1529 ; 



294 THE WOULD's PROGIi-ESS. [ DIP 

and the famous diet of Augsburg-, in 1530. In the league of the German 
princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frank- 
fort, July 12, 1806. A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of con- 
solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Germany. 

DIEU ET MON DROIT, "God and my right." This was the parole of 
the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle of Gisors, 
in France. In this battle {ivhich see) the French army was signally defeated ; 
and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Dieii et mon droit^' 
the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained, 
A. D. 1198. — Rijmcr's Eadera. 

DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared 
by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 b. c. — Quintil. Inst. Oral. 
Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of 
eminence, was the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justi- 
nian : it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the 
civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a ff. — Pardon. 

DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were 
at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantine, a. d. 323 ; but 
Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long 
before. — Strabo, lib. xiii. In England these circuits of the bishops' juris- 
diction are coeval with Christianity ; there are twenty-four dioceses, of 
which twenty-one ai-e suffragan to Canterbury, and three to York. 

DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian 
writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and 
is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on 
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284. 
It is called the era of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chris- 
tians in the reign of Diocletian. 

DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an 
object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29, 
1823. The diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, that, instead 
of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole picture 
at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both to the panorama 
and the cosmorama in the fidelity with which the objects are depicted, and 
in the completeness of the illusion. 

DIPLOMACY OP THE UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiaiy to 
Great Britain and France. 



GREAT BRITAIN. 

1783 John Adams. 
1739 Gouv. Morris, commissioner. 
1792 Thomas Pinckney, oi' S. C, min. plen. 
1794 John Jay, of N. Y. do. 

1796 Rulus King, do. do. 

1803 James Monroe, Va. } Jointly, 
1806 Wm. Pinckney, Mass. \ in 1806. 
1808 Wnl Pinckney, do. alone do. 
1815 John Q,uincy Adams, Mass. do. 
1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do. 

1826 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do. 

1828 .lames Barbour, Va. do. 

1830 Lou\s McLane, Del. do. 

1831 M. \'m. Buren, N. Y. do. 

1832 AarO'L Vail, charge d'affaires. j 1823 James Brown, La. "lo. 
tese And. Stevenson, Va., minister plen. ! 1830 Wm. C. Rives, Va. do. 
1841 Edward Everett, Mass. do. ' 1833 Edward Livinsslnn, La. do. 

1845 Louis McLane, Md. do. ■ 1836 Lewis Cass, Mich. .to. 

1846 Georse Bancroft, Mass. do. ; 1S44 Wm. R. King, Ala. do. 
1849 Abbott Lawrence, do. do. ■ 1849 W. C. Rives, Va. do. 



FRANCE. 

1776 B. Franklin, S. Deane, & A. Lee, com'rs. 
1790 Wm. Short, of Va., charge d'affaires. 
1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plen. 
1799 James Munroe, Va. do. 

1796 C. C. Pinckney, S. C. ; ■,„ 

1797 E. Gerry & John Marshall, \ ^°- 
1799 Ol. Ellsworth, Patrick Henry, 

and W. Vans Murray, do. 

1801 .Tames A. Bayard, Del. tb. 

1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. c o. 

1804 John Armstrong, do. ao. 

1811 Joel Barlow, Conn. do. 

1813 Wm. H. Crawford, Geo. do. 

1815 Albert Gallatin, Pa. do. 



DIV J DIOTIOiVARY OF DATES. 295 

DIRECTORY, the CHURCH. The book so called was published in England 
at the period of the civil war. It was drawn up at the instance of the par- 
liament, by an assembly of divines at Westminster, with the object that the 
ministers might not be wholly at a loss in their devotions after the suppres- 
sion of the Book of Common Prayer. There Avere some general hints given, 
which were to be managed at discretion, for the Directory prescribed no 
form of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined the people to 
make any responses, except Amen. The Directory was established by an 
ordinance of the parliament in 1644. — Bishop Taylor. 

DIRECTORY, French. The French Directory was installed at the little Lux- 
embourg, at Paris, under a ncAV constitution of the government, November 
1, 1795, and held the executive power four years. It was comi^osed of five 
members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, the Council of An- 
cients and Council of Five Hundred, which see. Deposed by Bonaparte, whc;, 
with Cambac6rfes and Sieyfes, became the ruling power of France, the three 
governing as consuls, the first as chief, Nov. 9, 1799. 

DISSENTERS. The " Dissenters " from the Church of England arose early in 
the Reformation, contending for a more complete departure from the Romish 
models of church government and discipline. They were reproached with 
the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposed in religious 
worship and conduct ; and the rigorous treatment they endured under Eliza- 
beth and James I. led multitudes of them to emigrate to this country in 
those reigns. The first place of worship for Dissenters in England was 
established at Wandsworth, near London, Nov. 20, 1572 ; and now, in Lon- 
don alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c., for all classes of Dis- 
senters, amounts to near 200. The great act for the relief of Dissenters 
from civil and religious disabilities, was the statute passed 9 George IV. 
c. 17. By this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal Act, so much of 
the several acts of parliament of the preceding reigns as imposed the neces- 
sity of receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for 
certain offices, &c. was repealed. May 9, 1828. Several other acts of ameli- 
orating effect have been since passed. 

DIVINATION. In the Scriptures wo find mention made of different kinds of 
divination ; and it is mentioned by most of the ancient authors. It was re- 
tained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers, 
augurs, and other like professors, till the coming of Christ, when the doc- 
trines of Christianity and the spirit of philosophy banished such visionary 
opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 b. c. Augurs were instituted 
by Numa at Rome, 710 b. c. See Augury, Witchcraft, t^c. 

DIVING-BELL. First mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, 325, b.c. 
The diving-bell was first used in Europe, a. d. 1509. It is said to have been 
used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish 
Armada, before a. d. 1669. Halley greatly improved this machine, and was, 
it is said, the fii'st who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground 
at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied the condensing-ptimp to force 
down air. ]Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell in 
Ireland, were drowned, June 1, 1783. The Royal George man-of-war, which 
was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving- 
bell, in May 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed 
in sub-marine surveys. The first divmg-belle was the Avife of Captain Mor- 
ris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago. 

DIVORCES FOR ADULTERY. Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiasti- 
cal and civil law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spurius Car- 
vilius at Rome, 281 b. g. — Blair. At this time morals were so debased, 
that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces were attempted 



296 TiiE world's niOGRESS. [ DOG 

to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in a.d. 1539. The bill to 
prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in 
1801. 

DOCKS OF LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest con- 
structions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce, in the world. In Lon- 
don there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the 
principal: — The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in 
July 1799; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug. 
27, 1802, when the Henry Addington West Indiaman first entered them, 
decorated with the colors of the difierent nations of Europe. The London 
docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 1805. 
The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803, 
and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks 
was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until 
they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828. 

DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church 
was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysois- 
tom, in the Greek church ; and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the 
Great, in the Romish church, a. d. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title 
of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 
8 John, 1207. — Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the 
time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it 
is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about a. d. 725. 
See Collegiate Degrees. 

DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law 
residing in the city of London ; the name of Commons is given to this col- 
lege from the civilians commonii:ig together as in other colleges. Doctors' 
Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was de- 
stroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the 
old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces, 
bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See 
article Civil Law. 

DOG. The chie7i de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the whole 
race. — Buffon. Buffon describes this dog as being " the root of the tree," 
assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of 
instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in 
Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken 
from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel, 
landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned 
to Vienna. 

DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end 
on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard 
the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sun, as the cause 
of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed 
as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not only varies 
in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and 
later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may, by the same 
rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow. — Dr. Hutton. 

DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a 

* Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stars ; 
and they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. They maintain that 
a sound would not reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years, and that a cannon-ball, flying with 
its usual velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage tlierjce to our 
globe. 



DOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATEs^. 297 

prince so named, Anafesto Paululio, a. d. 697. The Genoese revolted against 
their count, and chose a doge from among their nobility, and became an 
aristocratic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying 
the sea, "the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was 
observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the custom was dis- 
pensed with. See Adriatic. 
DOMINGO, ST. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The 
city was founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and 
nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1791. 
Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French 
colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died 
in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks,' by proclama- 
tion, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly ex- 
ecuted with horrid cruelty, and 2-500 were butchered in one day, March 29, 
1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hayti, in 
which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Do- 
mingo, acknowledged by France, in April, 1825. 
DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This 
island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the 
peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the 
subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hur- 
ricane in 1806 ; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently 
occurred. 
DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days 
of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as 
by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one 
of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin 
on Sunday, A is the dominical letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is 
G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter 
call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the 
first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter ; in leap 
years count two letters. 
DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost uni- 
versal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars, 
and were founded by St. Dominick, approved by Innocent III. in 1215 ; and 
the order was confirmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216, under St. Austin's 
rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation 
of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they 
erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called 
Blackfriars. 
DOOM'S-DAY OR DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Judiciarius vel Censualis 
Anslus-- A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign 
of William I. a. d. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register 
whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates ; and from this book 
the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still 
decided. ' The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible, 
consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of 
England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was fin- 
ished in A. D. 1086, having been completed by five justices. "This dome's- 
day book was the tax-book of kinge William." — Caviden. The taxes were 
levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522, when a more. accu- 
rate survey was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day 
book. 

DORIC Ordkr of Architecture. The most ancient of the five, the invention 
of the Dorians, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the name to 

13* 



298 THK world's progress, |_dra 

the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesus took 
place 1104 b. c. They sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies 
into diiferent places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native 
country. 
DORl . Here happened an awful inundation of the sea, a. d. 1446. It arose in 
the breaking doip\Ti of the dykes ; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 
persons were overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul- 
lart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last fwo provinces upwards of 300 
villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for 
ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Prot- 
estant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent 
from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the 
differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, princi- 
pally upon points of justification and grace. The synod condemned the 
tenets of Arminius. — Aitzema. 

DOUAY, IN Fr.4nce. Erected into a imiversity by Philip II. of Spa,in, who 
founded here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, a. d. 1569. Douay 
was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was 
taken by the duke of Marlborough, in 1710; and retaken by the "'^'rench 
next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of th^ Bible, 
which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the suc^.essive 
popes among the members of that communion, as the only English version 
authorized by Catholics ; its text being copiously explained by the notes 
of Catholic divines. 

DRACO, Laws of. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a 
code of laws, which, on account of their severitj^, were said to be written 
in letters of blood : l3y them idleness was punished v/ith as much severity as 
murder ; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could 
not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 b. c. — 
Sigonius de Repub. Athen. 

DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth, 
No. 13, 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many 
perilous adventures, Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral 
under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict 
with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. His expeditions and victories over 
the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his gene- 
rosity ; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the 
common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his presents 
to Indian chiefs. — Stowe. Rafvn. 

DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the 
Greeks. The first comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon, 
on a movable scaffold, 562 b. e. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced 
556 B. c. See Chorus. Tragedy was first represented at Athens, by Thespis, 
on a wagon, 536 b. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icai-ia, the inventor of tra- 
gedy, performed at Athens Alcestis, this year, and was rewarded with a 
goat, 536 B. G. — Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in- 
troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hun- 
dred plays, of which ten obtained the prize ; he died 340 b. c. 

DRAMA IN ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion 
of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and 
C. Lucinius Stolo. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities insti- 
tuted the games called Scenici, which were amusements entirely new. 
Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 b. c. 
Subsequently came satires accompanied with music set to the flute ; and 



DKO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 299 

afterwards plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, abandoning 
satires, wrote inlays with a regular and conneeted plot, 240 b. c. — lAvy. 
Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two differ- 
ent performers ; he danced himself, and gave the sipging to a younger 
exhibitor. — Livy. 

DRAMA, Modern. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of 
minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. — Warton. 
Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin 
of sacred comedy. — Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the 
church, is said to have constructed a drama about a. d. 364, on the Passion 
of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to 
have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama ; but this is not 
clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Becket, asserts that 
" London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representa- 
tion of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries 
were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the 
parish clerks in 1397, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allego- 
rical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual 
characters were introduced in Henry VII. 's reign. The first regular drama 
acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- 
sence of i5ope Leo X., 1515. — Voltaire. The English drama became perfect 
in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England 
was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, 
to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shak- 
speare, and his associates, in 1603. Play's were opposed by the Puritans in 
1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two 
companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's 
and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this time boys performed women's parts. 
DRESDEN, Battle of, between the allied army under the prince of Schwar- 
zenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 
1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his posi- 
tion at Dresden, and»the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an 
error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with 
dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme 
pursuing them too far, his division ivas cut to pieces, and himself and all 
his staff" made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal 
wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. 

DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of 
Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. — Stowe. 
Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, Avore a white satin-pinked vest, close 
sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered, 
and embroidered with peans. In the feather of his hat, a lai'ge ruby and 
pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches, 
with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and 
buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered with 
precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 66OOI, ; and he had a suit 
of armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, 
rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, could 
afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to 
shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the 
pickers-up, Avho were generally Ics Dames de la Cow. 

DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons 
were first instituted in Holland, a. d. 1767. The second society is said to 
have been formed at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the 
foiarth at Paris, in 1772; and the fifth in London, in 1774. Similar societies 



300 THE world's progress. [ DUR 

have been instituted in other countries. The motto of the Royal Humane 
Society in England is very appropriate : — Laieat scintiLlula forsan — a small 
spark may lurk unseen. 

DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, 
vrho from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted 
as priests and magistrates ; one of them was invested occasionally with 
supreme authority. In England they were chosen out of the best families, 
that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might pro- 
cure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences ; had the 
administration of all sacred things ; were the interpreters of the gods ; and 
supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed 
Cassar's tirst landing, 55 b. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending 
the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Pau- 
linuB, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, a. d. 59. — Rowland's 
Mona Antiqua. 

DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose oiit of an older proverb. 
" Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice 
of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunken- 
ness was punished in many of the early nations with exemplary severity. 
In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as a. d. 747. 
Constantine, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death. 
He used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and differed 
from the beast only in shape, a. d. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in the 
commonalty in England in 975 ; and by several later laws. 

DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Aschcled, built a. d, 140. 

DUCAT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy. — Procopius. First 
struck in the duchy of Apulia. — Dit, Cange. Coined by Robert, king of 
Sicily, in a. d. 1240. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes. — John- 
son. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 4s. %d., and that of 
the gold 9s. Qd. — Pardon. 

DUELLING AND KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their riSfe from the judicial com- 
bats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character, 
took place a. d. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France, 
1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I. 
to the emperor Charles V., 1527. The fight with small swords was intro- 
duced into England, 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should 
be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duelling " 
was checked in the army, 1792. — See Battle, Wager of; Combat, (^c. As 
many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought dm'ing my grand cli- 
macteric. — Si?- J. Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in 
which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these cases 
both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sen- 
tence of the law. — Ha'tnilton. 

DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In 
England, during Saxon times, the commanders of armies were called dukes, 
duces. — Camden. The title lay dormant from the Conquest till the reign of 
Edward III., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black 
Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, a. d. 1336. Robert de Vere was 
created marqxiis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The 
first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert IH., who created David, 
prince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to 
the king's eldest son, a. d. 1398. 

DUKE, Grand. The Medici familj^ was one of extraordinary greatness and 
immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged 



EAR j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 301 

the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night : 
and his son, Cosmo, was created grand duke, the fii'st of that rank, by pope 
Pius V. in 1569. 
DUNBAR, Battle OF, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John 
Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Ed- 
ward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English under 
Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650. 

DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and 
French, and put into the hands of the English, June 24, 1658, the last year 
of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,000^. to 
Louis XIV., in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best for- 
tified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished, and the 
basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht- in 1713. 

DUNSINANE, Battle op. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal 
Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle 
between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumber- 
land. Edward the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm III., 
whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who 
was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, to Lumphanan, in 
Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of Macbeth is the sub- 
ject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama. 

DURHAM, Battle of, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at 
Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former armj^ was commanded by queen 
Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland, 
who was vanquished. Fifteen thousand of Bruce's soldiers were cut to 
pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thou- 
sand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. 

DYEING, Art op. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing 
and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their 
manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England 
for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the Low Countries 
in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the 
north" (of England) 1628. 

E. 

EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the 
Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and 
sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a 
spear ; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 b. c. When 
Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added 
the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of 
Rome and Germany were united in him, a. d. 802. The eagle was the im- 
perial standard of Napoleon ; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. 
It is also the national emblem of the United States of America. 

EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages 
the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard 
II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They 
had, anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny oiit of the 
sheriff" 's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their 
title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or 
shire for his earldom. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and 
their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute foi 
king. 



H)2 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



EARTH. The globular form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of 
Miletus about 640 b. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring an 
arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The Greeks taught the 
sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all 
towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round 
the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magel- 
lan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1576. 
The experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to 
be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was dis- 
covered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe. 

EAUTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient 
nations. Various domestic articles were made by the Romans, 715 b. c. 
The art was revived and improved in Italy, a. d. 1310. Wedgewood's patent 
ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Stafibrdshire was extended to 
a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary pur- 
poses of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c., and thereby rendered a 
very important braucli of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See 
China. — Porcelain. 

EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed Avith 
any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras sup^josed that earthquakes were pro- 
duced by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the 
vaults that confined them, b. c. 435. — Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, 
and others, supposed that there were many vast cavities under ground which 
have a communication with each other, some of which abound with waters, 
others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitu- 
men, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be suj^ported till 1749-50, 
when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr. 
Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to 
suspect that a phenomenon of this kind ought to be attributed not to vapors 
or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity. 
These pi'inciples at the same time were advanced by Signer Beccaria, with- 
out knowing any thing of Dr. Stukelej^'s discoveries, and the hypothesis has 
been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In many cases, how- 
ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into 
steam by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which 
occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the 
most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from 
the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all 
that have occurred : — 



One which made the peninsula of 
Eubopa an island - - b. c. 425 

EUice and Bula in the Peloponnesus, 
swallowed up ... 372 

One at Rome, when, in obedience to 
an oracle, M. Curlius, armed and 
mounted on a stately horse, leaped 
into the dreadful chasm it occasion- 
ed CLivy') ■ - - - 358 

Duras, in Greece, buried with all its 
inhabitants ; and twelve cities in 
Campania also buried - - 345 

Lysimachia totally buried, with all its 
inhabitants - - - - 283 

Awful one in Asia, wliich overturned 
twelve cities - - - A. D. 17 

One accompanied by the eruption of 
Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and 
Herculaneum buried - 79 

Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, a. id 
two in Galatia, overturned - - 107 



Antioch destroyed - '- a. d. 114 

Nicomedia, Csesarea, and Nicea in 

Bithynia, overturned - - 126 

In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 

cities and towns damaged. - 
Nicomedia again demolished, and its 

inhabitants buried in its ruins 
One felt by nearly the whole world - 
At Constantinople : its edifices destroy- 
ed, and thousancis perished - 
In Africa ; many cities overturned 
Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and 
Asia ; more than 500 cities were de- 
stroyed, and the loss of life surpass- 
ed all calculation 
In France, Germany, and Italy 
Constantinople overturned, and all 

Greece shaken - - - 936 

One felt throughout England - - 1089 

One at Antioch ; many towns destroy- 



357 



358 
543 



558 
560 



742 



EAS] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



303 



EARTHQUAKES, continued. 

ed : among them, Mariseum and Ma- 
mistria - - - a. d. Ul-1 

Catania in Sicily overturned, and 
15,000 persons buried in the ruins - 1137 

One severely felt at Lincoln - - 1142 

At Calabria, v^hen one of its cities and 
all its inhabitants were overwhelm- 
ed in the Adriatic Sea 

One again felt throughout England - 

At Naples, when 40,UD0 of its inhabit- 
ants perished - - . . 

One felt in London : part of St. Paul's 
and the Temple churches fell 

In Japan, several cities made ruins, 
and thousands perished 

Awfu! one at Calabria - 

One in China, when 300,000 persons 
were buried in Pekin alone - 

One severely felt in Ireland - 

One at Jamaica, which totally destroy- 
ed Port Royal, whose houses were 
ingulfed forty fathoms deep, and 300 
persons perished 

One hi Sicily, which overturned 54 
cities and towns, and 300 villages. 
Of Catania and its 18,000 inhabit- 
ants, not a trace remained; more 
than 100,000 lives were lost - 

Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 
persons perished 

Again in China; and 100,000 people 
swallowed up at Pekin 

One in Hungary, which turned 
mountain round 

Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 
persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746 

One at Palermo, which swallowed up 
a convent : but the monks escaped 1740 

In London, the inhabitants terrified by 
a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750 

Another, but severer sliock, March 8, 1750 

Adrianople nearly overwhelmed - 1752 

At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and 
40,000 persons swallowed up - 1754 

Quito destroyed - - April, 1755 

Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about 
eight minutes most of the houses, 
and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants, 
were swallowed up, and whole streets 
buried, The cities of Coimbra, 
Oporto, and Braga, suffered dread- 
fully, and St. Ubes was wholly over- 
turned. In Spain, a large part of 
Malaga became ruins. One half of 
Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and 
more than 12,000 Arabs perished 
there. Above half of the island of 
Rladeira became waste : and 2,000 
houses in the island of Meteline, in 
» the Archipelago, were overthrown : 

this awful earthquake extended 5000 
miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755 

One in Syria extended over 10,000 
square miles : Balbec destroyed - 1759 

One at Martinico, when 1600 persons 
lost their lives - . au". 1767 

At Guatemala, which, with 80,000 in 



1186 
1274 



1456 

1.5S0 



159G 
1638 



1662 
1690 



1692 



1693 
1726 



1731 
1736 



A destructive one at Smyrna - a. d 1778 

At Tauris : 15,000 houses thrown down, 
and multitudes buried - - 1780 

One which overthrew Messina and a 
number of towns in Italy and Sicily : 
40,000 persons perished - - 1783 

Arciiindschan wholly destroyed, and 
12,000 persons buried in its ruins - 1784 

At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening 
of the earth swallowed up many 
houses and 1000 persons - Sept. 1789 

Another fatal one in Sicily - - 1791 

One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing 
forth its flames overwhelmed the city 
of Torre del Greco - - -1794 

In Turkey, where, in three towns, 
10,000 persons lost their lives - 1794 

The whole country between Santa Fe 
and Panama destroyed, including the 
cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of 
whose people were, in one second, 
hurled into eternity - - - 179J 

One at Constantinople, which destroy- 
ed the royal palace and an mimen- 
sity of buildings, and extended into 
Romania and Wallachia. - - 18U0 

A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. 1804 

In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000 
persons lost their lives - - 1805 

At the Azores: a village of St. Mi- 
chael's sunk, and a lake of boiling 
water appeared in its place - Aug. 1810 

Awful one at Caraccas {which see) - 1812 

Several felt throughout India. The 
district of Kutch sunk ; 2000 persons 
were buried with it - - June 1819 

In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many 
other towns ; great damage sustain- 
ed, and thousands perished - - 1819 

One fatal, at Messina - - Oct. 1326 

One in Spain, which devastated Mur- 
cia, and numerous villages; 6000 
persons perished - March 21, 1829 

In the duchy of Parma ; no less than 
40 shocks were experienced at Bor- 
gotaro ; and at Pontremoli many 
houses were thrown down, and not a 
chimney was left standing Feb. 14, 1834 

In many cities of Southern Syria, by 
whichi hundreds of houses were 
thrown down, and thousands of the 
inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1837 

At Martinique, by which nearly half 
of Port Royal is destroyed, nearly 
700 persons killed, and the whole 
island damaged - Jan. 11. 1839 

At Ternate : the island made a wasted 
almost every house destroyed, and 
thousands of the inhabitants lose 
their lives - - Feb. 14, l^lrt 

Awful and destructive earthquake at 
Mount Ararat ; in one of the districts 
of Armenia 3137 houses were over- 
thrown, and several hundred persons 
perished - - July 2, 1840 

Great earthquake at Zante, where 

■ many persons perished Oct. 30, 1840 



habitants, was swallowed up' Dec. 1773 

EASTER So called in England from the Saxon goddess Eos{re. The festival 

of Easter was instituted about a. d. 68 ; the day for the observance of it 

was fixed in England by St. Austin, in 597. It was ordained by the council 



304 THE world's progress. I ECl, 

of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian 
world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full moon that occurs after 
the 21st of March. 

EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, a. d. 364, and ended in the 
defeat and death of Constantino XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453. 
Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constan- 
tinople ; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by 
assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, 
seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the 
enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house were 
massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the 
conqueror ; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and com- 
menced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tabular Views, 
in this vol. from page 61. See also Turkey. 

ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and 
ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, a. d. 1066. 
The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, 
apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to be- 
nefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery, 
probate of wills, administrations, &c. — Blackstone. 

ECCLESIASTICAL STATE or STATES op the CHURCH. See Rome. In 
A. D. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the French, who erected it 
into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pius VI., to remove 
into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In the 
same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Venice ; and, in 1800, 
cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of 
Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This 
power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of his 
temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ; 
but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq. 

ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogetici, and Philalethes, 
or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they 
chose what they judged good from each: founded by Polemon of Alex- 
andria, about A. D. 1. — Dryden. Also a sect, so called in the Christian 
church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of 
the doctrine of the Christian. 

ECLIPSES. The theory of eclipses was knoAvn to the Chinese at least 120 
B.C. — Gaubil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to 
be the effect of magic ; hence the custom among them of drumming during 
its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 b. c. 
at 8' 40" p. M. according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with 
accuracy at Babylon. — See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary 
eclipses of, the sun and moon : — 

In England, where it occasioned a total 
darkness (T^m. iWatesft.) - -1140 

Again ; the stars visible at ten in the 
morning ( Camden) ■ June 23, 1191 

The true sun, and the appearance of 
another, so that astronomers alone 
could distinguish the difference by 
their glasses (,Co7np. Hist. Eng.) ■ 1191 

Again ; total darkness ensued (idem) - 1331 

A total one ; the darkness so great that 
the stars shone, and the birds went to 
roost at noon ( Oldmixon's Annals of 
Geo. I.) ■ ■ April 25, 1715 



OF THE StJN. 

That predicted by Thales ; observed at 
Sardis (Pliny, lib. a.) - B.C. 585 

One at Athens (Thucydides, lib. iv.) - 424 

Total one ; three days' supplication de- 
creed at Rome (Liiiy) ■ - 188 

One general at the death of Jesus Christ 
(Josephus) - - - A. D. 33 

One at Rome, causing a total darkness 
at noon-day (Livy) ■ - - 291 

One observed at Constantinople - 968 

In France, when it was dark at noon- 
day (Du Fresnoy) ■ June 29, 1033 



EDU J DICTIONARY OF DATES 305 

ECLIPSES, continued. 

Remarkable one, central and annular I Asain, in Asia Minor (Polybius) • 219 

in the interior of Europe - Sept. 7, 1820 One at Rome, predicted by" (i. Sulpitius 

OP THE MOON. Gallus {Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 168 

The first, observed by the Chaldeans at \ One terrified the Roman troops and 

Babylon (PioZfi'TO?/, Zi6. iv.) - e.g. 7211 quelled their revolt (Taczhis) a.d. 14 
A total one, observed at Sardis (,Thu- 
cydides, lib. vii.) - - - 413 | 

The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 
336 B. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of 
the sun, and 832 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander, 
who died 323 b. c. 

EDEN, GARDEN of. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agi- 
tated theologians ; some place it near Damascus^others in Armenia, some 
in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in 
Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon : and a learned Swede asserts 
that it was in Sudermania ! Several authorities concur in placing it in a 
peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below 
the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about 
27° N. lat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf, an event which may 
have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 b. c. The country of Eden 
extended into Armenia. — Cahnct. The Almighty constructed Eden with a 
view to beauty, as well as usefulness ; not only every plant there was good 
for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were jDlanted there. — 
Genesis ii. 8, 9. 

EDGEHILL, Battle of, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and 
the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the" civil war ; 
Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded 
the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642. 

EDICT OF NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of 
France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was re- 
voked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to 
France 800 000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50,000 
industrious artisans. Some tliousands, who brought with them the art of 
manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet 
remain : others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued 
the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they 
excelled ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. — An- 
derson's Orig. of English Commerce. 

EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were 
two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public 
and private works and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c. ; 
they also took cognizance of weights and measures, and regulated the mar- 
kets for provisions ; they examined comedies before they were acted, and 
treated the people with games and shows at their own expense. The duties 
of ediles have suggested similar offices in our own polity, and served in 
many instances as models for our magistracy. — Pardon. 

EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and finest 
cities of the empire. It derives its name— in ancient records. Dun Edin, 
signifying the '' hill of Edin"— from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, 
king of Northumbria, who, having greatly extended his dominions, erected 
it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of 
the Scots and Picts, a. d. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by 
Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 b. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance, 
standing at the Avest end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and before 
the use of great guns, was a fortification of considerable strength. 



306 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[ EGY 



EDUCATION IN U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of In- 
struction organized at Boston. Aug. 19, 1830. Literaiy Convention at New 
York, Oct. 20, 1830. 

EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. A grant of 30,000^. for national education, pro- 
posed in parliament by Lord John Russell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9, 
and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the 
grant, July 11, 1839. 

EGALITE. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the 
infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the 
abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death ol 
Louis XVI. his relative; but this did not save him from a like doom. He 
was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793. 

EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraira, the 
son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 b. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ; 
it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 b. c. In a. d. 639, this country was wrest- 
ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The 
famous Saladin established the dominion of the Mamelukes, in 1171. Selim 
I., emperor of the Turks, took Egj'pt in 1517, and it was governed by Beys 
till 1799, when a great part of the country was conquered by the French, 
under Bonaparte. In 1801, the invaders were dispossessed by the British, 
and the government was restored to the Turks. — See Turkey, for modern 
events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 ct scq. 



Mizraim builds Memphis iBlalr) b. c. 2188 
Egypt made four kingdoms, viz. : Up- 
per Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and 
Memphis (Abbe Lenglet, Blair) - 2126 
Athotes invents hieroglyphics - - 2122 

Busiris builds Thebes (Usher) - 2111 

Osymandyas, the first warlike king, 
passes mto Asia, conquers Bactria, 
and causes his exploits to be repre- 
sented in sculpture and painting 
( Usher, Lenglet) - - - 2100 

The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt 

and hold it 260 years ( Usher) ■ 2080 

The lake of Moeris constructed - 1938 

The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt 

to avoid the famine in Canaan " - 1921 
Syphoas introduces the use of the com- 
mon letters ( Usher) - ■ - 1891 
Memnon invents the Egyptian letters 

(Blair, Lenglet) - - - 1822 

Amenophis I. is acknowledged the 

kingof all Egypt (ie«g-to) - - 1821 

.Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt 

as a slave (Lenglet) - - - 1728 

He interprets the king's dreams - 1715 

His father and brethren settle here - 1706 
Sesostris reigns ; he extends his do- 
minion by conquest over Arabia, 
Persia, Lidia, and Asia Jlinor (I^eng- 

lety 1618 

Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) 1615 
Rampses, who imposed on his sub- 
jects the building of walls and pyra- 
mids, and other labors, dies (Lenglet) 1492 
Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in the 
Red Sea, with all his army (Lenglet, 

Blair) 1492 

Reign of Egyptus, from whom the 



country, hitherto called Mizraim, is 
now called Egypt (Blair) - B. c. ' 

Reign of Thuo^-is (the Proteus of the 
Greeks) who had the faculty of as- 
suming whatever form he pleased, 
as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, 
fire - - - - - ■ 

[These fictions were probably intend- 
ed to mark the profound policy of 
this king, who was eminent for his 
wisdom, by which his dominion 
flourished. — Blair. ] 

Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages 
Judea, and carries off the sacred ves- 
sels of the Temple 

The dynasty of kings called Taniies 
begins with Petubastes (Blair) 

The dynasty of Saites (Blair) 

Sebacbn invades Egypt, subdues the 
king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to 
be roasted aWve (Usher) 

Psarametichus the Powerful reigns - 

He invests Azoth, which holds out for 
19 years, the longest siege in the an- 
nals of antiquity (CTsAe?-) 

Necho begins the famous canal be- 
tween the Arabic gulf and the Medi- 
terranean sea (Blair) 

This canal abandoned, after costmg 
the lives of 120,000 men (Herodotus) 

Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes 

Apries ( Usher) 
Apnes taken prisoner and strangled in 

nis palace (Diod. Siculus) - 
The philosopher Pythagoras comes 
from Samos into Egypt, and is in- 
structed in the mysteries of Egyp- 
tian theology ( Usher) 



825 
781 



737 
660 



581 
571 



535 



* The epoch of the reign of Sesostris is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later. 
As to the achievements of "this monarch, they are supposed to Jiave been the labors of several kings, 
«ttril3uted by th ; Egyptian priests to Sesostris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. 



ELE ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



307 



EGYPT, continued. 

The line of the Pharaohs ends in the 

murder of Psaranienitus by Camby- 

ses (Blair) ■ - B. c. 526 

Dreadful excesses of Cambyses; he 

puts the children of the grandees, 

male and I'emale, to death, and makes 

the country a waste (Herodotus) - 524 
He sends an army of 50,000 men across 

the desert to destroy the temple of 

Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish 

in the burning sands (Justin) - 524 

Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again 

subdued by Xerws (Blair) - - 487 

A revolt under Inarus (Btair) ■ • 463 

Successful revolt under Amyrt»us, 

who is proclaimed king (Lenglet) ■ 414 
Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its 

temples pillaged (C7sA 67-) - - 350 

Alexander the Great enters Egypt, 

wrests it from the Persians, and 

builds Alexandria (Bte/r) - - 332 

Philadelphus completes the Pharos of 

Alexandria (Blair) - - - 283 

The Septuagint version of the Old Tes- 
tament made about this time - 283 
The famous library of Alexandria also 

dates about this period (Blair) ■ 283 
Ambassadors first sent to Rome - 269 reign" - - ' - - ' - 46 

Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria, 

and returns laden with rich spoils, 

and 2500 statues and vessels of gold 

and silver, which Cambyses had 

taken from the Egyptian temples 

(Blair) ■ ' ■ - - 246 Egypt - '- - - - 40 

Reign of Philometer and Physcon - 151 
At the death of Philometer, his brother 

Physcon marries his queen, and on 

the day of his nuptials murders the 

infant son of Philometer in its moth- 
er's arms - - - - 145 ince • - - - " - 30 
He repudiates his wife, and marries 

her daughter by his brother (Blair) 130 

ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to 
have forty shillings a year in land, 39 Henry VL, 1460. — Ruffhead's Statutes. 
Among the recent acts relating to elections are the following : act depriving 
excise and custom-house officers, and contractors with government, of their 
votes. 1782. In the U. S., the qualifications vary in the different states. 

ELECTORS OF GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic 
body made choice of their head ; but amidst the violence and anarchy which 
prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed 
the greatest power assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- 
peror. — Dr. Robcrtso'ii. _^ An eighth elector was made, in 1648; and a ninth 
in favor of the duke "of Hanover, in 1692. The number was reduced to 
eight, in 1777; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. 
The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when 
the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804, 1806. — See Germany. 

ELECTRICITY. That of amber was known to Thales, 600 b. c. Electricity 
was imperfectly discovered a. d. 1467. It was found in various substances 
by Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600 ; he first obtained the knowledge of its 
power, of conductors and non-conductors, in 1606. Ottoguerick found that 
two globes of brimstone contained electric matter, 1647. The electric shock 
was discovered at Leyden, 1745, and hence the operation is termed the 
"Leyden phial." Electric matter was first found to contain caloric, or fire, 
and that it would fire spirits, 1756. The identity of electricity and lightning 



His subjects, wearied with his cruel- 
ties and crimes, demolish his stat- 
ues, set fire to his palace, and he 
flies from their fury (Blair) b. c. 

He murders his son by his new queen ; 
also his son by her mother, sending 
the head and limbs of the latter as a 
present to the parent on a feast day 

Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he 
recovers his throne ; and dies 

Pestilence from the putrefaction of 
vast swarms of locusts ; 800,000 per- 
sons perish in Egypt - 

Revolt in Upper Egypt ; the famous 
city of Thebes destroyed after a siege 
of three years (Diod. Sictdus) 

Aiiletes dying, leaves his kingdom to 
his eldest son, Ptolemy, and the fa- 
mous Cleopatra (Blair) 

During a civil war between Ptolemy 
and Cleojiatra, Alexandria is be- 
sieged by Ceesar, and the famous 
library nearly destroyed by fire 
(Blair) 

Ceesar defeats the king, who, in cross- 
ing the Nile, is drowned ; and the 
younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra 
reign . - - . - 

Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14 
years of age) and reigns alone 

She appears before Mark Antony, to 
answer for this crime. Fascinated 
by her beauty, he follows her into 
Egypt 

Antony defeated by Octavius Caesar 
at the battle of Actium (Blair) 

Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and 
Cleopatra kill themselves ; and the 
kingdom becomes a Roman prov- 
ince ..... 



308 THE WOULd's progress. [ EM« 

was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the Au« 
rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1769. 

ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Gal- 
vani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries 
of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius), 
and discovered the mode of combining the metals; constructed what is 
very properly called the Voltaic pile; and extended the whole science into a 
system which should rather be called Voltaism than Galvanism. 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism were 
discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, in 1807. This analogy was established 
in 1819, and was contirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France, 
Germany, the United States and other countries 

EI.ECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, having more or less 
bearing upon its ])ractical use in telegraphic communication, were made by 
Wincklcr, at L('ipsie,17-1(); La Monnier, in Paris ; Watson, in London, 1747; 
Loraiiu! ill 1784: Bt'taucour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery of 
•■Galvanism,'' at Bo.miga 17'--ll. Prof. Volta's " Voltaic Battery," at Pavia, 
1801; S.)eniiuerriiig, at Hiuiich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism in 
telegraphs, as propliL'.sied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Great 
advance made by Prof. Ocr.'sted at Copenliagen, in 1819. The electro-mag- 
netic agency lirst fully develojjed and applied by Prof Morse, 1832, patented 
1840. The first t'jlcg-i-apli by this agencj' in the United SLutes, was between 
Washington and Baliimure, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in En- 
gland, 1840. Bains patent in England, first, 1842; applied in United States 
in 1849. Houses in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in 
Jan. 1850 extended 6,079 miles. — See Supplement. 

ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The his- 
tory of the Maccabees informs us, that " to every elephant they appointed 
1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse ; and rrpon the elephants 
were strong towers of wood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus 
were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulber- 
ries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of 
enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry lU., in 1238. — 
Baker s Chron. 

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed 
by the Athenians and other nations : these mysteries were the most celebra- 
ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted by Eumol- 
pus, 1356 B. c. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one 
revealed them, it was sujjposed that he had called divine vengeance upon 
him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis 
into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theo- 
dosius the Great, a. d. 389. 

ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works of ancient art were derived 
chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens, 
of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi- 
dias about 500 B. c. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during 
his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; they were purchased of him by 
the British government for 36,O0OZ., and placed in the British Museum, in 
1816. 
EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls; after many 
thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter 
were preseiwed entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead. 
The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and 
wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptible, 



EMP ] DICTIONARY -OF DATES. 309 

but it retained its full proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal 
likeness. They called the embalmed bodies mmmnies, some of which, buried 
3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. The art of such embalming is now 
lost. When Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last 
duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh 
and aloes to embalm his body. — John xix. 38. 

EMBARGO IN ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it is 
rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to 
war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the preven- 
tion of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the detention of all 
Russian. Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, 
owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. 

EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all essels in the ports 
of the United States, passed by Congress with reference lo the quarrel with 
Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Re- 
pealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 
days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. 

EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to 
implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and 
fasting. Ember Days, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which 
penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four 
times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer 
to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. 

EMBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians ; but we 
learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particu- 
larly excelled in this decorative species of needle-work. Of this art very 
early mention is made in the Scriptures. — Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. 
An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapes- 
try, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of England. See Bayeux 
Tapestry. 

EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in 
Peru; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no 
true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is a gen- 
uine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II., 
who died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545 ; hence it is inferred 
that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East. 

EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considera- 
ble. In the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American 
colonies, West Indies, Capo of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River, 
Van Dieraen's Land, &c. were, according to official returns, 154,291. In the 
decennial period to 1840, the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively 
of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The num- 
ber of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Se^jt. 30, 1848, were 
registered as born in 



Great Britain and Ireland 


- 148,212 


Denmark 


- 210 


Germany 


- 58,018 


Switzerland - 


- - 3i<5 


France 


- - 7,748 


Other countries or unknown - 


- 3,043 


Sweden and Norway 


903 







EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliplis. 
This rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet by hisrlaugliter 
Fatima. about i.d. 650. — Ricaut. To the emirs only was originally giv<;n 
the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers 
(another title being joined). 

EMPALEMENT. This barbarous and dreadful mode of putting criiiiiutils Lo 



310 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ENG 

death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, particularly 
by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through 
the body on a stake fixed upright ; and this punishment is still used in 
Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked 
in this manner, previously to being buried, in England. — Southern. Wil- 
liams (who committed suicide) the murderer of the Marr family, in Rat- 
clitfe Highway, London, Dec. 8, 1811, was staked in his ignominious grave. 
This practice has since been abolished there. See Burying Alive. 

EMPEROR. Originally a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious ge- 
nerals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustus 
C83sar was the first Roman emperor, 27 b. c. Valens was the first emperor 
of the Eastern empire, a. d. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of 
Germany, crowned by Leo III. a. d. 800. Ottoman I., founder of the Turk- 
ish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia 
was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal 
was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825. 

EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hy- 
pothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was 
useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of 
the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of 
Agrigentum, about 473 b. c. 

ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was 
practised by the Egyptians and other early nations ; and was known in 
England in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel 
which belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was 
made by his order, in his reign, about a. d. 887. 

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art, 
after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, 
a. d. 1749. 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA. The first work to which this designation was expressly 
given, was that of Abulfarius, an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century. 
Many were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabet- 
ically. Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences, 
in England, first published in 1728. The gi-eat French work, Encyclopedie 
Methodique, to which Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert, and other savans contri- 
buted, Avas published in l~9!2ctseq., in 200 quarto volumes. The British En- 
cyclopedia, printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thomas Dobson, was the 
fii'st in the United States. The Edinburgh Encyclopedia, edited by Sir David 
Brewster, was published, 1810 et seq., and republished in the United States. 
Rees' Cyclopedia republished in the United States in 1822. The cost of 
the 7th edition of Encychipcdia Brilannica. edited by Professor Napier, and 
published by A. &C. Black Edinburgh in 1840 etc., was stated to have been 
£126,000. of which i;23 000 were paid to the contributors. This was jDro- 
bably the most costly inidevtaking of the kind ever achieved by private enter- 
prise. The Encyclopedia Mctropolitcona was commenced in 1815 and finished 
in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished 
writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Lexicon, published 
1796-1830, and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedia Americana was com- 
menced in Philadeli^hia in 1829-30, Penny Cycl. (Knight's) finished 1844. 

ENGINEERS. This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called 
Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622. 
The chief engineer was called camp- master-general in 1634. Captain 
Thomas Ruddliad the rank of chief engineer to the king, about 1650. The 
corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military 
force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a 



ENG J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 31 1 

colonel-in-cliief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty 
colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The 
Bureau of Topographical Engineers of th& U. S. Army, established at 
Washington. 

ENGLAND. See Britain.. So named by order of Egbert, first king of Eng- 
land, in a general council held at Winchester, a. d. 829. This appellative 
had been used as far back as a. d. 688, biit had never been, until then, rati- 
fied by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons, 
and land, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession of 
Sovereigns, see Tabular Views, beginning on p. 75 in this volume. England 
and Wales were united a. d. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707, 
and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated 
with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and 
the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 

ENGLAND, NEW. See New England'. 

RNGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Languages. From the High Dutch or 
Teutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of the 
most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in En- 
glish by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had 
been continued from the time of the Conqueror, a. d. 1362. The English 
tongue and English apparel were oi'dered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henrj' 
VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to beused in all lawsuits, and the 
Latin disused. May 1731. 

ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest an- 
tiquity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal 
rings, and there still exist many antiqiie engravings equal to later produc- 
tions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of mo- 
dern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century. 
Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The 
art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United 
States during the last ten years. 

ENGRAVING on COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their 
appearance about a. d. 1450. and were first produced in Germany. Masso, 
surnamed Fiuiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way, 1450. The 
earliest date known of a cojiper- plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses 
for working the plates were invented in 1545, and many improvements of it 
followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of aquafortis, Fj-ancis 
Mazzouli, or Parmagiano, is the reputed inventor, about a. d. 1532. — 
De Piles. 

ENGRAVING, LrrHOORAPHic. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois 
Sennefelder may be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced 
on the Continent in 1798. and became more known as polj'autography in 
1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackermann of 
London in 1817. 

ENGRAVING, Mezzotinto. The art was discovered by Siegen, and was im- 
proved by prince Rupert in 1648; Sir Christopher Wren further Improved 
it in 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful efi:ect is produced 
was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non. about 1662 ; he com- 
municated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished 
for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Chiaro-oscnro en- 
graving originated with the Germans, and was first practised by Mair. one 
of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zincography, if-c. 

ENGRAVING on STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, Avhich, aftei 
it has been hardened will multiply copper plates and fine impressions, in- 



312 THE world's progress, [ EPl 

definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of 
Philadelphia, in 1819. 
ENGRAVING on WOOD, took its rise from the brief mahlers, or manufacturers 
of playing-cards, about a. d. 1400 ; and from this sprung the invention of 
printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See 
Printing. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to 
Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Durer and Lucas Van Leyden 
in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother, 
and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., 1789. et. seq. The earliest wood en- 
graving which has reached our times is one representing St. Christophei/ 
carrying the infant Jesus over the sea ; it bears date a. d. 1423. 

ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as rank- 
ing as a science until the ai-rangement of Linnaeus, a. d. 1739. The London 
Entomological Society was instituted in 1806 ; it is directed chiefly to the 
study of insects found in Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods 
of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful. 

ENVOYS. They enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. 
Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date. — Wicquefoi-t. The court of 
France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the 
royal carriages, a. d. 1639. 

EPHESTJS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure wa? 
one of the seven wonders Of the world ; it was 425 feet long and 200 broad, 
and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings 
contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely to 
perpetuate his memory. 356 b. c. — Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was 
richer and more splendid than before ; but it was again burnt a. d. 260. — 
Univ. Hist. 

EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to con- 
trol the roj'al power, 760 b. c. They were five in number, and acting as 
censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the 
kings, and even imprison them. If they were guilty of irregularities. 

EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See 
Homer. 

EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the. 
founder of it, about 300 b. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a 
happiness, springing not from sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures, but 
from virtue, and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul with 
itself His disciples had all things in common ; and the pleasantness of his 
system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers. 

EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the 
ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin 
epigrammatist, who flourished about a. d. 83, is allowed to have excelled all 
others, ancient or modern, in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The follow- 
ing Latin epigram on the miracle of our Saviour in turning water into wine 
at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example: — 

" Videt et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." 
And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Di*. 
Doddridge, on the words Dum vtvimus vivamus, is the finest specimen in 
our language : — 

" Live while we live !" the epicure will say, 

" And tasle the pleasures of the prejent day." 

" Live while we live !" the hoary preacher cries, 

" And give to God each moment as it flies." 
Lord ! in my view let both united be, 
We live in pleasure when we live to thee. — Dndihidse. 



era] dictionary of dates. 313 

EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhus. Its early 
history is very obscure, and it is only during the reign of this sovereign, 
who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neopto- 
lemus) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 b. c. He was killed in 
the temple of Delphi, about 1165 e. c. ■ 

Reign of the great Pyrrhus - u. c. 306 
He enters into a league against Deme- 
trius : the battle of Berasa - - 294 



Expedition into Italy ; he gains his first 

battle against the Romans - - 280 

He gains another great battle - - 279 

His conquest of Sicily - - - 278 

His last battle with the Romans - 274 

He takes Macedon from Antigonus - 274 



Expedition against Sparta - b. c. 272 
He enters Argos, and is killed by a tile, 
thrown at him from a house-top by a 

woman .... 272 

Philip unites Epirus to Macedon - 220 

Its conquest by the Romans - - 167 

Annexed to the Ottoman empire a. d. 1466 



EPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It 
may be said to have been instituted a. d. 33, when Peter sat in the bishop's 
chair at Rome. — Butler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second 
century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and in Scotland in the fourth cen- 
tury ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bishops. 
In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abolished at the period of the revolution, 
1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 500. — 
Burnet. 
EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States. Episcopacy established in New- 
York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of 
the Protestant Episcoi5al Church in America were bishop White of Penn- 
sylvania and Provost of New- York, consecrated in London, 1787. First 
Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and 
Ohio consecrated at New- York, Nov. 2, 1832. 
EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Ro- 
mans, and most of the nations of antiquity ; their date is referred in Eng- 
land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the 
epigram. — Boileau. 
EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial 
complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesicho- 
rus from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 536 b. c. — 
_Bossuet. 
EPOCHAS. These are periods in history which are agreed upon and acknow- 
ledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to 
regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particu- 
larly adopted. — See Eras. 

Creation - - - • b. c. 4004 

Deluge 2348 

Calling of Abraham - . - 1921 

Argonautic ejcpedition - • - 1225 

Destruction of Troy - - -1184 

Isl Olympiad - - - - 776 

EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places 
and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, a. d. 130. When 
the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle, 
the daj'^ and night are equal all over the globe : this occurs twice in the year ; 
once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox ; next in 
the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox. — Blair. 

EQUITY, COURTS of. To determine causes according to the rule of equity 
and conscience, rather than according to strict law, a. d. 1067.— See ChaTi- 
cerij. 

ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order; 
a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser, after which 

14 



Building of Rome - 


- B. c. 753 


Nabonassar 


- 747 


The Seleucidae 


- - 312 


The battle of Actium 


- 38 


The Christian era - 


A.D. 1 


Diocletian 


- 284 



314 THE wokld's progress. [ emb 

the astronomical obsen-ations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb. 
26, 747. The era of the Seleucidse (used by the Maccabees) commenced 
312 B. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from the year 
776 B. c. ; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning 
A. D. 313 : these, among chronologers, are still used. — See Indictions. The Ro- 
mans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 b. c. ; and afterwards 
from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted 
among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The disci- 
ples of Mahomet began their Hegira from the flight of their prophet from 
Mecca, which occurred a. d. 622. 

KRAS OP THE CREATION and REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christians 
have had divers epochas ; but in historical computation of time are chiefly 
used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the 
World, and the appearance of our Redeemer, which last the Christians have 
made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century, 
when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot 
of a monastery near Rome : he was the first who computed time from the 
birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era. — 
Cassiodorus Chron. This computation began in Italy, a. d. 525, and in Eng- 
land in 816. It is the only one now in general iise, and is that observed in 
this work. — See Creation, and Christian Era. 

ES(;!URIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one. of the largest and most 
magnificent in the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562 ; 
and the fii-st expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms 
a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some 
notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, according 
to the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than 
four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way 
being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is above 120 English 
miles. Alvarez de Colmenar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and 
11,000 windows belonging to this edifice. 

ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to, 
or attendants on, a knight. — Bloiuiit. In England the king created esquires 
by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a 
pair of silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the 
armigcruvi, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire 
was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, a.d. 1345. 
— Stowe. MeyricWs Ancknt Armor. 

ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first dis- 
covered by Kunkel, in 1681 ; and muriatic ether was first made from the 
chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by 
count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by 
Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said 
to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by 
Br. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however, is disputed, for 
about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist 
and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery ; but to Dr. Morton, of 
Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experi- 
ment, the use of etlier in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of pain. 
It was used in siirgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren, Channing. 
and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their experi- 
ments. The practice was first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, of Edin- 
burgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is 
inhaled from an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first 
used in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The substance 



eve] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 3 IS 



called chloroform, originally discovered by Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first 
employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh. 

ETHICS. The doctrine and system of morality ; a science which is scarcely 
more inculcated by religion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and 
government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with 
astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in 
the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand years 
before that event ; and hence they must have lived at that time under not 
only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments. 

K I'NA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops ; and it is called 
by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus 
Siculus as happening 1693 b. c, and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions 
as occurring, 734, 477, and 425 b. c. There were e-uptions, 125, 121, and 43 
B. 0. — Livy. Eruptions a. d. 40, 253, and 420. — Carrera. One in 1012. — 
Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15,00C 
■ inhabitants perished in the burning ruins, 1169. Eruptions eaually awful 
and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1586, 1587, 1564, and in 1669; when tens 
of thousands of persons perished in the streams oif lava which rolled over 
the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and 
in May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava 
reached even to Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte 
destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832. 

EUCLID, Elements of. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished 
there about 300 b. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invalu- 
able truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented 
by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others ; but Euclid was the first who 
reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theo- 
rems of his own. to render the whole a complete and connected system of 
geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynseus, 
in A. D. 1533. 

EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian 
and Assyrian nations; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in 
courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eimuchs in her cham- 
ber, was Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babjdon, about 2007 b. c. — Leng- 
let. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on 
the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey. 

EUSTATIA, ST. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632 : it was taken 
by the French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; and again by the British 
forces, under admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It 
was recovered by ths French under the marquis de Bouill^, Nov. 26, same 
year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but re- 
stored in 1814. 

EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in a. d. 44 ; Luke in 
55 ; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil 
at Rome, whence, being taken out imhurt, he was banished to the Isle of 
Patmos, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100. 
— Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of 
the adopted Evangelists. 

EVESHAM, Battle of, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., and 
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in \vhich the barons were defeated, 
and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one 
period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who 
did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, '• Do not 



316 THE world's progress. [exe 

kill me, soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This victory broke 
up the treasonable conspiracy of the barons ; fought August 4, 1265. 

EXCHANGE. One called Collegium Mercatorum, existed at Rome, 493 b. c. 
The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind 
in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are mag- 
nificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham, 
June 7, 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in 
Jan. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838 : rebuilt and v pened in 1844. 

EXCHANGE (Merchants') in NEW YORK. The present building, on the site 
of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1836, was commenced in 1836, and 
finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost Sl,800,000. That of Boston, 
also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. 

EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting i.(f officers whose 
functions are financial or judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the 
first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the 
barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Fauconbridge, bishop of Lon- 
don, in the reign of Hemy III., about 1221. The exchequer stopped pay- 
ment from Jan. to May the 24th, Charles II. IQIS.—Stowe. The English 
and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. 

EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long Parlia- 
ment ; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organized 
as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an 
office opened in 1643, and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions 
to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was 
built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and 
customs were deprived of their votes for members of parliament in 1782. 
See jReveniie. 

AMOUNT OF THE EXCISE REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 

1744 Great Britain - - £3,754,072 I 1830 United Kingdom . - £18,644,385 

1786 Ditto - - - 5,.540.114 1834 Ditto - - 16,877,292 

1808 Ditto - - - 19,867,914 1837 Ditto - - - 14,518,142 

1820 Ditto - - - 26,364,702 1840 Ditto - - - 12,607,766 

1827 United Kingdom - - 20,995,324 | 1845 Ditto - - - 13,585,583 

EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Chris- 
tian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the jjurity of 
the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an en- 
gine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to 
be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by the 
Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Christian 
churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar 
punishments in aid of their respective religions. — Phillips. 

EXCOMMUNICATION by the POPES. The Catholic church excommuni- 
cates by bell, book, and candle. — See Bell, Book, and Candle. The popes 
have carried their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose 
sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant 
power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germanj', in 1077, ab- 
solving his subjects from their allegiance ; and on the emperor's death, 
"his excommunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to 
bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II. 's reign ; 
and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208, when all 
England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin were 
excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to 
queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary indul- 
gences were offered to all who should assist in deposing her. 

EXECUTIONS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. (thirty-eight years) 



EXP J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



317 



In tlie year 1841 - 1 
In the year 1842 • 2 
In the year 1843 - 1 



it is shown that no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed.-— 
Stowe. In the ten j^ears between 1820 and 1830, there were executed in Eng- 
land alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the number 
of executions proportionally decreased. In the three years ending 1820, 
the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three years 
ending 1830, they were reduced to 178 ; and in the three years ending 1840, 
they had decreased to 62. — Pari. Returns. 

EXECUTIONS IN LOKDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 

In the year 1820 - 43 I In the year 18.35 - nil I In the year 1838 - nil I 
In the year 1825 - 17 In the year ia36 - nil In the year 1839 - 2 
In the^ear 1830 - 6 | In the year 1837 - 2 | In the year 1840 - 1 | 

EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of 
war ; Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief^ Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, 
smaller, vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, 
Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. At- 
tack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The 
Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes 
(flag-ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, 
June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. Imp. 
8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the ex- 
pedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. 

EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS op the United States from 1791. 

Exports. 
69,691.669 
64,974;382 
72,160,281 
74,699,030 
75,986,657 
99,535,388 
77,595,322 
82,324,827 
72,264,686 
72,358,671 
73,849,508 
81,310,583 
87,176,943 
90,140,433 
104,336,973 
121,693,577 
128,663,040 
117,419,376 
113,717,404 
162,092,132 
104,805,891 
121,851,803 
104,691,534 
84,346,480' 
lll,200,046t 
114,646,606t 
113,488,516t 
158,648,622t 
154,032,131t 

fc of trade, 
turned the scale so much in favor of English merchandise, that by a balance 
of trade taken in his time, the exported commodities amounted to 294,000^., 
and the imported to only 38,000Z. 

VALUE OP EXPOETS PROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OP THE WORLD, VIZ : — 

. . — _ ._.- _ .... .£102,180,517 

- 100,260,101 

- 117,877,278 

- 131,564,503 

- 134,509,116 



Years. 


Imports. 


Exports. 


Years. 


Imports. 




1791 


■ S-52,200,000 


$19,012,041 


1820 


74,450.000 




1792 


31,500,000 - 


20,753,098 


1821 


- 62,585,724 




1793 


- 31,100,000 


- 26,109,572 


1822- 


83,241,541 




1794 


34,600,000 . 


33,026.233 


1823 


- 77,579,267 




1795. 


- 69.756,268 


- 47,989,472 


1824 


80,549,007 




1796 


81,436,164 - 


67,064,097 


1825 


- 96,340,075 




1797 


- 75,379,406 


- 56,850,206 


1826 


84,974,477 




1798 


68,551,700 - 


61,527,097 


1827 


- 79,484,068 




1799 


- 79,')68,148 


- 78,665,522 


1828 


88,509,824 




1800 


91,252,768 - 


70,971,780 


1829 


- 74,492,527 




1801 


- 111,363,511 


- 94,115,925 


1830 


70,876,920 




1802 


76,333,333 - 


72,483,160 


1831 


- 103,191,134 




1803 


- 64,666»666 


. 55,800,033 


1832 


• 101,025,266 




1804 


85,000,000 . 


77,699,074 


1833 


- 108.118,311 




1805- 


- 120,000,000 


- 95,566,021 


1834 


12&;521,332 




1806 


129,000,000 - 


101,536,963 


1835 


- 149,895,742 




1807 


- 138,500,000 


- 108,343,150 


1836 


189,980,035 




1808 


56,990,000 - 


22,439,960 


1837 


- 140,989,217 




1809 


- 59,400,000 


- 52,203,231 


1838 


108,486,616 




1810 


85,400,000 - 


66,757,974 


1839 


- 121,028,416 




1811 


- 53,400,000 


- 61,316,831 


1840 


131,571,950 




1812 


77,030,000 - 


38,527,236 


1841 


- 127,946,177 




1813 


- 22,005,000 


- 27,855,997 


1842 


100,162,087 




1814 


12,965,000 - 


6,927,441 


1843 


- 64,753,799* 




1815 


- 113,041,274 


- 52,557,753 


1844 


108,435,0351 




1816 


147,103,000 ■ 


81,920,452 


1845 


- 117,254,564t 




1817 


- 99,250,000 


- 87,671,569 


1846 


121,691,797t 




1818 


121,750,000 - 


93,281,133 


1847 


- 146.545,638t 




1819 


- 87,125,000 


- 70,142,521 


1848 


154,977,876t 




EXPORTS, 


Great Britain. 


Edward III 


, by b 


is encouragen. 


enf 



In 1700 - 


- £6,097,120 


In 1820 - 


-£51,733,113 


In 1842 


In 1750 


- 10,130,991 


In 1830 


- - 66,735,445 


In 1843 


In 1775 - 


- 16,326,363 


In 1835 - 


- 78,376,732 


In l&M 


In 1800 


- 38,120,120 


In 1840 


- - 97,402.726 


In 1845 


In 1810 - 


- 45,869.839 


In 1841 - 


- 102,705,372 


In 1846 



Only nine months of 1843. 



t For the year ending June 30. 



318 THE world's progress. [fal 

The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom 
of British and Irish produce onlj'. The total exports, including foreign and 
colonial produce, were, according to official returns, as follows : 

In 1841 - -i; 116,479,678 I In 1843 - -£113,844,259 I In 1845 - -£145,961,749 
In 1842 - - 116,903,668 | In 1844 - - 131,833,391 | In 1846 - - 150,879,986 

In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the 
United Kingdom was 85,281,958^; and the balance of trade in favor of Eng- 
land, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65,598,028Z. But even this 
great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year 
immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions. — 
Brit. Revenue Returns. 
EYLAU, Battle of, between the French and Russians, one of the most 
bloody of Napoleon's wars : it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who com- 
manded in person ; but both armies by this and other recent battles were 
so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians 
on the Pregel : the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss 
in slain alone was 20,000. Feb. 8, 1807. 



FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from 
faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse : the}' 
were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and 
were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war against 
the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in 
which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain, b. c. 477. There 
only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from 
him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. 

FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beautiful 
as any made since." — Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. 
xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collectionof fables extant is of east- 
ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, 
called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world. 
— Sir WiUiam Jones. The well-known ^Esop's fables (which see), were 
AVi'itten about 540 years b. c. — Plutarch. 

FACTIONS. Among the Romans, factions were parties that fought on cha- 
riots in the cirque, and who were distinguished by their different colors, 
a green, blue, red, and white, to which Domitian added two others, one in 
coats embroidered with gold, a second wearing scarlet, about a. d. 90, Both 
the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some parti- 
cular color than the rest ; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's reign, 
between the blue and green, when 40,000 were killed on both sides, the 
name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect in 
religious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense. 

FAIRS AND WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in 
England by Alfred, a. d. 886. — Spelman. They were established by order of 
Gregory VII. in 1708, and termed Fericc, at which the monks celebrated the 
festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of people occasioned a great de- 
mand for goods, wares, &c. They were called wakes from the people making 
merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs were established in France and Eng- 
land by Charlemagne and William the Conqueror, about a. d. 800 in the 
first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise. and 
Leipsic, are the most famous iu Europe. 
FALKIRK, Battle op, between the English under Edward I. a.nd the Scuts, 
commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40,000 of the latter were slain ; 



PEU'j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 319 

the whole Scotch army was broken up, and was chased off the field with 
dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298. 
FAMINES, AND SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famine of 
the seven years in Egypt began 1708 b. c. — Uslier ; Blair. In a famine that 
raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber, 
436 B. c. Livy. 

Awful famine in Egypt - a. D. 42 

At Rome, attended by plague - - 262 

In Britain, so grievous that people ate 
the bark of trees - - - 272 

In Scotland, and thousands die - - 306 

In England, where 40,000 perish - 310 

Awful one in Phrygia - - - 370 

So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate 
their children {Dufresnoy) • • 450 

In England, Wales, and Scotland - 739 

Again, when thousands starve • - 823 

4gain, which lasts four year's - - 954 



Youred the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, 
and vermin - - - a.d. 13)5 

One in England and France (Rapm) ■ 1353 
Agam, one so great, that bread was 

made from fern roots (Stowe) - 1438 

Awful one in France ( Voltaire) - 16'.i:! 

One general in Great Britain - - 1743 
One which devastates Bcagal - - 1771 

At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 per- 
sons perish .... 1775 
One grievously felt in France - - 17S9 
One severely felt in England • - 1795 



Awful one throughout Europe - - 1016 ; Again, throughout the kingdom - - 1801 

In England and France ; this famine At Drontheim, owing to Sweden jiler- 

leads to a pestilential fever, which cepting the supplies - - - 1813 

lasts from 1193 to - - - 1195 Scarcity of food, severely felt by the 

Another famine in England - - 1251 Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6 

Again, so dreadful, that the people de- I 

FAN, The use of the fan was known to the ancients: Cape hoc flabellum d 
ventulum hide sicfacito. — Terence. The modern custom among the ladies 
was borrowed from the East. Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false 
hair, ^vere first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England 
from France. — Stowe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in 
church. — Pardon. 

FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows 
which were exhibited bj^ charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. 
These were introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined 
form ; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called 
comedies. See article Drama. 

FASTING, AND FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations 
from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other 
stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church, 
to appease the anger of God, in the second century, a. d. 138. Retained as 
a pious practice by the reformed churches. — Eusebius. 

FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by 
Moses in the wilderness, 1490 b. c, but was celebrated with the greatest 
magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solo- 
mon, 1005 B. c — Josephus. In the Christian church, those of Christmas, 
Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be 
observed by all Christians, a. d. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469. 
Jubilees in the Romish church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. 
See Jubilees. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as set- 
tled at the Reformation, el seq., see Book of Common Prayer. 

FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa. a feasi; 
which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when 
sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to the shades of the 
dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, which had pre- 
viously but ten months, by Numa, 713 b. c. See Calendar, and Year. 

FERRARA. A citv in the papal dominions, evacuated by the Austrians, ex- 
cept the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847. 

FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner 
of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons, about a. d. 600, The 



320 Tits M^OKLd'S PKOGRESb. [ FIR 

slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 1068. This was 
done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain 
persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, and a stated num- 
ber of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XI. 
in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abol- 
ished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into 
Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008 ; and was finally abolished in that kingdom 
20 George II. 1746. — LUtleton ; Ruffkead ; Bloxkstone. 

FEUILLANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues 
and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where 
their meetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobins 
invested the building, burst into theu- hall, and obliged them to separate, 
Dec. 25, 1791. 

FEZ. The ancient Mauritania, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farmer, about 
A. D. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western IMv rocco 
States. Leo Africanus describes the Mauritani as containing more than 
seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth 
century. 

FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means 
of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became 
checks to each other. — Hume. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield, 
in the court of King's Bench, emphatically Tittered, that " no fiction op law 

SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OP THE FACT, AS TO 

PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 21, 1784. This constitutional 
maxim is now a rule of law. 

FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Cbildebert 
I., A. D. 511. They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards. Into Spain, 
before the invasion of the Moors, a. d. 710. Into England by the Saxons 
(see PeiodalLaios). Into Scotland, directly from England, by Malcolm II., 1008. 

FIELD OP THE CLOTH op GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet 
Francis I. of France, at Ardres, a small to^vn near Calais in France, May 31, 
1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with 
such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview 
(an open plain) the name of The Field of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the 
king's attendants involved themselves in great debts on this occasion, and 
were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vain 
splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of the 
interview, are at Windsor Castle. — Butler. 

FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of 
"" Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at 
hand, when Jesus should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal 
monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect Jesus Christ king at London ! 
Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. 
FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of 
computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about a. d. 900. 
They were first known in England about the year 1253, previously to which 
time the numbering by letters was in use there. See Arithmetic. 

FIRE. It is said to haye been first produced by striking flints together. The 
poets suppose that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster, 
king of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshippers of 
Fire, since known by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the coun- 
tries of the East, 2115 e. c— Justin ; Pli7iy. Heraclitus maintained that the 
world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and 



FIR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 3^1 

taught this theory about 506 b. c. — No^w. Diet. In the Scriptures God is 
said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire — as to Moses in the 
burning bush, on mount Sinai ; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St. 
John. The wrath of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels, 
as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bible. 

FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, a. d. 1378; they were 
brought to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ire- 
land in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the 
earl of Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at 
the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who 
armed the foot soldier with these weapons. — Ulloa. Voltaire states, that the 
Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the 
Genoese, in 1377 ; but our historians affirm, that the English had guns at the 
battle of Cressy, in 1346 ; and the year following at the siege of Calais. See 
Artillery. 

FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although ftae forcing 
pump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The 
fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about 
the year 1663; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the 
present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November 
1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833. 

FIRE-SHIPS. They wei-e first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most 
formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to 
destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585.. The first use of 
them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, after- 
wards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement 
with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — Rapin. 

FIRE-WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages : 
they Avere invented in Europe at Florence, about a. d. 1360 ; and were first 
exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, 
' in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Loiiis XVI., the pas- 
sages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with 
.a panic, trampled upon one another till they lay in heaps ; a scaffold erected 
over the river also broke down, and hundreds were drowned ; more than 
1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21, 1770. Madame Blanchard 
ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by 
fire- works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and 
dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon. 

FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America. 

In New York, destroying 600 wareliou- i New York, destroying 302 stores and 



ses and f roperty to amount of S20, 
000,000 ■ - - Dec. Iti, 1835 

At Washington, destroying the General 
Post OOice and Parent OfBce, with 
10,000 valuable models, drawings, 
&c. - - - Dec. 15, 1836 

At Charleston, S. C. ; 145 acres and 
1,158 buildings destroyed - April 27, 1S38 

New York ; 46 buildings ; loss. $10,- 
(J00,000 - - - • Sept, 6, 1839 

Philadelphia ; 52 buildings ; loss, 
!8i5O0,OO0 - - - Oct. 4, 1839 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and 
property valued about .$6,000,000 

■ April 10, 1845 

Quebec, Canada; 1,500 houses burnt, 
immen.se loss of property, and se- 
veral lives. May 2S, 1845. Another, 
burning 1,300 dwellings ; in all, two 



dwelling-liouses, and property worth 
$6,000,000—4 lives lost - .July 19, 1845 

St. .John's, Newfoundland ; nearly the 
whole town destroyed — 6,000 people 
made houseless - - .June 12, 1846 

Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persons 
burned to death - - June 14, 1846 

Nantucket ; 300 buildings, valued 
$800,000 - - - July 13, 1846 

Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded, 
18 persons killed - April 14, 1847 

At Albany ; 600 buildings, besides 
steamboats &c., 24 acres burned over, 
loss, $3,000,000 - Aug. 17, 1849 

At Brooklyn, N. Y., 200 houses, value, 
$750,000 - - - Sept. 9, 1848 

At St. Louis; 23 steamboats and 15 
blocks of houses destroyed, loss about 
$3,000,000 - - May 17, 1849 

thirds of the city - June 28, 1845 ' At Philadelphia, 300 houses July 9, 1850 

14* 



322 THE world's progress. [ FLa 

FIRE OF LONDON, the GREAT. Destroyed in the space of four clays eighty- 
nine churches, including St. Paul's ; the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the 
Custom House, Guildhall, Sion College, and many other public buildings, 
besides 13,200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened 
(not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2, 1666, and continued three 
days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up of 
houses. — Hume; Rapin; Carte. 

FIRST FRUITS. Primitia among the Hebrews. They were offerings wliich 
made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruits 
were instituted by pope Clement V., in a. d. 1306; and were collected in 
England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in Eng- 
land was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VIII., 1535, when the 
first fruits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his succes- 
sors. — Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of 
the poor clergy, by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the offices of 
First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute 1 Vict., April 
1838. 

FLAGELLANTS, Sect op. They established themselves at Peroxise, a. d. 
1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagel- 
lation, and publicty lashed themselves, while in procession, preceded by the 
cross, until tlie blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrad 
Schmidt, was burnt, 1414. 

FLANDERS. The country of the ancient Belgse ; conquered by Julius Cjesar, 
47 B. c. It passed into the hands of France, a. d. 412. It was governed by 
its carls subject to that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the 
house of Austria by marriage ; but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders 
shook off the Spanish yoke in 1572; and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it 
was annexed to the German empire. — Priestley. Flanders was overrim by 
the French in 1792 and 1794, and was declared part of their Republic. It 
was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erected 
into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831. — See Belgium. 

FLAX. The flax seed was first planted in England in a. d. 1533. For many 
ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. 
A mallet was next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the 
flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750. 
See article Hemp. 

FLODDEN FIELD, Battle of, between the English and Scots. James IV. of 
Scotland, having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VIII. 
of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfortunate policy ; 
and James, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of 10,000 of his army 
were slain, while the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry, 
lost only persons of small note. Henry VIII. was at the time besieging 
Terouenne, near St. Omer ; fought Sept, 9, 1513. 

FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla, and en- 
larged by the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was re- 
built by Charlemagne. This citj^ is truly the seat of the arts. In its pal- 
aces, university, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be found the 
rarest works of sculpture and painting in the Avorld. The Florentine acad- 
emy, and the Accademia delta Crusca, were instituted to enrich the literature 
and improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter is so named because it 
rejects like bran all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by the 
French in July 1796, and again in March, 1799 ; and was restored in 1814. 

FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian Cabot 
sailing under the English flag, in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven- 



FI^O ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



523 



tiirer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 1516. In 1539, 
Hernando de Soto, who had been an officer under Pizarro, overran the penin- 
sula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut off a few years 
after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange for 
Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United 
States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the 
Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued them. Another 
protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until 
1842. General Jessup, general Taylor, and others, were engaged in it. The 
Seminole chief, Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1880, 34,723 ; 
in 1840, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves. 

FLORIN. A coin first made bj'' the Florentines. A floren was issued by Ed- 
ward III, which was current in England at the value of 6s., in 1337. — Cam- 
den. This English coin Avas called floren after the Florentine coin, because 
the latter was of the best gold. — Ashe. The florin cf Gemaany is in value 
2s. 4:d. ; that of Spain 4s. 4J^. ; that of Palermo and Sicily 2s. 6^. ; that of 
Holland 2s.—Ayliffe. 

FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our 
gardens are of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers canle, it is 
said, from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for 
the first time in the sixteenth century ; at least many of the productions of 
our gardens were conveyed by that channel. — Beckmann. With what good- 
ness does God provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even 
the most remote countries contribute towards them ! — Sturm. From the 
reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were, 
for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers 
in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects 
of frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented 
in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers, the periods of 
whose introduction to English garden.^ have been traced, Haydn gives the 
following : — 



FLOWERS, PLANTS, <S:C. 

Acacia, N. America, before - a. d 
Allspice shrub, Carolina - 
Anniseed tree, Florida, about 
Arbor Vits, Canada, before 
Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope 
Auricula, Switzerland 
Azarole, S. Europe, before 
Bay, royal, Madeira 
Bay, sweet. Italy, before 
Camellia, Cliina 
Chaste tree, Sicily, before 
Christ's thorn, Africa, before 
Canary bell-flower, Canaries 
Carnation, Flanders 
Ceanothus, blue. New Spain 
Canary convolvulus. Canaries 
Convolvulus, many-flowered 
Coral tree, Cape 
Coral tree, bell-flowered. Cape 
Coral tree, tremulous, Cape 
Creeper, Virginian, N. America 
Dahlia, China 
Dryandra, New Holland 
Evergreen thorn, Ilaly 
Everlasting, great- flowered, Cape 
Everlasting, giant. Cape - 
Fembush, sweet, N. America - 
Fox-glove, Canaries 
Geranium, Flanders 
Gillyflower, Flanders 



1040 
172G 
1766 
1.596 
1774 
1567 
1640 
1665 
1548 
1811 
1570 
1596 
1696 
1567 
1818 
1690 
1779 
1816 
1791 
1789 
1603 
1803 
1S03 
1629 
1781 
1793 
1714 
1698 
15.34 
1567 



Gold-plant, Japan 

Golden bell-flower, Madeira 

Hawthorn, American, from N. Amer 

ica, before 
Heath, ardent, Cape 
Heath, beautiful. Cape 
Heath, fragrant. Cape - 
Heath, garland. Cape 
Heath, perfumed, Cape 
Honeyflower, great. Cape - 
Honeysuckle, Chinese, China - 
Honeysuckle, fly, Cape 
Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America 
Hyssop, south of Europe, before - 
Jasmine, Circassia, belore 
Jasmine, Catalonian' East Indies - 
Judas-tree, south of Europe, before 
Laburnum, Hungary 
Laurel. Alexandi-ian, Portugal, befor 
Laurestine, south of Europe, before 
Lavender, south of Europe, before 
Lily, Italy, before - 
Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales 
Lily, red-colored, South America - 
Loblolly-bay, N. America, before 
Lupine tree. Cape, about - 
Magnolia (see Magnolia),'^. America 
Magnolia, dwarf, China 
Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America 
Maidenhair, Japan - 
Mignionette, Italy 



1783 
1777 

16S3 
1800 
1795 
1803 
1774 
1803 
1688 
1806 
1752 
1656 
1548 
1548 
1629 
1596 
1576 
1713 
1596 
1568 
1460 
1800 
1623 
1739 
1793 
1688 
1786 
1734 
1714 
1528 



324 



THE WORLD S PROGIIESS. 



[JTON 



Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon - 1629 
Rose without thorns, N. America, be- 
fore 1726 

Rosemary, south of Europe - - 1548 

St. Peter's wort. North America - ■ 1730 

Sage, African, Cape - - • 1731 

Sage, Mexican, Mexico - - • 1724 

Sassafras tree, N. America, before - 1663 

Savin, south of Europe, before - - 15S4 

Snowdrop, Carolina - - . - 1756 

Sorrel tree, N. America, before - - 1752 

Sweet bay, south of Europe, before - 1548 

Tamarisk plant, Germany - - - 1560 

Tea tree, China, about - - - 1768 

Tooth-ache tree, Carolina, before - - 1739 

Trumpet-flower, N. America - - 1640 

Trumpet-flower, Cape - - - 1823 

Tulip, Vienna ... - 1578 

Virginia creeper, N. America, before 1629 

Virgin's-bower, Japan - - - 1776 

Weeping willow, Levant, before - - 1692 

Wax tree, China - - - 1794 

Winter berry, Virginia - - - 1736 

Youlan, China - - . - 1789 



FLOWERS, contimied. 

Milk-wort, great-flowered. Cape - - 1713 

Milk-wort, showy, Cape - - 1814 

Mountain tea, N. America, before - - 1758 
Mock orange, south of Europe, before 1596 

Mynle, candleberry, N. America - - 1699 

Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China - - 1776 

Nettle-tree, south of Europe, before - 1596 

Olive, Cape, Cape - - - 1730 

Olive, sweet-scented, China - - 1771 

Oleander, red, south of Europe - 1596 

Paraguay tea, Carolina, before - - 1724 

Passion-flower, Brazil - - - 1692 

Passion-flower, orange, Carolina - - 1792 

Pigeon-berry, N. America - - 1736 

Pmk, from Italy - - - - 1567 

Ranunculus, Alps - - - 1528 

Roses, Netherlands - - • - 1522 

Rose, the China, China ■ - - 1789 
Rose, the damask, Marseilles, and 

south of Europe, about - - 1543 

Rose, the Japan, China - - - 1793 

Rose, the moss, before - - - 1724 

Rose, the musk, Italy - - - 1522 

Rose, the Provence, Flanders - - 1567 
Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from 

China 1821 

FLUTE. Invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian, the father of Marsyas. — Phdarch. 
The flute, harp, lyre, and other instruments were known to the Romans ; 
and the flute was so prized in antiquity, that several female deities lay 
claim to its invention. It was in far more general use as a concert instru- 
ment than the violin, until early in the last century, when the works of Co- 
relli came over. — See Music. 

FLUXIONS. Invented by Newton, 1669. The differential calculus by Leib- 
nitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler, 
La Grange, and La Place. 

FLYING, Artipicial. It has been attempted in all ages. Friar Bacon main- 
tained the possibility of the art, and predicted it would be of general prac- 
tice, A. D. 1273. Bishop Wilkins says, it will yet be as usual to hear a man 
call for his wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him 
call for his boots, 1651. We apprehend that many ages will pass away jjre- 
viously to the accomplishment of these predictions. 

FONTAINEBLEAU, Peace op, concluded between France and Denmark in 
1679. Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor of Germany and 
Holland, signed November 8, 1785. Treaty of Fontainebleau between Na- 
poleon and the royal family of Spain, Oct. 27, 1807. Concordat of Fon- 
tainebleau between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. January 25, 1813. Fon- 
tainebleau was entered by the Austrians, Feb. 17, 1814. And here 
Napoleon resigned his imperial dignity, and bade a farewell to his army, 
April 5, 1814. 

FONTENOr, Battle of, near Tournay, between the French under count'Saxe, 
and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the 
duke of Cumberland. The battle was fought with great obstinacy, and the 
carnage on both sides was considerable* the allies losing 12,000 men, and 
the French nearly an equal number of lives ; but the allies were in the end 
defeated. Count Saxe, who was at the time ill of the disorder of which 
he afterwards died, was carried about to all the posts in a litter, assuring 
his troops that the day would be their own; April 30, 1745. 

FONTS, Formerly the baptistry was a small room, or place partitioned off in 
a church, where the persons to be baptized (many of whom in the early 



FOO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 32fl 

ages were adults), were submerged. Previously to these artificial reser- 
voirs, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts for the initia- 
tion into Christianity were instituted in a. d. 167. 
FOOLS, Festivals of, at Paris. They were held on the first of January, and 
were continued for 240 years. In their celebration, we are told, all sorts of 
absurdities and indecencies were committed, a. d. 1198. Fools or licensed 
jesters were kept at court in England (as they were at other courts of Eu- 
rope), and were tolerated up to the time of Charles 1. 1625. 

FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as 65 
forests, 18 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hamp- 
shire was made by William I., who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes, 
pulled down, 36 churches, and dispeopled the country for 30 miles round, 
A. D. 1079-85.— (Siow. 

FORGERY IN England. The forging of, or giving in evidence forged deeds, &c., 
made punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut 
off, the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and perpetual 
imprisonment, 5 Elizabeth, 1562. Forgery was first punished by death in 
1684. 

FORGERY", Remarkable Executions for. The unfortunate Daniel and Ro- 
bert Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, Jan- 
uary 17, 1776. The rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond, in 
the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4,200Z. : the greatest interest was made, 
and the highest influence was exerted to save him, but when the case came 
before the council, the minister of the day said to George III., "if your 
majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus ;" and he 
was hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, a London 
banker, was hanged, November 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker mer- 
chant, suffered death, December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for 
forgery at the Old Bailey, was Thomas Maynard, December 31, 1829. 

FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries — 
Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Mory- 
son's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, he says, " At Venice each person was 
served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he 
cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it with his 
hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner of 
using forks in Italy, and adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate 
the Italian fashion since I came home to England," a. d. 1608. 

FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified 
cities. Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycense, where statues 
were afterwards erected to him. The modern system was introduced about 
A. D. 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science in 1527 ; and improve- 
ments were made by Vauban, towards 1700. 

FOTHERINGAY CASTLE, Northamptonshire. Built a. d. 1408. Here Richard 
III. of England was born in 1443 ; and Mary queen of Scots, whose death 
is an indelible stain upon the reign of our great Elizabeth, was beheaded 
in this castle, in which she had been long previously confined, February 8, 
1587, after an unjust and cruel captivity of almost nineteen years in Eng- 
land. It was ordered to be demolished by her son James I. of England. 

FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. " A charity practised by most nations about us 
for those children exposed by unnatural parents." — Addison. Foundling 
hospitals are, comparatively, of recent institution in England, where it 
would appear none existed when Addison wrote. The foundling hospital 
at Moscow, built by Catherine II., was an immense and costly edifice, in 
which 8000 infant children were succored. 



H2Q 



THE world's progress. 



[fra 



FRANCE. This country was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul. In 
the dechne of their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Ger- 
many, then inhabiting what is still called Franconia. These invaders gave 
the name to the kingdom ; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous, 
are the real ancestors of the modern French. Previous to the revolution, 
France was divided into 32 provinces ; and after that era it was divided, 
first into 84, and subsequently into 103, departments, including Corsica 
Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. Tab. Vieics, 65 et seq. 



The Franks, under their leader Phara- 
mond, settle in that part of Gaul till 
late called Flanders - - A. D. 420 

Reign of Clovis the Great - - 481 

[The Events in French History and the 
succession of sovereigns will be found 
in the Tabular Views in this volume, 
commencing p. 65.] 
72n. Cbilderic II. 
737. Charles Martel ruled wiih despotic 

sway during an interregnum. 
742. Childeric 111., the Stupid ; turned 
monk. 

THE CARLOVINGIANS. 

752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Mar- 
tel ; this race called Carlovingians. 

768. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great; 
also emperor of Germany. 

914. Louis I., the Gentle, surnamed, also, 
the Debonnaire ; dethroned, and im- 
prisoned in a monastery. 

840. Charles II., surnamed the Bald; poi- 
soned by his physician HenauU. 

877. Louis the Stammerer. 

879. Carloman and Louis IIL The latter 
died, 88'2. Carloman reigned alone. 

884. Charles the Fat ; an usurper. 

887. Eudesor Ungh. 

398. Charfes IIL, the Simple; deposed and 
died in prison. 

923. Rudolph. 

93G Louis IV., d'Outremer; died by a fall 
from his horse. 

954. Lothaire III. poisoned ; it is said by 
his wife Emma, 

986. Louis V. the Indolent ; poisoned by 

his wife Blanche, and in him ended 
the I'lce of Charlemagne. 

THE CAPETS. 

987. Hugh Capet, from whom this race of 

kings are called Capevingians. 
996. Robert the Sage. 
1031. Henry I. 
1060. Philip I., the Fair. 
1108. Louis VI., the Lusty. 
1137. Louis VII., the Young. 
1180. Philip II., Augustus. 
1223. Louis VIIL, the Lion. 
1226. Louis IX., called St. Louis ; died in 

liis cairip before Ttmis ; canonized. 
1270. Philip Ilf, tlie Hardy. 
1285. Philip IV., the Handsome. 
1314. Louis X., Hutin. 
1316. John, who reigned only eiglit days. 
1316. Philip v., the Long. 
1323. Charles IV., the Handsome; king of 

Navarre. 

HOUSE OP VALOIS. 

1328. Philip de Valois. 



1350. John II. ; died suddenly in the Savoy 
in London. 

1364. Charles V., surnamed the Wise ; the 
first prince who had the title of dau- 
phin. (See article Dauphin.) 

1380. Charles VI., the Beloved. 

1422. Charles VII., the Victciious. 

1461. Louis XI., detested for his atrocious 
cruelties. 

14a3. Charles VIII., the Affable. 

1498. Louis XII., duke of Orleans, surnamed 
the Father of his People. 

1515. Francis I. 

1547. Henry II. : died of a wound received 
at a tournament. 

1559. Francis II. ; married Mary Stuart, 

afterwards queen of Scots ; died 
the year after his accession. 

1560. Charles IX. Catherine of Medicis, his 

motlier, obtained the regency, which 
trust she abused. 

1574. Henry III., elected king of Poland; 
nmrdered Aug. 1, 15S9, by Jacques 
Clement, a Dominican friar. In this 
prince was extinguished the houso 
of Valois. 

1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, 
king of Navarre ; murdered by Fran- 
cis Ravillac. (See Ravillac.) 

1610. Louis XIII., the Just. 

1643. Louis XIV., the Great, also styled 
Dieu-Donne. 

1715. Louis XV., the Well-Beloved; but 
which surname he lost. 

1774. Louis XVI., his grandson ; guillo- 
tined, Jan. 21, 1793; and his queen 
Maria-Antoinette, Oct. 16, following. 

1789. The Revolution commences with tlie 
destruction of the Bastile, July 14. 

1795. Louis XVII., dies in prison. 

FRENCH EMPIRE. 

1804. Napoleon Bonaparte declared Empe- 
ror, May 18, 1804 ; crowned by the 
pope, Dec. 2, following ; assumes 
the iron crown. May 26, 1805. Re-- 
nounces the thrones of France anJ 
Italy, Apr. 5, 1814. 

BOUKBONS RESTORED. 

1814. Louis XVIII. ; ascends the throna, 
May 3, 1814 ; dies, Sept. 16, 1824. 

1824. Cliaries X. ; deposed, July 30, 1830; 
retires to Eambouillet same daj, 
and subsequently seeks protection 
in England. 

HOUSE OF ORLEAHP. 

1830, Louis- Philippe ; declared " king o» 
the French," August 9. 



FRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 327 

FRANCHISE. A privilege, or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction ; and an- 
ciently an asj-lum or sanctuary where the person was secure. In Spain, 
churclies and monasteries were, until lately, franchises for criminals, as they 
were formerly in England. The elective franchise was conferred for coun- 
ties on persons having 40s. a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460. — Ruff head's 
Statutes. See Electors. 

FRANCISCANS. An order of friars, called also Gray Friars, in the Church 
of Rome, founded by Francis de Assise in a. d. 1209, or, according to some 
authorities, about 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and 
very austere regimen of life. In 1224 they are said to have appeared in 
England, where, at the time of the dissolution of Monasteries by Henry VIII., 
thej' had liftj^-five abbeys or other houses, a. d. 1536-38. 

FRANKFORT on the Main. Many ages a free city ; it was taken and retaken 
several times during the wars of the late and present centuries, and felt the 
iron rule of Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813, when its independence was guar- 
anteed by the allied sovereigns. The diet of the princes of Germany was 
established here hj the Rhenish confederation in 1806. 

FREDERICKSHALL, Siege of. Rendered memorable by the death of 
Charles XII., of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls, 
and while in the trenches, leaning against the parapet, examining the works. 
He was found in that position, with his hand upon his sword, and a prayer- 
book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. It is now generally supposed that a i)is- 
tol fired by some near and traitorous hand closed the career of this cele- 
brated monarch, who was too aptly styled the " Madman of the North." 

FREEMASONRY. It is of great antiquity. Writers on masonry, themselves 
masons, affirm that it has had a being " ever since symmetry began, and 
harmony displayed her charms'." Masonry is traced by some to the build- 
ing of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African coast, 
Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the sixth century, as a protec- 
tion against Christian fanatics. Its introduction into Great Britain has been 
fixed at the year a. d. 674; although by other authorities it is assigned a 
much earlier date. The grand lodge at York was founded a. d. 926. Free- 
masonry was interdicted in England, a. d. 1424 ; but it afterwards rose into 
great repute. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established ; that 
of Ireland Was established in 1730 ; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freema- 
sons were excommunicated by the pope, in 1738. 

FRENCH LANGUAGE. The language of France and many of the French 
laws and customs were first introduced into England by William I. 1066. 
The language, and fashions in dress and diet were then very general in Eng- 
land. Law pleadings were changed from French to English, in the reign of 
Edward III., 1362.— Stowe. 

FRENCHTOWN, Canada. This town was taken from the British by the 
American general, Winchester, January 22, 1813. It was retaken by the 
British forces under general Proctor, immediately afterwards, and the Ameri- 
can commander and his troops were made prisoners. ■ 

FRENCH WAR, in North America. The first war between France and Eng- 
land, which was carried on also by the American colonies, 1689. Thv) 
French destroyed Schenectady, N. Y., Casco, Me., &c., 1690 ; but were defeated 
by Schuyler at La Prairie, 1691. Peace of Ryswyck, 1697. " Queen Anne's 
war," 1702. French and Indians ravaged Maine, 1703. French and Spanish 
invade Carolina, 1706. Expedition from New England against the French 
in Port Royal, 1707 ; and against Canada, 1710 ; both failed. Peace of 
Utrecht, 1713. Another war declared by England, 1744; Louisbourg" and 
Cape Breton taken by English colonists, 1745. Peace, 1749. French en- 



328 THE world's progress. [ FRO 

croachinent on English colonies, 1750, leads to the noted .French war, 1752-3, 
Washington's mission, 1754. Braddock's defeat, 1755. Oswego, &c. taken 
by French, 1756, and fort William Henry, 1757. Louisbourg taken by the Eng- 
lish general Amherst, and fort Du Quesne by general Forbes, 1758. Ticon- 
deroga, Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec taken by the English (sir W. 
Johnson and General Wolfe), 1759. Canada surrendered \o Great Britain, 
Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by the peace of Paris, 1763. 
French alliance with the United States in the war of the revolution, Feb. 6, 
1778. French revolution and politics caused serious dissensions in the 
United States, 1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1797. 

FRIDAY. The sixth day of the week ; so called from Friga, a goddess wor- 
shipped by our forefathers on this day, commonly supposed to be the same 
with Venus. Friga was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, 
and riches. Good-Friday is a fast in the church of England in memory of 
our Saviour's crucifixion, April 3, 33. See Good Friday. 

FRIEDLAND, Battle of, between the allied Russian and Prussian armies on 
the one side, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, who com- 
pletely vanquished the allies, with the loss of eighty pieces of cannon, and 
50,000 men, June 14, 1807. This victory led to the peace of Tilsit, by which 
Russia lost no territory, but Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half her 
dominions. 

FRIENDLY ISLES. These islands Avere discovered by Tasman, a. d. 1642. 
Visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767; and by capt. Cook, 
who called them by tlieir present name on account of the friendly disposi- 
tion of the natives, 1773. 

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, England. These useful institutions originated in 
the clubs of tlie industrious classes ; and since they began to spring into 
importance they have been regulated and protected by various legislative 
enactments. They have now, with other similar institutions, more than 
twenty millions sterling in the public funds. Laws regarding Friendly 
Societies consolidated by statute, June, 1829. See Charities. 

FRIESLAND. Formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of prince 
Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Han- 
over disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Hol- 
land by Bonaparte, in 1806, and afterwards to the French empire ; but 
Prussia regained the country in 1814. The term Chevaux de Frise (some- 
times, though rarely, written Clieval de Frise, a Friesland Horse') is derived 
from Friesland, where it was invented. 

FROBISHER'S STRAITS. Discovered by sir Martin Frobisher. the first Eng- 
lishman who attempted to find a northwest passage to China, in 1576. 
After ex|)loring the coast of New Greenland, he entered this strait, which 
has ever since been called by his name. Frobisher returned to England, 
bringing with him a quantity of black ore, which was supposed to contain 
gold, and which induced queen Elizabeth to patronize a second voyage, and 
lend a sloop of war for the purpose. The delusion was even kept up to a 
third expedition ; but all of them proved fruitless. 

FROSTS The Euxinc Sea frozen oyer for twenty daj's, a. d. 401. — Univ. Hist. 
A frost at Constantinople which commenced in October, 763, and continued 
until February of the next year ; the two seas there were frozen a hundred 
miles from the shore. — Univ. Hist. A frost in England on Midsummer-day 
was so violent that it destroyed the fruits of the earth, 1035. — Speed. The 
frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that 
country for many preceding years, and caused the total destruction of the 
French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of that memorable 



fun] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 329 



year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th November, when the 
frost covered the ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses 
fell by hundreds on the roads. What with her loss in battle, and the effects 
of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of this year 
more than 400,000 men. 
FRUITS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Several varieties of fruit are hientioned 
as having been introduced into Italy, 70 b. c. et seq. Exotic fruits and 
flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were brought 
thither in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII., and of Mary and Elizabeth, 
between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardening, and Flowers. Among 
others of less note, were musk-melons, plum-trees, and currant-plants of sun- 
dry sorts, the musk and damask roses, tulips, &c. ; also saffron, woad, and 
other drugs for dyeing, but these last were attempted to be cultivated Avith- 
out success.— Hackluyt; Lord Kaimes. The following are among the fruits 
whose introduction into England has been traced : — 

FRUITS, ETC. Mulberry, the red, from North Ame- 

Almond-tree, Barbary - • a. d. 1548 rica, before - - - a. d. 1629 

- - • ,. , _ ■ - 1754 

1562 
1730 
1771 
1595 
1562 



Apples, Syria - - - -1522 Mulberry,thepaper, from .'(.pan, befo: 



Apple, the custard, North AmericB - 1736 Nectarine, Persia 

Apple, the Osage, ditto ■ - 1818 Olive, the Cape, Cape - 

Apricots, Epirus - • - - 1540 Olive, the sweet-scented, China 

Cherry-trees, Pontus - - - 100 Oranges 

Cornelian cherry, Austria - - - 1596 Peaches, Persia - 

Currants, Zante - - - - 1533 Pears, from various climes 

Currant, the hawthorn, Canada - 1705 Pine-apple, Brazils - - - 1568 

Fig-tree, south of Europe, before - 1548 Pippins, Netherlands - - - 1525 

Fig, the Botany-bay. New South Wales 1789 Plums, Italy .... 1522 

Gooseberries, Flanders, before - 154t) Plum, the date, Barbary - - - 1596 

Grapes, Portugal - - - 1528 Pomegranate, Spain, before -. - 1548 

Lemons. Spain - - - - 1554 Quince, Austria - - - - 1573 

Limes, Portugal ... - 1554 Quince, the .Tapan - - - 1796 

Lime, the American, before - - 1752 Raspberiy, the flowering, N. America - 1700 

Melons, before . - - - 1.540 , Raspberry, the Virginian, ditto, before - 1696 

Mock ora.nge. south of Europe, before- 1596 ! Strawberry, Flanders - - -1530 

Mulberry, Italy - - • - 1520 ! Strawberry, the Oriental Levant - 1724 

M ilberry, white, China, about - - IS96 Walnut, the black, N. America, before 1629 

FUNDS To the Venetians is ascribed the origin of the funding system, in 
A. D. 1171. Public funds were raised by the Medici family at Florence, in 
1340. The English funding system, or the method of raising the supplies 
for the public service in England, lay anticipations of the public revenues 
(the origin of the national debt), introduced at the Revolution, 1689. — Mor- 
timer's Broker. The funding system is coeval with the commencement of 
the Bank of England. — Anderson. The Three per cent, annuities were crea- 
ted in 1726. The Three per cent, consols were created in 1731, The Three 
per cent, reduced, 1746. Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea- 
house, 1751. Three and a-half per cent, annuities created, 1758. Long annui- 
ties, 1761. Four per cent, consols, 1762. Five per cent, annuities, 1797, and 
1802. Five per cents, reduced to four, 1822. See National Debt. 

FUNERAL GAMES are mentioned by most early writers. Among the Greeks 
they were chiefly hoi'se races; and among the Romans, pi-ocessions and tne 
mortal combats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These games were 
abolished by the emperor Claudius, a. d. 47. Funeral orations have a hea- 
then origin. Solon was the first who spoke one, 580 b. c. They were in- 
dispensable among the Romans ; the custom of led horses took place a. d 
1268. A tax laid on funerals in England, 1793. 

FUNERAL ORATIONS. The Romans pronounced harangues over their dead, 
when people of quality, and great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus obtain- 
ed a prize for the best funeral oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 b. c. Po- 
pilia was the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral 



330 THE world's progress. [ GAR 

which was done by her son Crassus; and it is observed by Cicero that Jnhus 
Caesar did tlie like for his aunt Julia, and his wife Cornelia. In Greece, 
Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, according to Herodo- 
tus, 580 B. c. 
FUR. The refined nations of antiquity never used furs : in later times, as lux- 
ury advanced, they were used by princes as linings for their tents. They 
were worn by our first Henry, about a. d. 1125. Edward III. enacted that 
all such persons as could not spend lOOZ. a year, should be prohibited this 
species of finery, 1337. 

G. 

GALLEYS. The ancient galleys with three rows of rowers, tri-remes, were 
invented by the Corinthians, 786 b. c. — Blair. They were built at Athens, 
786 B. c. For an account of their construction and the method of fighting 
in them, see Polybius. 

GALVANISM. The discovery of it is recent ; it was first noticed in 1767, by 
Saltzer; but it was not till about 1789 that Mrs. Galvani, wife of Dr. Galvani 
of Bologna, accidentally discovered Its extraordinary efiects on animals ; and 
from the name of the discoverer it was called galvanism. Mrs. Galvani 
having observed the convulsions produced in the muscles of frogs by the 
contact of metals, directed her husband's attention to the phenomenon ; and 
in 1791, Galvani announced the result of his observations on this subject. 
Since that period a great many experiments have been made, and many cu- 
rious facts observed, which have excited much attention among i^hilosophers. 
See Electro- Galva)dsm. Bonaparte, after the discovery of the true principles 
of galvanic electricity by Volta, presented him with a gold medal, and 3000 
livres, in 1808. — Phillips. See Mesmerism. 

GAME LAWS. The laws restricting the killing of game are peculiar to the 
north of Europe, and partake of the nature of the forest laws imposed by 
William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of 
property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar. 
Of these laws the clergy were zealous promoters: and they jirotested against 
ameliorations under Henry III. The first game act in England passed in 
1496. Game certificates were first granted with a duty in 1784-5. Nume- 
rous statutes have been passed on this subject from time to time. 

GAMING, ExcE.ssivE. Introduced into England by the Saxons; the loser was 
often made slave to the winner, and sold in tratfic like other merchandise. — 
Camden ; Starve. Act, prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and interdicting 
tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c., to inferior people, except at Christmas time). 
83 Henry VIII. 1541. Gaming-houses were licensed in London in 1620. Act 
to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, when all private lotteries, and 
the games of Faro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 13 George II. 1739. 
— Ru f head's Statutes. The profits of a well-known gaminghouse in London 
for one season have been estimated at 150,000^. In one night a million of 
money is said to have changed hands at this place. — Leigh. 

GAMES. Those of Greece and Rome will be found under their respective 
heads. The candidates for athletic games in Greece used to be dieted on 
new cheese, dried figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The 
games were leaping, foot-races, darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See 
the CapitoUne, Isthmian, Olympic, Pythian, Secular, and other Games. 

GARDENING. Gardening was one of the first arts that succeeded the art of 
building houses. — Watjuilc. Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine. 
Of fruit, flower, and kitchen gardens, the garden of Eden was, no doubt, 



war] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



331 



the prototype. — Idem. There wants nothing but the embroiderj^ of a par- 
terre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one 
in that of our Wilham III.— Idem. The art of gardening became better 
understood in England about a. d 1500, before which time many of our 
vegetables were imported from Brabant. The era of the art was the reign 
of Elizabeth ; but the modern mode of gardening was introduced about 
1700. The following came from the countries respectively named : — 



ROOTS AND VEGETABLES. 

Rice, from 

Buckwheat 

Borage - 

Cresses 

Cauliflower 

Asparagus 

L§ttuce - 

Artichol.'os 

Garlic 

Shallota 

Horse-radish 



- Ethiopia 

- Asia 

- Syria 

- Crete 

- Cyprus 

- Asia 

- Brabant 

- Holland 
■ The East 

- Siberia 

- Chma 



Kidney-brans - East Indies 
Gourds ■ - Astracan 



Carrots 
Brocoli 
Beans - 
Peas- 



- Flanders 

- Cyprus 

- Greece 

- Spain 



FRUITS AND FLOWERS. 



Plums - - - Damascus 
Oranges - - Spain 
Lemons - - Spain 
Pink - - Italy 
Provence-rose - Marseilles 
Convolvulus - Canaries 



Cape 

Canaries 

Pontus 

Italy 

Barbary 

Italy 

Persia 

Brazil 



Weep. Willow Levant 
Fennel - - - Canaries 



Arctopus 

Jasmine - - Circassia Bell-fower 

Elder-tree - Persia Cherr.iS 

Tulip - - - Cappadocia Figs - 

Daffodil - - Italy Date-plum 

Lily - Syria Mulberry 

Tuberose - Java, &c. Nectarine 

Carnation ■ Italy, &c. Passion-flower 
Ranunculus Alps 

Lentils - - - France Api'jles - ■ Syria Rosemary - Italy 

Chervil - - Italy Apricots - - Epirus Laburnum - - Hungary 

Celery - - - Flanders Currants - - Zante Laurel - - Levant 

Potatoes • - Brazil Damask-rose - Damascus Lavender - ■ Italy_ 

Tobacco - - America Hops - - - Artois Peaches - - Persia 

Cabbage • - Holland Gooseberries - Flanders Uui»ice - - Austria 

Anise - - - Egypt Gilly-flowers - Toulouse 

Parsley • - Egypt Musk-rose - Damascus 

Musk-melons and other rich fnrits that are now cultivated in England, and 
the pale gooseberry, together with salads, garden-roots, cabbages, (fcc, 
were brought from Flanders, and hops from Artois, in 1520. The damask- 
rose was brought hither by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about 
1540. Pippins were brought to England by Leonard Mascal, of Plumstead, 
in Sussex, 1525. Currants or Corinthian grapes were first planted in Eng- 
land in 1533, brought from the Isle of Zante. The musk-rose and several 
sorts of plums were brought from Italy by lord Cromwell. Apricots came 
from Epirus, 154:0. The tamarisk plant was brought from Germany, by 
archbishop Grindal, about 1570 ; and about Norwich, the Flemings planted 
flowers unknown in England, as gilly-flowers, carnations, the Provence rose, 
&c., 1567. Woad came originally from Toulouse, in France. Tulip roots 
from Vienna. 1578 ; also, beans, peas and lettuce, now in common use, 
1600. See Flowers; Fruits. 
GARTER, Ordkr of the. This institution outvies all other similar institu- 
tions in the world. It owes its origin to Edward III., who conquered France 
and Scotland, and brought their kings prisoners to England. Edward, 
with a view of recovering France, which descended to him by right of his 
mother, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and 
thereupon projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed 
a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners and others of quality and courage to 
the exercise. The king, upon New Year's day, 1844, published royal 
letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreign 
knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the jousts and tour- 
naments about to be held. The place of the solemnity was Windsor ; it 
was begun by a feast, and a table was erected in the castle of 200 feet dia- 
meter, in imitation of king Arthur's at Winchester, and the knights were 
entertained at the king's own expense of lOOZ. a week. In 1346, Edward 
gave bis garter for the signal of a battle that had been crowned Avith suc- 
cess (supposed to be Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, and 
having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner ; and Edward the Black Prince, 



332 " THE AVORLD's progress. [ GEN 

his son, having expelled the rebels in Castile, and enthroned the lawful so- 
vereign, Don Pedro, he, in memory of these exploits, instituted this order, 
A. D. April 23, 1349-50. Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the 
ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bordered with gold, with the in- 
scription in old French — " Honi soU qui mal y pense " — evil to him who evil 
thinks. The knights are always installed at Windsor; and were styled 
Equites aurecs Periscelidis, knights of the golden garter. — Beatson. 

GAS. The inflammable aeriform fluid was first evolved from coal by Dr. 
Clayton, in 1739. — Phil. Trans. Its application to the purposes of illumi- 
nation was first tried by Mr. Murdock, in Cornwall, in 1792. The first dis- 
play of gas-lights was made at Boulton and Watt's foundry, in Birmingham, 
on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace in 1802. Gas was permanently 
used to the exclusion of lamps and candles at the cotton mills of Phillips 
and Lee, Manchester, where 1000 burners were lighted, 1805. Gas-lights 
were first introduced in London, at Golden-lane, August 16, 1807. They 
were used in lighting Pall Mall, in 1809; and were general through London 
in 1814. They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and the streets there ge- 
nerally lighted in October, 1825. The gas-pipes in and round London ex- 
tend to 1100 miles. The streets in New York (the first in the United States) 
first lighted with gas, 1823-4. 

GAZETTE. A paper of public intelligence and news of divers countries, first 
printed at Venice about the year 1620, and so called (some saj') because 
ima gazctta, a SBiall piece of Venetian coin, was given to buy or read it. 
Others derive the name from gaza, Italian for magpie, i. e. chatterer. — 
Tnisler. A gazette was printed in France in 1631 ; and one in Germany in 
ni5.—Nouv. Did. Hist. 

GAZETTE, THE LONDON. See Neivspapers. The first English gazette was pub- 
lished at Oxford, the court being then there on account of the plague, Nov. 
7, 1665. On the removal of the court to the capital, the title was changed 
to the London Gazette, Feb. 5, 1666. London Gazettes Extraordinary are 
used for the publication of extraordinary ofiicial news. One of these latter 
was forged with a view of afiecting the funds, May 22, 1787. The fraud 
succeeded, but the planners of it were never discovered. — Phillips. The 
Dublin Gazette was first published in an official form about 1767. 

GENERAL ASSEMBLY of SCOTLAND. The first General Assembly of the 
church was held December 20, 1560. The General Assembly constitutes 
the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin- 
burgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commis- 
sioner, appointed by the king, who represents his majesty, and delegates 
from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen. 
To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its 
decision is final. See Church of Scotland. 

GENERALS. This rank has been given to commanders from very remote 
times. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honored with the 
title of General of the French armies, a. d. 1203. — Henault. It is observed 
by M. Balzac that cardinal Richelieu first coined the word Generalissimo, 
upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in 
1629. 

GENEVA. Part of the empire of Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. The Repub- 
lic was founded in 1512. It became allied to the Swiss Cantons in 1584. 
Memorable insurrection here, February 1781 : about 1000 Genevans, in 
consequence of it, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, lord lieutenant of Ire- 
land, for permission to settle in that country : the Irish parliament voted 
50.000Z. to defray the expenses of their joui-ney, and to purchase them 
lands near Waterford, called New Geneva. Many of the fugitives oame tc 



GEO ] DICTIONARif OF DATES. 333 

Ii-elaad iu July 1783, but they soon after abandoned it : at this period many 
Genevan families settled in England. Another revolution, July 1794. Ge- 
neva was admitted by the diet into the Swiss Confederation, in 1813. 

GENOA. Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Ro- 
mans. 115b. c, and underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till 
A. D. 950. The Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and other 
magistrates from among their nobility, and become an aristocratic Republic, 
1030 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated 
Andrew Doria rescued his country from the dominion of foreign powei'S. 
Bombarded by the French in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1745. 
Genoa was taken by the Imperialists, Dec. 8, 1746 ; but their oppression of 
the people was such, that the latter suddenly rose, and expelled their con- 
querors, who again besieged the city the next year, August 17, without 
eflfect. Genoa Tost Corsica 1730. The celebrated bank failed 1750. The 
city sustained a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until literally 
starved, and was evacuated by capitulation, Maj^ 1800 ; but it was surren- 
dered to the French soon after their victory at Mai'engo. The Jiigurian 
Republic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801, and the doge solemnly 
invested, August 10, 1802. Genoa annexed to the French empire, May 25, 
1805. It surrendered to the combined English aiid Sicilian army, April 18, 
1814 ; and was transferred to the king of Sardinia in 1816. Insurrection 
against Victor Emmanuel, April 1 ; subdued April 11, 1849. 

GENTLEMEN. The Gauls observing that, during the empire of the Romans, 
the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the soldiers, ap- 
plied to them the terms ecuyers and gentilsho7)imes. This distinction of gen- 
tleman was much in use in England, and was given to the well descended, 
about A. D. 1430. — Sidney. 

GEOGRAPHY. The first correct record we have of geographical knowledge 
is from Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles as representing 
the earth, surrounded by the sea. — Iliad. He accurately describes the 
countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Troy. The 
isriests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the 
world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps, 
about 568 b. c. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to mathemati- 
cal bases, about 135 b. c. It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of 
Barbary and Spain, about a. d. 1201. — Lenglet. The invention of the mari- 
ner's compass is the important connecting-link between ancient and modern 
geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England 
by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a 
western continent, a. d. 1489. 

GEOLOGY. The science of the earth has been the subject of philosophical 
speculation from the time of Homer ; and this science is said to have been 
cultivated in China many ages before the Christian era. When the theories 
and discoveries of geologists were first propounded, they were condemned as 
being opposed to the statements of the Bible ; but in this enlightened age the 
astronomer and geologist, in proportion as their minds are expanded by 
scientific investigation, see that there is no collision between the discovericf- 
in the natural world, and the inspired record. We are not called upon l>y 
Scripture to admit, neither are we required to deny, the supposition that 
the matter without form and void, out of which this globe of eartli was 
framed, may have consisted of the wrecks and relics of more ancient worlds 
created and destroyed by the same Almighty power which called our world 
into being, and will one day cause it to pass away. Thus while the Bible 
reveals to us the moral history and destiny of our race, and teaches us tliat 
man and other living things have been placed but a few thousand years 



3^4 THE world's progress. [ GEB 

upon the earth, the physical monuments of our globe bear witness to tHe 
same truth ; and as astronomy unfolds to us myriads of worlds, not spoken 
of in the sacred records, geology in like manner proves, not by arguments 
dra-vvn from analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of physical phe- 
nomena, that there were former conditions of our planet, separated from 
each other by vast intei'vals of time, during which this world was teeming 
with life, ere man, and the animals which are his contemporaries, had been 
called into being. — Dr. Mantell and Bishop Blomfield. 

GEOMETRY. Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inundations 
of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks, and the 
boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 600 
B. c. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 280 b. c. The doctrine of 
curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic 
sections, which were introduced by Plato about 390 b, c. The conchoid 
curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 b. c. The sciencvi of geometry was 
taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on the subject of geo- 
metry and astronomy were destroyed in England, being regarded as infected 
with magic, 7 Edward VI., 1552. — Stoioe. 

GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy in France ; general 
Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known 
by the name of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspi- 
racy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., 
Feb. 23, 1804. The conspirators were tried June 9, when seventeen were 
sentenced to death, and many to imprisonment. Moreau was suffered to leave 
France, and was escorted from the temple to embark for America, June 22. 
In 1813 he received his mortal wound before Dresden, which see. 

GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Ogle- 
thorpe, who, with forty followers, founded Savannah, Feb. 1, 1733. Savan- 
nah taken by the Britisli in the revolutionary war, Dec. 29, 1778 ; the town 
and State evacuated by them in July 1782. The State unanimously adopted 
tlie Federal Constitution, Jan. 2, 1788. Population in 1790, 82.584 ; in 1840, 
691,392, including 280,944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice. 

GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German, 
or Holy Roman Empire, as it was called, should no longer exist ; but that 
instead thereof a confederation of states should be formed ; and this ar- 
rangement was adopted in 1815. by the allied sovei-eigns ; and Germany is 
now governed b.y a diet consisting of seventeen voices, and in case any 
alteration be requisite in the constitution, they are then to take a new divi- 
sion, and the general assembly then to be formed is to contain sixty-five, 
divided according to the relative consequence of the states. See Addenda. 

GERMANY. From Germanni, warlike men. First mentioned by the Roman 
historians about 211 b. c. : it was anciently divided into several independent 
states until 25 b. c, when the Germans withstood the attempt of the Romans 
to subdue them, although tliey conquered some parts; but by the repeated 
efforts of the Germans they were entirely expelled, about a.d. 290. In 432, 
the Huns, driven from China, conquered the greatest part of this extensive 
coimtry ; but it was not totally subdued till Charlemange, the first emperor, 
became master of the whole, a. d. 802. 

Charlemagne crowned emperor of the Charles HI. was the first sovereign who 

West atllome - - a. d. 800 ; added " in the year of oui' Lord" to 

He adds a second head to the eagle, to : his reign .... 87£ 

denote that the empires of Rome and | The German princes assert their inde- 

Germany are united in him - - 802 j pendence, and Conrad reigns - 912 

Louis (£)e6ore«a/ce) separates Germany [The electoral character assumed about 

freni France - - - - 814 I this time. See Eleclots.] - - 912 



GEE, ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



335 



GERINIANY, continued. 

Reign of Henry I. (king) surnamed the 
Fowler ; he vanquishes the Huns, 
Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians 

Otho I. extends liis dominions, and is 
crowned emperor by the pope 

Henry III. conquei-s Bohemia, wasting 
it with tire and sword 

Peter the Hermit leads the crusaders 
through Germany, where they mas- 
sacre tlie Jews - - - . 

Henry IV. excommunicated by pope 
Pascal I. (Hildebrand) about 

Disputes relating to ecclesiastical in- 
vestitures, with the pope 

The Guelph and Ghibeline teuds begin 

Conrad III. leads a large army to The 
holy wars, where it is destroyed by 
the treachery of the Greeks - 

Teutonic order of knighthood 

Reign of Rodolph, count ofHapsburgh, 
chosen by the electors 

The famous edict, called the Golden 
Bull, by Charles IV. - 

Sigismond, king of Bohemia, elected 
emperor. He betrays John Huss and 
Jerome of Prague, who are burned 
alive (see Bohemia) - 

Sigismond being driven from the throne, 
Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds. 
(In his family the crown resides for 
three centuries) 

The Pragmatic sanction {which see) - 

Tiie empire divided into circles 

Era of the Reformation (iyM?/je;0 

AlDdication of Charles V. 

War of the two parties, the Evangelic 
union under Frederick, elector pala- 
tine, and the Catholic league, under 
the duke of Bavaria 

Battle of Prague, which lost the elector 
palatine the crown 

Treaty of Westphalia - - , - 

John Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats 
the Turks in many battles, and obliges 
them to raise the siege of Vienna 

The peace of Carlowiiz 

The Pragmatic sanction {ichich see) - 

The reign of Charles VI. is chiefly occu- 
pied with wars against the Turks, and 
in establishing the Pragmatic sanc- 
tion, in favor of the succession of his 
daughter, Maria Theresa, married to 
the duke of Lorraine - 1711 to 

Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, marries 
the heiress of Austria, the celebrated 
Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary ; 
and is elected emperor 

Joseph II. extends his dominions by the 
dismemberment of Poland 

Again, by the final partition of that de- 
voted kingdom 

[Li the ruinous wars between Germany 
and France, the emperor loses the 
Netherlands, all his territories west 
of the Rhine, and his estates in Italy, 
1793, et seq.'\ 

Francis I. assumes the title of empe- 
ror of Austria - - Aug. 11, 

Dissolution of the German empire'; for- 
mation of the Confederation of the 
Rhine - - - July 12, 

General agitation among the iieo|)le. 



919 
962 
1042 

1095 

1106 

1122 
1140 



1147 
1190 



1273 
1356 



1414 



1438 
1439 
1512 
1517 
1550 



1620 
1648 



1683 
1699 
1722 



1745 
1772 
1795 



ISM 



and demands for reform granted in 
various degrees by sovereigns of 
Prussia, Bavaria, &c. ; and by those 
of the smaller principalities of Ger- 
many • - Feb. and March, 1848 

A federal union of the German States 
demanded by Prussia March, 1848 

Congress of deputies at Frankfort — Mit- 
ter-Meyer, President March 31, 1848 

German Parliament meets at Frank- 
fort - - - May 18, 1818 

The archduke, John of Austria, elected 
by the parliament as lord-lieutenant 
of the Empire- - June 29, 1843 

He is installed at Frankfort, and names 
his ministers - - July 15, 1848 

Great excitement in German)^ on ac- 
count of the execution at Vienna of 
Robert Blum, a Leipsic publisher, 
for aiding the insurrection Nov. " 1848 



814. 
840. 
855. 
875. 
878. 
879. 



912. 

912. 
919. 
936. 
973. 
983. 
1002. 

1024. 
1039. 
10.55. 
1077. 
lOSO. 
1105. 
1125. 
11.38. 
1152. 

1191. 
1198. 
1208. 
1211. 
1245. 
1246. 
1273. 

1291. 
1298. 
1308. 

1314. 

1347. 
1378 
1399. 
1400. 
1410. 
1437. 

1440. 



EMPERORS Cr- GBMANY. 

Charlemagne the Great. 

Louis the Debonnaire. 

Lothaire. 

Louis II. 

Charles II., the Bald ; poisoned. 

Louis III., the Stammerer. 

Charles III., the Gross. 

Arnould. 

Louis IV. 

Oiho, duke of Saxony ; he refused the 

dignity on account of his age. 
Conrad, duke of Franconia. 
Henry I., the Fowler. 
Otho I., the Great. 
Otho II,, the Bloody. 
Otho III., the Red ; poisoned. 
Henry II., duke of Bavaria ; the Holy 

and Lame. 
Conrad II., the Salique. 
Henry III., the Black. 
Henry IV. ; deposed. 
Rodolphus; killed in battle. 
Henry IV. ; re-instated. 
Henry V. 
Lothaire II. 
Conrad III. 

Frederick Barbarossa ; drowned ia Bo- 
hemia. 
Henry VI., the Sharp. 
Philip ; killed at Bamberg. - 
Otho IV; deposed. 
Frederic II. ; deposed. 
Henry VII ; killed. 
William ; killed in battle. 
Rodolphus, count of Hapsburg, the 

first of the Austrian family. 
Adolphus ; deposed. 
Albert I. ; killed by his nephew. 
Henry VIII. ; poisoned by a priest, in 

the consecrated wafer. 
Louis IV., of Bavaria ; killed by a fall 

from his horse. 
Charles IV., of Luxembourg. 
Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia. 
Frederick, Dukeof Brunswick. 
Rupert, palatine of the Rhine. 
Sigismond, king of Hungary. 
Albert II., duke of Austria and king of 

Bohemia. 
Frederick III., archduke of Austria. 



336 

GERMANY, continued. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[ GIB 



1493. Maximilian I. ; lie married the heiress 

of Burgundy. 
1519. Charles V., king of Spain. 
1558. Ferdinand!., king of Hungary. 
1564. Maximilian II. 
1576. Rodolphus II. 
1612. Matthias I. 

1619. Ferdinand II., king of Hungary. 
1637. Ferdinand III., ditto. 
1658. Leopold L, ditto 
1705. Joseph II., ditto, and of Bohemia. 
1711. Charles VL 
1742. Charles VII. 



1745. Francis!.; husband of Maria Theresa 
queen of Hungary and Bohemia. 

1765. Joseph II. 

1790. Leopold II. 

1792. Francis II. ; he takes the title of era 
peror of Austria only, in 1806. 

1806. Confederation of the Rhine (which see). 

)815. Germanic Confederation. 

1835. Ferdinand I., of Austria. 

(See Tabular Views in this vol., beginning 
p. 76 ; see, also, Austria, Bavaria, 
Prussia, Wurteinburg, &c.) 



There are about 20 German principalities with territories equal to English 
counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort on the Maine 
(one of the greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck, which was the 
head of the famous Hanseatic League, formed in that city in 1164. 

GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third son of Ed- 
ward III. of England, was born here, and hence named John of Gaunt. 
Pacification of Ghent, November 8, 1576. Ghent was taken by the duke of 
Marlborough in a. d. 1706, and several times taken and retaken by the con- 
tending armies during the late wars. The peace of Ghent between Great 
Britain and the United States, was signed here, December 24, 1814. 

GIANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a half in height; he was 
also of great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb, 
and his shoe was longer by a foot than that of an ordinary man. — Zuinglius. 
" The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara, 
who in the days of Claudius the late emperor was brought out of Arabia. 
He Avas nine feet nine inches high." — Pliny. John Middleton, of Hale, in 
Lancashire, born in 1578, was nine feet three inches high. Patrick Cotter, 
the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches in 
height ; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of 
the middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inch- 
es long; he died in September 1806, in his 46th year. Giants' bones 17, 18, 
20, and 30 feet high, were once reported to have been found ; but there is 
now no doubt that they were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds. 

GIBRALTAR. A fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admi- 
ration, and renders it impregnable : it is the ancient Calpe, which, with 
Abyla on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars of 
Hercules. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English 
feet : it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik ( Gibel- Tarik, Mountain of 
Tarik, whence its present name) in x. d. 712. In the year 1462 the king of 
Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors ; and the English, under sir George 
Rooke, the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byng, 
bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannon- 
ade, to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines ; and it has since 
continued an appendage to the British crown. 



Gibraltar attacked by the British on the 
21st July, and taken on the 24th, a. d. 1704 

Besieged by the Spanish and French : 
they lose 10,000 men, and the victori- 
ous English but 400 - Oct. 11, 1704 

The Spaniards agam attack Gibraltar, 
and are repulsed with great loss - 1720 

They again attack it with a force of 



20,000 men, and lose 5000, while the 
loss of the English is only 300 - 1727 

Memorable siege of the Spaniards and 
French, whose prodigious arma- 
ments* (the greatest ever brought 
against a fortress) were wholly over- 
thrown. The siege continued from 
July 1779, to Feb. - - 1783 



* The army amounted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troops 
of France. 1000 pieces of "artillery were l)roLight lo bear against the fortre.ss, besiiles which, there 



GLE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 337 

GILDING. First practised at Rome, about 145 b. c. The capitol was the first 
building on which this enrichment was bestowed. — Pliny. Of gold leaf for 
gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole 
ounce. — Pliny. It consequently was more like our plating. — Trusler. A 
single grain ot gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf 
that Avill cover a hoii.se. — Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole ammo- 
niac was first introduced by Margaritone, in 1273. The art of gilding on 
wood, previously known, was improved in 1680. 

GISORS, Battle of, in France, between the armies of France and England, in 
which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., whose parole for the 
day was '• Dieiict mon ciroii" — " God and my right;" and from this time it 
■ "was made the motto to the royal arms of England, a. d. 1198. 

GI ADIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives, 
or captives who fought for their freedom. They exhibited at the funeral 
ceremonies of the Romans, 263 b. c, probably following the Greek custom 
of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors the prisoners taken in battle. 
Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 b. c. When 
Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebra- 
tion of his triumph for 123 days, a. d. 103. Their combats on public thea- 
tres were suppressed in the East by Constantino the Great, a. d. 325. Fi- 
nally suppressed by Theodorick, in the year 500. — Lenglet. 

GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in a. d. 1180. Its charter was obtained from 
James II., in 1451, at which period the university was foimded. Its earliest 
commerce was in salmon, about 1420. 

GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass 
by Hermes. The discovery of glass took place in Syria. — Pliny. Glass- 
houses were erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture for 
many ages. This article is mentioned among the Romans in the time of 
Tiberius ; and we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows were 
formed of glass before a. d. 79. Italy had the first glass windows, next 
France, whence they came to England. Used for windows in private houses 
in the reign of Henry II., 1177, but imported. — Andersoii. The manufacture 
was established in England at Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy, in 1557.— 
Stowe. It was improved in 1635. and was brought to great perfection in the 
reign of William III. The duties on glass in England were entirely remit- 
ted, 1845. 

GLASS, Painting on. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles 
in a beautiful style, about a. d. 1500. It is said the art existed in England 
towards the 12th centurj^. It reached to a state of great perfection about 
1530. 

GLENCOE, Massacre or. This was the horrible massacre of the unoffending 
and unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering 
in time to king William's proclamation. About 38 men were brutally slain ; 
and v/omen and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked 



were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 
212 guns; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun. and mortar boats; 
while small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks together, 6000sitells 
were daily thrown into the town; and on a single occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were ex- 
jjended by the enemy. Yet in one night, their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot balls, 
and their whole line of works annihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general 
Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy's lo.ss in munitions of war, on this night alone, was estimated at 
upwards of 2,600,000/. sterlins:. But their L'nuid itel'eat by a gatrison of only 7i}0(3 British, occurred 
Sept. 1-3, 1782. 

15 



338 ~ THE world's progress. [ GOB 

in a dark and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger : this black 
' deed was perpetrated by the earl of Argyle's regiment, May 9, 1691. 

GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principal 
circles of the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar 
eclipses, wei-e taught, and an ecHpse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 
640 B. c. Pythagoras demonstrated from the varying altitudes of the stars 
by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that thera might be an- 
tipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the morning and 
evening star ; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres — the sphere of 
the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire, 
the spheres of the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, 
and the sphere of the stars, about 506 b. c. Aristarchus, of Samos, main- 
tained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the sun ; 
which doctrine Avas held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the phi- 
losopher had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 b. c. The first voyage 
round the globe was performed by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magel- 
lan's squadron, 1520-4. The first English navigator who performed the same 
enterprise was sir Francis Drake, 1577. — See CircumnavigatioJi, and Earth. 

GLORY, Tlie glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, 
angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted from 
the Cjesars and their flatterers, by whom they were used in the first century. 
The doxology of the prayer Gloria Patri was ordained in the church of 
Rome, and was called doxology because it began with dS^a, glory, a. d. 
382. 

GLOVES. They were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving 
of a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities ; and 
two bishops were put in possession of their sees bj' each receiving a glove, 
A D. 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves 
was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was in- 
corporated in 1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in 
1580, and are presented to judges at maiden assizes to this day. 

GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity. 
The tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by the 
Priscillianists ; but the name, which was once glorious, at length became in- 
famous. The Gnostics were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a 
complication of many sects ; and were so called, because they pretended to 
extraordinarj' illuminations and knowledge, one main branch of Avhich con- 
sisted in their pretended genealogies or attributes of the Deity, in which 
they diflered among themselves as much as they did from others. 

GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the 
suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, Avhereof the 
chief, called Giles Gobelin, Avho lived in the reign of Francis I., is said to 
have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which was from him called the 
scarlet of the Gobelins ; the house and river that runs by it also took the 
same name. This house Avas purchased hj Louis XIV. for a manufactory of 
all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under the direc- 
tion of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for Avhich were drawn by 
the celebrated Le Brun. by appointment of the king, a. d. 1666. — Du Pres- 
noy. 

GODFATHERS and GODMOTHERS. The Jcavs had godfathers in the cir- 
cumcision of their sons. In the Christian church sponsion in baptism arose 
in the desire of assuring that the child should be of the religion of Christ. 
It Avas first ordained to be used, according to some, by pope Alexander ; 
according to others, by Sixtns, and others refer it to Telesphorus, about a. d. 



GOO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 331 

130. In Catholic countries they ha\ o g-odfatliers and godmothers in the 
baptism of their bells. 

GOLD. The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has, 
from the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most 
valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with 
copper or silver : in its pure state it is twenty-four carats ; that used in our 
coin is twenty-two carats, and two parts of copper. In the early ages no 
metals were used but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The 
smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to 
ol)servations on volcanoes and to the burning of forests. 

GOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of ' the earth, but is most 
abundant in Africa, Japan, and South America, in which last gold was dis- 
covered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which time to 1731, they imported 
into Europe 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, ex- 
clusively of what were unregistered. In 1730, a piece of gold weighing 
ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), 
was. found near La Paz, a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in Malacca, 
in 1731 ; in New Andulasia in 1785 ; in Ceylon in 1800 ; in Virginia 1829 ; 
in North Carolina 1824 ; South Carolina 1829 ; in Georgia 1830 : in Cali- 
fornia, April 1848. 

GOLD AND SILVER. Quantity produced in forty years from 1790 to 1830, as 
stated in the Mining Journal : 

Gold. Silver. 

Mexico £6,436,453 = £139,818,032 

Chili ........ 2,768,488 = 1,&22,924 

Buenos Ayres 4,021,895 = 27,182,673 

Russia 3,703,743 = 1,502,981 

£17,003,579 = £170,326,610 
The mines of North and South America had, in 1840, sent to Europe 3^ 
times more gold, and 12 times more silver, than those of the other hemis- 
phere. The gold mines in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, 
discovered 1824-30, had produced altogether up to 1835, S'4,377,500. Those 
of California, discovered in the spring of 1848, had produced up to Feb. 
1850, at least 25 millions of dollars in value, a considerable part of which 
was sent to Europe. The amount of California gold coined at the U. S. 
mint in 1849 was about 86,000,000. The total annual production of gold in 
the world was estimated in 1840 at about 36 tons, proportioned thus : North 
and South America 11, Europe and Asiatic Russia 6^, Indian Archipelago, 
4|, Africa 14. See Coin. 

GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from 
lolchos to Colchis to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to re- 
cover his treasures, which the perfidious ^Stes, Idngof Colchis, had seized, 
after murdering their owner. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to 
Colchis, was adorned with the figure of a ram on the poop ; which gave 
occasion to the poets to pretend tliat the journey of Jason was for the re- 
covery of the golden fleece, 1263 b. c. 

(iOLDEN NUMBER. The cj'cle of nineteen years, or number which shows 

the years of the moon's cj'cle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, 

, ab<'ut 432 b. c— Pliny. To find the golden number or year of the Lunar 

cjxle, add one to the date and divide by nineteen, then the quotient is the 

number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden number, 

GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianity, this day has been 
held as a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour on 
Friday, April 3. a. d. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be peculiar to 
the Church of England : our Saxon forefathers denominated it Lona- Fri- 



340 THK world's progress. [ GOV 

day, on account of the great length of the offices observed, and fastings en- 
joined on this day. 

GORDIAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to 
the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, who was afterwards king of Phrygia. 
Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the 
oracle declared should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut 
away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a 
military sense at least, this "conqueror of the world" interpreted the ora- 
cle, 330 B. c. 

GORDON'S "NO POPERY" MOB: occasioned by the zeal of lord George 
Gordon. It consisted of 40.000 persons who assembled in St. George's 
Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry up a peti^L-n 
to parliament for the repeal of the act which granted certain indulgences 
to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised, could not be dispersed, but 
proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging, burning, and jiulling down 
the chapels and private houses of the Catholics first, but afterwards of several 
other persons ; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free, even at- 
tempting the Bank of England, and in a word totally overcc ming the civil 
power for nearly six daj^s. At length, by the aid of armed associations of 
the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties, 
then embodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled. It com- 
menced June 2 ; and on the 8d, the Catholic chapels, and numerous private 
mansions, were destroyed, the bank attempted, and the jails opened; 
among these were the King's Bench, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons ; on the 
5th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end, 210 of the 
rioters were killed, and 248 were wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in 
the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George 
was tried the year after for high treason, but acquitted, June 2 to 7, 1780. 
— Annual Reg ister. 

GOSPELS. St. Mark wrote his gospel a. d. 44 ; St. Matthew in the same year ; 
St. Luke in 55 ; and St. John in 96-7. The gospel of Matthew was found 
buried in the tomb of St. Barbus, and was conveyed to Constantinople in 
485. — Butler. John wrote his gospel at Ephesus two years after he was 
thrown into a caldron of burning oil, from which he was taken out unhurt, 
and b-anished to the isle of Patmos. — Idem. The gospel is the glad tidings 
of the actual coming of the Messiah, and hence the evangelical history of 
Christ. — Hammond. Dr. Robert Bray was the author of the first plan for 
propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Society for the Propagation of the 
Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701. 

GOSPELLERS. The name which was given to the followers of Wickliffe, who 
first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of popery : 
it was affixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of 
their professing to follow and preach only the gospel, a. d. 1377. — Bishop 
Burnet. 

GOTHS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian, 
Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic seas. They attacked the Roman empire a. d. 
251. They were defeated by Claudius, and 320,000 slain, a. d. 269. After 
the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under 
Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained 
their dominion till a. d. 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, 
Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a king- 
dom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens. 

GOVERNMENT, cost of, in EUROPE and the UNITED STATES. In an 
elaborate article in the American Almanac, 1847. this result is reached, viz. : 



GR^ ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



341 



in the United States : aggregate of 
national expenditure, lor each in- 
habitant - - - - $0 97 

Aggregate of State expenditure, for 
each inhabitant - - - 50 

Aggregate of town or city expendi- 
ture, for each inhabitant - - 92 

Total cost of Government in the 

United States, per head - - $2 39 

or 147,800,000 if the population is 
20 millions. 

In England, according to Blaccul- 



loch, the average is equal, per 
head, to - 

In France, according to Chevalier, 
in 1S33, the cost was about 1,250 
millions of francs, or 40 francs per 
head — say - - . - 

Thus, France pays about three 
times, and Great Britain five times 
as much for Government as the 
United States. (See Administra- 
tions of the United States.) 



$12 32 



$7 50 



GRACE AT MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Greeks as the 
altar of friendship, and held sacred itpon that .account. They would not 
partake of anj^ meat until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits, 
to their gods ; and hence came the short jjrayer said before and after meat 
in all Christian countries from the earliest times. — Lenglet. 

GRAMMARIANS, or CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in litera- 
ture were denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed 
at Rome so early as 276 b. c. — Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Ci- 
cero, Messala, Julius Cassar, Nicias, .^lius Donatus, Remmius Palemon, 
Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenieus, and other distinguished men, Avere of 
this class. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to be the only purely grammati- 
cal orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's 
said, " We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it and could not dis- 
cover one error." 

GRANARIES. The Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure 
foo'd for the poorer citizens ; and all who wanted it were provided with corn 
from these reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public trea- 
sury. There were three hundred and twenty-seven granaries at Rome. — 
Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 
quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, 
thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by the great in- 
crease of inhabitants, 7 James I., 1610. — Stowe. 

GRANICUS, Battle of, in which Alexander the Great signally defeated the 
Persians. The Macedonian troops crossed the GraniciTS in the face of the 
Persian army, although the former did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000 
horse, while the Persian amiy amounted to 600,000 foot, and 20,000 horse. 
— Justin. Yet the victors lost in this great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers, 
and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken 
by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted to the conqueror, 334 
B. c. — Bossuet. 

GRATES. The hearths of the early Britons were fixed in the centre of their 
halls. The fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more than a large 
stone depressed below the level of the ground to receive the ashes. There 
were arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons ; and chafing dishes were 
most in use until the general introduction of chimneys, about a. d, 1200. 
See Chimneys. 

GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the 
Greeks, and also by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, 
about A. D. 88. Kepler enlarged upon it, about a. d. -1615; and Hook pub- 
lished it as a system. The principles of gravity were proved by Galileo, at 
Florence, about 1633; and they were subsequently adopted by Newton, 
about 1687. 

GRiECIA MAGNA. That part of Italy where the Greeks planted colonies 



342 



THE world's progress. 



[gre 



but its boundaries are very uncertain. Some say that it extended to the 
southern parts of Italy ; and others suppose that Magna Grgecia compre- 
hended only Campania and Lucania. To these is added Sicily, which was 
likewise peopled by the Greek colonists. — Lemprkre. 

GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly celebrated country of the an- 
cient world, were the progeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece 
was so called from a very ancient king named Grascus ; and another king 
named Hellen, gave his subjects the appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls 
the inhabitants, indifterentiy, Myrmidions, Hellenists, and Achains. For 
ancient Grecian history, see Tabular Views, p. 5 et seq. 



Sicyon founded (Eusebius) - b. c. 2089 
Uranus arrives in Greece {Lejiglet) - 2042 
Revolt of the Titans - - - * ' 

War of the Giants - - - * ' 

Kingdom of Argos begun (Eusebius)- 1856 
Reign of Ogyges in BffiOtia (idem) - 179G 
Sacrifices to the gods iirst introduced in 

Greece by Plioroneus - - - 1773 

According to some authors, Sicyon was 

now begun (Lenglet) - - - 1773 

Deluge oi Ogyges (which see) - - 17(J4 

A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy 

under Oinotrus : the country first 

called Qi!nortria, afterwards Magna 

Groicia (Eusebius) ■ - - 1710 

Chronology of the Arundelian marbles 

commences (Eusebius) - - 1582 

Cecrops comes into Attica (idem) - 1556 
The Areopagus instituted - - 1506 

Deluge of Deucalion (Eusebius) - 1503 
Reign of Hellen (z'dewi) - - -14.59 

Caclinus, with the Phcenician letters, 

settles in Boeotia - - - 1493 

Lelex, lirst king of Laconia, afterwards 

called Sparta - - - - 1490 

Arrival of Danaus, with the first ship 

ever seen in Greece - - -1485 

He gets possession of Argos. His fifty 

daughters - ... 1475 

First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, 

by the Idcbi Daclyli (Eusebius) ■ 1453 
Iron discovered by the Idc&i Dactyli - 1400 
Corinth rebuilt, and so named - - 1384 

Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches 

the art of making bread - - 1383 

The Isthmii.i games instituted - - 1-326 

Mycenae created out of Argos - -1313 

Argonautic expedition (tohich see) ■ 1263 . 
The Pythian games by Adrastus • 1263 

War of the seven Greek captains - 1225 
The Amazonian war ; these martial fe- 
males penetrate into Greece - - 1213 
Rape of Helen by Theseus - -1213 
Rape of Helen by Paris - -1198 
Commencement of the Trojan war - 1193 
Troy taken and destroyed on the night 

of the 7th of the month Tliargelion 

(27th May, or Uth .lune) - - llSl 

^neas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and 

arrives in Italy - - - 1181 

Migration of the ^olian colonies, who 

build Smyrna, &c. • - - 1124 

Settlement of the lonians from Greece 

in Asia Minor . - - - 1044 

The first laws of navigation originate 

with the Rhodians - - - 916 

Homer flourishes about this time 

(Arundelian Marbles) - - 907 

Olympic games revived at Elis - 884 



The first Messenian war ^ - b. 0. 743 
The second Messenian war * - - 685 

The capture of Ira - - - 670 

The Messenians emigrate to Sicily, and 
give their own name Messene to Zan- 
cle (now called Messina) - - 668 

Sea-fight, the first on record, between 
the Corinthians and the inhabitants 
of Corcyra - - - - 664 

Byzantium built by the Argives - 658 

Sybaris, in Magna Grsecia, destroyed, 
100,000 Crotonians under Milo defeat 
300,000 Sybarians - - - 508 

Sardis taken and burnt, which occa- 
sions the Persian invasion - - 504 
Thrace and Macedonia conquered - 496 
Battle of Marathon (icAzcA see) - - 490 
Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked 480 

at Thermopylce by I.eonidas - 
Battle of Salamis (w/ucA see) - - 480 

Mardonius defeix'^d at Plataea - ■ - 479 
Battle of Eutyraedon ... 476 
The third Messenian war - - 465 

Athens begins to tyrannize over the 

other states of Greece - - 459 

Peloponnesus overrun by Pericles - 455 
The first sacred war - - - 448 

Herodotus reads his history ir: the 

Council at Athens ... 445 
The sea-fight at Cnidus - - - 394 

Battle of Mantinea - - - 633 

Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes 

all the cities of the Phoceans - 348 

Battle of Ch^ronea - - - 338 

Alexander, the son of Philip, enters 
Greece ; subdues the Athenians, and 
destroys the city of Thebes - - 335 

Commencement of the Macedonian or 

Grecian Monarchy - - - 331 

Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on the 
throne of Darius - - - 330 

Alaric invades Greece - - a. d. 395 

The empire under Nicephorus com- 
menced .... gii 
Greece mastered by the Latins - - 1204 
Re-conquered .... 1261 
Invaded by the Turks - - - 1.350 
Its final overthrow. See Easter?i Ein- 

pire 13.53 

[This country, so long illustrious for the 
military exploits, the learning, and 
arts of its people, became of late 
years the scene of desperate con- 
flicts with the Turks, in order to re- 
gain its independence, and the coun- 
cils of the great powers of Europe 
were friendly to the design.] 
Great struggle for indepondeuce • 1770 



gre] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



34a 



GREECE, co'ritinued. 

The firet decided movement in tliese lat- 
ter times, by ilie Servians - a. d, 1800 

Tlie Servians defeat ilie Turks at Nyssa 

April 2, 1807 

100,000 Turks, under Chourshid Pasha, 
overrun the country, committing the 
most dreadful excesses - - 1813 

Insurrection in Moldavia and Walla- 
chia, in which the Greeks join - 1821 

Proclamation of prince Alexander to 
shake off the Turkish yoke March, 1821 

The Greek patriarch put to death at 
Constantinople - April 23, 1821 

10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al- 
though not engaged in the revolt - 1821 

Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucha- 
rest; even the women and children 
not spared . - . . 1821 

Independence of Greece formally pro- 
claimed - - Jan. 27, 1822 

Siege of Corinth - - - Felj. 1822 

Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; 
most horrible massacre recorded m 
modern history* - April 23, 1822 

Victories of the Greeks at I^arissa, 
Thermopylae, and Saloiiica, - July 8, 1822 

National Congress at Argos - April 10, 1823 

Victories of Marco Botzans - June, 1823 

Lord Byron lands in Greece, to devote 
himself to its cause - August. 1823 

Lamented death ol' Lord Byron, at Mis- 
solonghi - - April 19, 1824 

Signal defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at 
Samos - - August 16, 1824 

The Provisional Government of Greece 
instituted - - Oct. 12, 1824 

The Greek fleet defeats that of the Ca- 
pitan Pacha - - June 2, 1825 

The Provisional Government of Greece 
invites the protection of Englanct 

July 24, 1825 

Siege of Missolonghi : the besieging 
Turks are defeated in a formidable 
attack upon it - August 1, 1826 

The Greeks disperse the Ottoman fleet 

Jan. 28, 1826 



Ibrahim Pacha takes Mistolonghi by 
assault - - April 23, 1826 

The Greeks land near Salonica ; battle 
with Omer Pacha - June 1, 182G 

Ibrahim Pacha signally defeated by the 
Mainotes - August 8 and 9, 1826 

Redschid Pacha takes Athens, Aug. 15, 1826 

Tieaty of London, between Great Bri- 

■ tain, Russia, and France, on behalf 
of Greece, signed - July 6, 18-7 

Battle of Navarino '^which see) ; the 
Turkish fleet destroyed - Oct. 20, 18-7 

Count Capo d'Istria arrives as Presi- 
dent of Greece - - Jan. 18. 18-ti 

The Panhellenion or Grand Council of 
State established - Feb. 2, 1828 

National Bank founded • Feb. 14, 1S2S 

Greece divided into departments, viz. 
Argolis, Achaia, Elis, Upper Messe- 
nia. Lower Messenia, Laconia, and 
Arcadia, and the islands formed also 
into departments - April 26, 1328 

Final evacuation of the Morea by the ■* 
Turks - - - Oct. 30, 1828 

Missolonghi surrenders - May 17, 1829 

Greek National Assembly commences 
its sittings at Argos - July 23, 1829 

The Porte acknowledges the indeperjc^- 
ence of Greece - - April 25, 1830 

Prince Leopold finally declines the so- 
vereignty - - May 21, 1S30 

Count Capo d'Istria, Preside'nt of 
Greece, assassinated by the brother 
and son of Mavromichaelis, a Mainote 
chief, whom he had imprisoned Oct. 9, 1831 

The assassins put to death Oct. 29, 1831 

Otho I. elected king of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833 
Colocotroni's conspiracy - Oct. 27, 1833 
A bloodless revolution at Athens, to en- 
force ministerial responsibility and 
national representation, is consum- 
mated - ■ - Sept. 14, 1843 
The king accepts the new constitution 

March 16, 1844 
[See Athens, Macedon, Sparta, Thrace, and 
other states of Greece.] 



GREEK CHURCH. A difference arose in the eighth centurj^ between the 
eastern and western churches, which in the course of two centuries and a 
half terminated in a separation : this cliurch is called Greek in contradis- 
tinction from the latter, or Roman church. The Greek church claims prior- 
ity as using the language in which the Gospel was first promulgated, and 
many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of the Roman Catho- 
lics ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope. It is the established reli- 
gion of Russia. 

GREEK FIRE. A composition of combustible matter invented by one Calli- 
nicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in SjTia, in the seventh century, 



* The slaughter lasted 10 days ; 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the fire 
which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000 
Greeks, who had fled to the mountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, guar- 
anteed by the consuls of England, France and Austria, yet even they were, every man of tfiem, 
butchered ! The only exception made dining the massacre was in favor of the young and more 
beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved for the markets. The narrative of plun- 
del', violation, and crime, while the mfidel army was let loose upon the captured cilv. is too long 
and too shocking for transcription here. 



344 THE world's PKOGnESS. ( \JtVA 

in order to destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general 
of the emperor Pogonat's fleet, and 80,000 men were killed. The property 
of this fire was to burn briskest in water, to difituse itself on all sides, ac- 
cording to the impi'ession given it. Nothing but oil, or a mixture of vine- 
gar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes of 
copper, and shot out of cross-bows, and other spring instruments. The in- 
vention was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople ; 
but it is now lost. 

GREEK LANGUAGE. The Greek language was first studied in Europe 
about A. D. 1450 — in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned 
English professor of this language, travelled to acquire its true pronuncia- 
tion, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the honcr to teach Ei'asmus, 
1490. — Wood's Athen. Oxon. 

GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland, about a p. 980, 
and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter 
country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship from England 
to Greenland was sent for the Avhale fishery by the Muscovy Company, 2 
James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left behind 
by accident, and suffered incredible hardships till the following year, when 
the company's ships brought them home. — Tindal. The Greenland Fishing 
Company was incorporated in 1693. 

GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore 
and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamstead-hill, 
so called from the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astro- 
nomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude from the 
meridian of this place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679. This observatory 
contains a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit instrument of eight feet 
by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith sector. 
The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet re- 
flector ; and among other fine instruments and objects is a famous camera 
obscura. 

GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregory- XIIL, 
from whom it derives its name, a.d. 1582 ; and introduced into the Catholic 
states of Europe in that year ; into most other states in 1710 ; and adopted 
by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian ca- 
lendar had amounted to ten days ; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to 
eleven days. See Calendar, and Ne%o Style. 

GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 715 ; it was the last kingdom pos- 
sessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491 ; 
the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada M'as conquered 
by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the 
French, 1650 ; it was taken from them by the English in 1762, and waa 
ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again,in 
1779 ; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the 
French landed some troops, and caused an insurrection in this island, which 
was not finally quelled till June, 1796. 

GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word anciently meant 
" ingrossers or monopolizers," as appears by a statute, 37 Edward III. The 
Grocers' Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of Lon- 
don, incorporated in 1429. 

GUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, a. d. 1493.' It was colonized by 
the French in 1635. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. 
Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810 ; and in order to allure 



GUY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 345 

the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave them this island. It was, 
howevei", by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814. 

GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES. These were party names, and are said to have 
been derived from Hiewelf and Hiegiblin, the names of towns. The desig- 
nation began in Italy, a. d. 1139, and distinguished the contending armies 
during the civil wars in Germany; the Guelplis were for the pope, and the 
Ghibelines were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present royal 
family of England. — See Brunswick. The Guelphic order of knighthood 
was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards 
George IV., in 1816. 

GUILLOTINE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise 
obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be 
seen in an engraving accompanying the Symbolicts Questiones of Achilles 
Bocchius, 4to, 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy) ; it is there 
called the Mo.nnaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax, England (see Halifax ; 
Maiden), soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the 
regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France, 
from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his 
name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling god- 
father was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some 
hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation ; but he (contrary to a 
prevailing opinion) escaped, a.nd lived to become one of the founders of the 
Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 26, 1814, aged seventy-six, 
enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues. 

GUINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first 
coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea, a. d. 1673. They were 
then valued at oOs. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced 
in currency from 225. to 21s. by parliament in 1717. Broad pieces were 
coined into giiineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of 
an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold. 

(xUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Ber- 
tholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Bruns- 
wick, in Germany, about a. d. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was 
known much earlier in various parts of the Avorld. Some say that the Chi- 
nese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition, 
moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famous Roger Bacon, in his 
treatise De Nullitate Magice, which was published at Oxford, in 1216. 

GUNPOWDER PLOT in ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracy known by 
this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and des- 
troying the three estates of the realm — king, lords, and commons — there 
assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This diabolical scheme was 
projected by Robert Catesby, and many high persons were leagued in the 
enterprise G aj'- Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of Lords, 
preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of 
the family of Northumberland) were killed ; sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, 
Winter. Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner, 
as did Guy Faux. January 31. 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in 
which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained in the 
late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into oflices. 

GUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin 
to Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who, after having be- 
stowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder 
of another hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the 
erection of the present building, and lived to see it neai'ly completed. It 

15* 



346 THE world's progress. [hao 

cost him 18,793<., in addition to whicli he left to endow it, the immense sum 
of 219,499/. A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,000/. was made to this 
hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients ; 
his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829. 
GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were 
performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also 
philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrest- 
ling and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word Gymna- 
sium — gumnos, 7iudus. They anointed themselves with oil to brace their 
limbs, and to render their bodies slipperj^, and more difficult to be grasped. 
The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was published in 
Germany in 1793. London society formed, 1826. 

■3iTSIES, OR EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and pecu- 
liar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about a. d. 
1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the des- 
cendants of a great body of Egyptians who revolted from the Turkish yoke, 
and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the world, while their 
supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal recej.tion in ^hat age 
of credulity and superstition. Although expelled from France in 1560, and 
from most countries soon after, thej' are yet found in every part of Europe, 
as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have con- 
trived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against their 
itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons Avere ex- 
ecuted at one assizes for having associated with gypsies for about a month, 
contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near London, 
was broken up, and tliey were treated as vagrants, May 1797. There were 
in Spain alone, previously to the j^ear 1800, more than 120.000 gypsies, and 
many communities of them yet exist in England; and notwithstanding their 
intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, 
customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged. 

H. 

HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' TFHi of Right, passed for the security and 
liberty of individuals. May 27, 1679. This act is next in importance to 
Magna Charta, for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of En- 
gland can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is 
shown to be justified by the law. Tlie Habeas Corpus Act can alone be sus- 
pended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and 
when the emergency is extreme. In such a case, the nation parts with a 
portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected 
persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned. — 
BlacksLone. 

HACKNEY COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob- 
horse {liaquenee) was let out on hire for short journej^s: these were latterly 
harnessed (to accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle 
called cochc-tb-haquenee : hence the name. The legend tliat traces their ori- 
gin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They were first licensed in 
1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary, 1694. — Survey of 
London. The number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raised., 
1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin; but the aristocratic taste of 
Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on 
the outside of the vehicle. 

HAGUE. Once called the finest village in Europe : the place of meeting of the 
States-General, and residence of the former earls of H'.illand, the princes of 



HAM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 347 

Holland, &c. Here the States, in 1588, abrogated the authority of Philip 
n. of Spain, and held a conference in 1610, upon the live articles of the re- 
monstrants, which occasioned the synod of Dort. Treaty of the Hague, 
entered into with a view to preserve the equilibrium of the North, signed 
by England, France, and Holland, May 21, 1659. De Witt was torn in pieces 
here, August 20, 1672. The French took possession of the Hague in Janu- 
ary, 1795; favored by a hard frost, they marched into Holland, where the 
inhabitants and troops declared in their favor, a general revolution ensued, 
and the stadtholder and his family were compelled to leave the country and 
escape to England. The Hague was evacuated in November 1813, shortly , 
after the battle of Leipsic, and the stadtholder returned to his dominions 
and arrived here in December, that year. Treaty of Commerce bfltween 
England and Holland, December 16, 1837. 

HAIR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and 
hence the appellation Gallia comata; and cutting off the hair was inflicted 
as a punishment among them. The royal family of France had it as a par- 
ticular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood, to wear 
long hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is of apostolic 
institution. — -Isidorus Hispalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear 
long hair, a. d. 155. Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate 
of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads. It was again out of fashion 
in 1795 ; and very short hair was the mode in 1801. Hair-powder came into 
use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons rising it in England, 
which yielded 20.000Z. per annum, 

HALCYON DAYS, in antiquity, implied seven days before and as many after 
the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her eggs at this time of the 
year, and the weather during her incubation was always calm. The phrase 
was afterwards employed to express any season of transient prosperity, or 
of brief tranquillity, the septem placidi dies of human life. — Butler. 

HALLIDON HILL, Battle of, near Berwick, between the English and Scots, 
in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13,000 slain, while a com- 
paratively small number of the English suffered, reign of Edward III., July 
19, 1333. After this victory, Edward placed Edward Baliol on the throne of 
Scotland. — Robertson. 

HALIFAX, Yorkshire. Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen ma-' 
nufacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths, kerseys, 
shalloons, &c. being continually on the tenters and liable to be stolen, -the 
town, at its first incorporation, was empowered to punish capitally any crim- 
inal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, 
by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the offender in a moment; but king 
James I. in tlie year 1620, took this power away : and the town is now under 
the ordinary course of justice. See Maiden. 

HALLELUJAH and AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the 
Jewish hymns : from the Jewish they came into the Christian church. The 
meaning of the first is Praise the Lord, and of the second So be it. They were 
first introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 584 b. c. ; and their intro- 
duction from the Jewish into the Christian church is ascribed to St. JeromC; 
one of the primitive Latin fathers, about a. d. 390. — Cave's Hist. Lit. 

HAMBURGH. The company of Hambro' merchants was incorporated in 1296. 
France declared v>-ar upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napper 
Tandy, (see Nappe rTamly.) October 1799. British property sequestrated, 
March 1801. Hamburgh"'taken by the French after the battle of Jena in 
1806. Incorporated with France, January 1810. Evacuated by the French 
on the advance of the Russians into Germanj^ in 1813 ; and restored to its 



348 THE world's progress. [ HAP 

independence by the allied sovereigns, May 1814. Awful fire here, which 
destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- 
tinued for three days, May 4, 1842. 
HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the 
manor-house of the knights-hospitallers. In 1526, the cardinal presented it 
to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his 
mother, Jane Seymour, died ; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of 
our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments were pulled down, and 
the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was 
held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and the 
members of the Established Church, which led to a new translation of the 
Bible. See Conference. 
HANGED, DRAWN, and QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbar- 
ous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a noble- 
man's son, 25 Henry III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of 
Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of 
execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and 
their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447. 
— Stov;e. The punishment of death by hanging has been abolished in nu- 
merous cases by various statutes. See Death, punishment of. Hanging in 
chains was abolished 4 William IV., 1834. 
HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George 
I. got possession of Zell, Saxe, Bremen, Verden, and other duchies and 
principalities. Hanover became the ninth electorate, a. d. 1692. It was 
seized by Prussia, April 3, 1801 ; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1803 ; 
and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by the 
crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813, and erected into a kingdom, 
Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in 
November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke 
of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837 ; he granted freedom 
of the press and other concessions, March 17, 1848. 
HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, established by law, June 12, 1701, when an 
act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise 
of William III. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia, 
of Hanover and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the 
granddaughter of James I. George I. the son of Ernest Augustus, duke of 
Brunswick Luneburgh elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the 
throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, Aiigust 1, 1714. 
HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was 
formed by a number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other 
against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : this association began in 
1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns 
situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation in- 
creasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe but desired to be 
admitted into it, and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They 
grew so formidable as to proclaim war on Waldemar, king of Denmark, 
about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428, with forty ships, and 12 000 
regular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who 
ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their 
effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association. 
In 1630, the only toAvns of note of this once powerful league retaining the 
name, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. 
HAPSBURGH, House op. One of the most illustrious families in Europe. 
Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near 
Schintznach. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Austria, 



HAS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 349 

whose ancestors may be traced back to the beginning of the 13th century, 
when Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of Germany 
and archduchy of Austria, a. d. 1273. See Germany. 

HARLEQUIN. This term is derived from a famous and droll comedian, who 
so much frequented Mr. Harley's house, that his friends and acquaintance 
used to call him Harlequhw, httle Harley.— ilfcmaore. Originally the name 
implied a merry andrew, or buffoon ; but it now means an expert dancer at 
a play-house. 

H ARLOTS. "Women who were called by synonyma conveying the meaning of 
harlot, were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The celebra- 
ted Lais of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her vicious 
amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of Thes- 
saly, in order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about 
350 B. c. It is affirmed that the mother of William I., of England, a fur- 
rier's daughter of Falaise, whose name was Arlotta, was of so infamous a 
character, that our odious term harlot is derived from her name. — Dr. John- 
son. In England, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party ?olors, 
and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III.. 
1352. 

HARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings, 
in consequence of hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers in har- 
mony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve ; or rather 
by squares, as thirtj^-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and forty- 
four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs from the tones of them were 
first formed by an Irish gentleman named P'uckeridge. — Franklin. The in- 
vention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760. 

HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harp 
before Saul. — 1 Sam. xvi. 23. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the 
moderns. The Romans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had very 
few strings. The Cirabri or English Saxons had this instrument. The cele- 
brated Welch harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more 
ancient harps, with wire. 

HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. Harrison's first instrument was invented in 
1735 ; his second in 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured 
him the reward of 20,000^., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of Longi- 
tude, was produced a few years after. His celebrated time-piece was per- 
fected in 1772. 

HARTFORD CONVENTION. The celebrated convention of delegates from 
the New England States opposed to the war and to the administration of 
]\Iadison, met Dec. 15, 1814. 

HASTINGS, Battle of, one of the most memorable and bloody, and in which 
more than thirty thoi;sand were slain, fought between Harold II. of Eng- 
land, and William, duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life and 
kingdom. William, hence surnamed the Conqueror, was soon after crowned 
king of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, known as the Con- 
quest, in the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066. 

HASTINGS, WARREN, Trial op. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India, 
tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors, but 
acquitted, although he had committed many acts during his government 
which, it was thought, ought to have led to a different result. Among other 
charges against him, Avas liis acceptance of a present of 100,000Z. from the 
nabob of Oude, and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular means 
of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and three month?. 



350 THE world's progress. [ HEG 

1788-95. Shei-idan's celebrated speech, on the impeachment of Mr. Has- 
tings, attracted universal admiration. 
HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, a. d. 1404. They 
are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his trium- 
phal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined with red velvet, and 
surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is ft-om this reign that the 
use of hats and caps is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place 
of the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats 
were first manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510 : before this time 
both men and women wore close-knit woollen caps. — Stowe. Verj' high 
crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high crowns 
were again introduced in 1788. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng- 
land in 1784, and again in 1796 ; it was repealed in 1811. 

IIaVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the 

English, in 1562. It has been bombarded several times by the British navy, 

^ in 1759, in 1794. in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a state of blockade, 

Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts to burn the shipping here failed, August 7, 

1804. 

HAYTI, OR H.iiTi, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus .n 
1492. Before the Spania,rds finallj' conquered it, they are said to have de- 
stroyed in battle or cold blood, 8.000 000 of its inhabitants, including 
women and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St. 
Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 7, 1802. Des- 
salines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 
1804. See St. Dooningo. Dessalines was crowned king, by the title of Jac- 
ques I., Oct. 8, 1804. He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe, a man of 
color, became president in Feb. 1807, and was crowned emperor by the title 
of Henry I., in March 1811 ; while Petion ruled as president at Port-au-Prince. 
Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion died, 
and Boyer Avas elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed 
suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821. 
Decree of the king of France confirming it, A\)\'\\ 1825. Souloque elected 
president, March 2, 1847 ; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849. 

HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, a. d. 1606. Bourgain- 
ville visited them in 17C8, and found that the land was not connected, but 
composed of islands, which he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774, 
ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the 
name they now bear. 

HECATOMB. This was a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen ; 
biit it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they 
possessed a himdred capital cities. In the course of time this sac- 
rifice was reduced to tv.-enty-three oxen; and in the end, to lessen the 
expense, goats and lambs were substituted for oxen. — Potter. 

HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred a. d. 1004. About 
twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. 
The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic 
mountain occurred in 1783. See Iceland. 

HEGIRA, Era op thk, dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, 
v.'hicii event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, a. d. 622 ; 
the era commences on the following day, viz : — the 16th of July. Many 
chronologists have computed this era from the 15th July; but Cantemir 
has givon examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the 
first day of the era ; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Mahovieiisvi 
and Medina. 



DOR, J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 351 

HEIDELBERG, and HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on the 
river Neckar, was formerly the capital of the Palatinate : the protestant 
electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a bloody war ensued, in which the 
famous castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mann- 
heim. Here was the celebrated Heildelberg Tun, which held 800 hogsheads, 
and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine. The University of 
Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346, 
contained in 1840, 622 students. 

HELEN, Rape of, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 b. c. Helen was the 
most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very 
lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him, however, 
she was released, yet innocent, by her brothers; and after her return to the 
court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece, 
and Ulysses persuaded the suitors to bind themselves on oath to abide by 
the iminfluenced choice of Helen, and to defend her person and character 
from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice of 
Menelaus. Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his 
hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen : carrying her away, though 
not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris, Priam, 
received her in his palace without difficulty ; and Menelaus, assembling the 
princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath : and the siege and destruc- 
tion of Troy followed, 1184 b. c. Paris was previously married, his wife 
being ffinone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida ; and at his 
death by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoc- 
tetes, he desired in his dying moments to be carried to QHnone, whom he 
had so basely deserted ; but he expired on the way. The nymph, however, 
still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed 
it with her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart. 

HELENA, St. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival 
of St. Helena, a. d. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it 
until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India 
company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by 
the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12, assigned it 
to the company once more. St. Helena M'as luade the place of Napoleon's 
captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 
1821. 

HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it 
was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1807, and formed a dep6t for British mer- 
chandise intended for the Continent during the Avar. Confirmed to England 
by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was 
ceded to Sweden. Though a mere rock, this is an important possession of 
the British crown. 

HELIOMETER. a valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, in- 
vented by M. Bouguer, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Christo- 
pher Scheiner in 1625. 

HELMETS. They were Avorn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among 
the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise 
above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks 
was round, and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a. 
plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English 
kings had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had 
a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was 
surmounted by a crown, 1306. — Gwillini. 

HELOTS. The people of Helos, against Avhom the Spartans bore desperate 



352 THE world's progress. [hek 

resentment for refusing to pay tribute, 883 b. c. The Spartans, not satisfied 
with the ruin of their city, reduced tlae Helots to the most debasing slavery ; 
and to complete their infamy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the 
prisoners of war, by the degrading name of HelotcB, and further exposed 
them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 b. c. But in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were reward- 
ed with their liberty, 431 b. c. But this act of justice did not last long ; and 
the sudden disapi>earance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the 
Lacedemonians. — Herodotus. 

HEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed 
to be sown for fishing-nets, a. d. 1533. Bounties were paid to encourage its 
cultivation in 1783 ; and every exertion should be made bj^ the government 
and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were im- 
ported from Russia in British ships, 17,695 tons of hemp and flax. — Sir John 
Sinclair. The annual importations of these articles now amount to about 
100,000 tons. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp are used in the cordage 
of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails. 

HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings) in England 
was gradually formed from a. d. 455, when Hengist became the king of Kent, 
and that kingdom was erected. The Heptarchy terminated in a. d. 828, 
when Egbert reduced the other kingdoms, and became sole monarch of 
England. For the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, see Britain. 

HERACLID^^, The, or the retm-n of the Heraclidse into the Peloponnesus : a 
famous epoch in chronology that constitutes the beginning of profane his- 
torj', all the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This 
return happened 100 j^ears after they were expelled, and eighty years after 
the destruction of Troy, 1104 b. c. 

HERALDRY. Signs and marks of honor were made use of in the first ages of 
tlie world. — Nisbct. The Phrygians had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the 
Romans, an eagle: the Goths, a bear; the Flemings, a bull; the Saxons, a 
horse ; ahd the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis, which 
see. Hei'aldry, as digested into an art, and subjected to rules, may be ascribed 
in the first instance to Charlemagne, about the year 800 ; and in the next, 
to Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 1152 ; it began and grew with the 
feudal law. — Sir George Mackenzie. It was at length methodized and 
perfected bv the crusades and tournaments, the former commencing in 
1095. 

HERCTJL ANEUM. An ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with 
Pompeii, by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, a. d. 79. Herculaneum was 
buried under streams of lava, and successive eruptions laid it still deeper 
under the surface. All traces of them were lost until a. d. 1711, from which 
year manj^ curiosities, works of art, and monuments and memorials of civil- 
ized life have been discovered to the present time. 150 volumes of MSS. 
were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and many antiquities were purchased by sir 
William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British museum, 
where they are deposited ; but the principal antiquities are preserved in the 
museum of Portici. 

HE.RETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect ; now here- 
tics are those who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Ca- 
tholic church.— i?a-co?i. Tens of thousands of them have suffered death by 
torture in Roman Catholic countries. — Burnet. See Inquisition. Simon 
Magus was the first heretic; he came to Rome a. d. 41. Thirty heretics 
came from Germany to England to propagate their opinions, and were 



HIG J DICTIONARY OF UATKS. 353 

branded in the forehead, wliipped, and thrust naked into the streets in 
the depth of winter, wliere, none daring to relieve them, they died of hun- 
ger and cold, 1160.— Speed. In the reign of Henry VIII. to be in possession 
of Tindal's Bible constituted heresy. The laws against heretics were re- 
pealed, 25 Henry VIH., 1534-5. 

HERMITS. The name first given to those that retired to desert places, to 
avoid persecution, where they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and 
meditation. They were also caUed anchorets ; and commonly lodged in 
dark caves, where their food was such roots as nature bestowed freely with- 
out culture. From these came the monks, and almost all the sorts of reli- 
gious assemblies that Hve in monasteries. In the seventh persecution of the 
Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, retired into Thebais, 
and became the first example of a monastic life, about a. d. 250. 

HERO AND LEANDER: their amour. The fidelity of these lovers was so 
great, and their attachment to each other so strong, that Leander in the 
night frequently swam across the Hellespont, from Abydos to Sestos, to 
have secret interviews with Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus, she -Ji- 
recting his course by a burning flambeaux. After many stolen interviews, 
Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night, and Hero threw herself from 
her tower, and perished in the sea, 627 s. c.—Livij, Herodotus. 

HERRING-FISHERY. It was largely encouraged by the Scotch so early as 
the ninth century. The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of 
preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 1390, and gave rise to 
the herring fishery as a branch of commerce. — Anderson. The British 
Herring Fishery Company was instituted Sept. 2, 1750. 

HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, The. Herchel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet re- 
flectors were made about 1779. He discovers the Georgium Sidus (which 
see\ March 21, 1781. He discovers a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 
1783 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope, 
which he completed in 1787, when he discovered two other volcanic moun- 
tains, emitting fire from their summits. In 1802, he by means of his teles- 
copes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 new 
nebulaj, nebulous stars, planetary nebulae, and clusters of stars which he 
had discovered. 

HESSE, House of. Its various branches derive their origin from Gerberge, 
daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, who was 
descended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II. earl 
of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel, by Henry 
v., first of the family who bore the title of landgrave, are descended. 
There is no family in Germany more noble by their alliances than this ; and 
it gives place to none for the heroes and statesmen it has produced. Sis 
thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion 
being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,000Z. three per cent, stock, was 
transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the 
American war, at 30Z. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again 
hired by England, and served in Ireland during the memorable rebellion 
there in 1798. 

HIEROGLYPHICS. The first writing men used was only the single pictures 
and engravings of the things they would represent. — Woodvrard. Hiero- 
glyphic characters were invented by Athothes, 2112 b. c. — Usher. The 
earliest records of them were the Egyptian, the first step towards letters, 
and some monuments whose objects were described by exaggerated tradi- 
tion, or when forgotten, imagined. — Phillips. 

HIGH CHURCH and LOW CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned by 



354 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[hoi 



the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Southwark, for 
two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensions 
of the people for the safety of the Churcli, and to excite hostility against 
the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his opponents 
Low Chui'ch, or moderate men, 8 Anne, 1710. The queen, Avho f-ivored Sa- 
cheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. 
He died in 1724. 

HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating 
the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to 
British liberty, the 25tli of Edward HI. 1552. By this statute two living 
witnesses are required in cases of high treason ; and it arose in the refusal 
of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somer- 
set — it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the present day. 
By the 40th George HI. 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial 
for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life 
of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as the 
case of an indictment for murder. Sec Trials. 

HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII. ; and this, and 
sometimes Your Gra:.e, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but 
about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of High- 
ness and " Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty. 

HINDOO ERA, or Era of the Caliyug, began 3101 b. c. or 756 before the De- 
luge, in 2-348 : and the Hindoos coimt their months by the progress of the 
sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 b. c. : and the Saca era, 
A. D. 77 : they are all used by the Hindoo nations. 

HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are 
vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian 
Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, 
are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history is con- 
sidered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a. d. 
476 ; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about a. d. 
800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the 
English universities mitil the j^ears 1724 and 1736. when Regius professor- 
ships were established by George I. and George II. A professorship of 
"history founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, who was 
succeeded by Francis Bowen, 1850. 

HOHENLINDEN, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, the 
latter commanded by general Moreau. The Imperialists were defeated 
with great loss, their l^illed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and 
their loss in prisoners to 10-000 more, November 3, 1800. 

HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this country were the Batavians, who 
derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been 
obliged to abandon tlieir country on account of civil Avars, they came and 
established themselves in a morass, formed by the waters of the Rhine and 
the Waal, which they named Bettuive, or Batavia, from Batton, the son of 
their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion 
of Francs and Frisians. 



Sovereignty fiunded by Thierry, first 

count'of H 'land - - a. d. 868 

The county o Holland devolves to the 

counts of Hdinault - - - 1299 

It falls to the crown of Philip the Good, 

duke of Burgundy - - - 1436 

100,000 persons arc drowned by the sea 

breaking in at Dort - - ■ H46 



Burgundy and its dependencies become 
a circle of the empire - - - 1521 

They fall to Spain, vdiose tyranny and 
religious persecution cause a revolt 
in Batavia - - - - 1066 

The revolted states with William, 
prince of Orange, at their liead, en- 
ter into a treaty at Utrecht - ■ 1579 



hol] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



355 



HOLIiAND, continued. 

They elect William as Stadiholdnr 

The Stadtholder, William, is assassi- 
nated - - - - . - 

The Dutch East India company found- 
ed 

After a struggle of thirty years, the king 
of Spain is obliged to declare the Ba- 
tavians free - - - - 

The republic wars against Spain in the 
East, and in America ; the Dutch ad- 
miral, Peter Hen, takes several Spa- 
nish galleons, value 20,000,000^. ster- 
ling 

Cromwell declares war against Hol- 
land, and many naval battles are 
fought; Blake signally defeats Van 
Tromp . - - - - 

William, prince of Orange, having 
married Mary, daughter of James II., 
is called to the British throne 

The office of Stadtholder is made here- 
ditary in the Orange family 

Era of the civil war 

The French Republican army march 
into Holland ; the people declare in 
their favor - - - - 

Tlie Stadtholder expelled Jan. 10, 

He arrives in England - Jan. 21, 

Battle of Camperdown, Duncan sig- 
nally defeats the Dutch - Oct. 11, 

The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the 
line, with thirteen Imiiamen. surren- 
dered to the British admiral Duncan, 
without firing a gun - Aug. 28, 

A new constitution is given to the Ba- 
tavian republic ; the chief officer (R. 
J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title 
of Grand Pensionary - April 26, 



1579 

1584 
1G02 

1609 



1747 
1787 



1793 
1795 
1795 

1797 



1805 



. Holland erected into a kingdom, and 
] Louis Bonaparte declared king 
I June 5, 1806 

! Louis abdicates - - July 1, 1810 

Holland united to France - July 9, 1810 
I Restored to the house of Orange, and 
Belgium annexed to its dominions 

Nov. 18, 1813 

The prince of Orange is proclaimed so- 
vereign prince of the United Nether- 
lands - - - Dec. 6, 1813 

He receives the oath of allegiance 
from his subjects - March 30, 1814 

And takes the title of king as William 
I. - - - March 16, 1815 

The revolution in Belgium {which see) 
commenced - - Aug. 25, 1830 

The Belgians take the city of Antwerp 
Qwhicii ,-.ee) - - Oc; 27, 1830 

Belgium is separated from Holji.nd, 
and Leopold of Cobourg is elected 
king - - - July 12, 1831 

Holland renews the war against Bel- 
gium - - - Aug ?j 1831 

Conference in London on the affairs of 
Holland and the Netherlands termi- 
nates, see Belgium - Nov. 15, 1831 

Treaty between Holland and Belgium, 
signed in London - April 19, 1839 

Abdication of William I. in favor of 
his son - - - Oct. 8, 1840 

Death of the ex-king - Dec. 12, 1844 

The king promises his assent to all re- 
forms passed by the chambers 

March 14, 1848 

New constitution appears, April 17, 1848 

Death of William II. - March 17, 1849 



STADTHOLDEKS, ETC. 



A.D.1554 William the Great succeeds his cou- 
sin Rene, to whom the United Pro- 
vinces owe their foundation and glo- 
ry : killed by an assassin, hired by 
Phifip of Spain. 

1584 Henry Philip William. 

1618 Maurice, a consummate general. 

1625 Frederick Henry. 

1647 William II. 

1650 William III. made stadtholder in 1672, 
and king of England in 1689. 



1702 John William Frizo, drowned in pass- 
ing a ferry in Holland. 

171 1 Charles Henry Frizo. 

1747 William IV., first hereditary stadt- 
holder. 

1751 William V. 

KINGS. 

1813 William I. 
1840 William II. 

1849 William III., present king, (1852.) 
See Belgium. 

HOLLAND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first 
discovered. In 1605, etseq., various parts of the coast were traced by the 
Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the 
south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. The eastern coast, 
called New South Wales, was taken possession of, in his Britannic majesty's 
name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botayiy Bay, New South Walex, and 
Van Diemeii's Land. 

HOLY" ALLIANCE. A leagne so called between the emperors of Russia and 
Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound them- 
selves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all 
their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, Septem- 
ber 26, 181-5. 

HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as a. d. 120.— 

Askc. 



356 THE world's progress. [ HOP 

HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Troy furnish the two 
most perfect Epic* poems in the world, written by the greatest poet that 
has ever lived ; about 915 b. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of 
Achilles ; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after 
the destruction of Troy. Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Con- 
stantinople, A. D. 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written 
in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. — Univ. Hist. 
The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury to 
mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to 
sleep with them always on his pillow. — Darwin. 

HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 b. c. 
He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another 
that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not 
deemed guilty. He who liilled a man taken with another's wife, sister, 
daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds, 
assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews, 
wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly 
to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high 
priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil power, 
wilful homicide was punished with a twentj'- years' penance. Our laws dis- 
tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees 
of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder. 

HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such 
as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious 
drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a 
moon's age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, of 
Teutonic origin. Attila, the devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Eu- 
rope, drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel on his marriage-day, that he 
died in the night from suftbcation, 453 a. d. His death is. however, ascribed 
to another cause. See AUila. 

"HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salis- 
bury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward 
III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words: " Honi soit qui vial 
y pense" " evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the 
motto of the Garter ; but this statement of the origin of the motto is un- 
supported by sufficient authority. — Goldsmith. 

HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly 
among the Romans, and temples Avere ultimatelj^ erected to Honor bj'' that 
people as a divinity. The first temple Avas built bj^ Scipio Africanus, about 
B. c. 197 ; and others were raised to her worship bj' C. Marius, about 102 
B. c. These temples were so constructed that it Avas impossible to enter 
that to Honor Avithout going through the temple of Virtue ; and Marius 
ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby 
to intimate to the Avorshippers that humility AA'as the true Avay to honor. 

HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, a. d. 1524, and Averc 
used in brcAving ; but the physicians having represented that they Avere un- 
wholesome, parliament Avas petitioned against them as being a wicked AA'eed, 
and their use AA'as prohibited in 1528. — Anderson. At present there are 
betAveen fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually under the 



' The epic poems of Homer and Vikgil, the GierusaJetnme of Tasso, the Paradise Lout of 
Milton, and the Ilenriade of Voltaire, are the noblest that exist ; and JMilton's is considered 
to rank next to Homer's. " Paradise Lost is not the greatest of epic poems," observe.s Dr. John- 
son, " only because it is not the first." — Butler. 



HUD ] DICTJOjSIARY OF DATES. 357 

culture of hops in England. They are grown chiefly in Hereford, Kent, and 
Worcestershire. 

HORATII AND CURATII, The Combat of the, 669 b. c. The Romans and the 
Albans contesting for superiority,' agreed to choose three champions on 
each side to determine to which it belonged ; and the three Horatii, Roman 
knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected bj^ their respective 
countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the 
Horatii, united Alba to Rome. 

HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably 
were the first, among the Greeks at least, Avho rode upon horses, and broke 
them in for service in war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was ori- 
ginally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40.000 stalls of horses for 
his chariots, and 12.000 horsemen. — 1 Kings, iv. 26. The power of the 
horse is equal to that of five men. — Smeaton. A horse can perform the 
work of six men. — Bosstoet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering 
to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In .the ninth century, horses were 
only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced 
into England by William I., 1066. In England there are two millions 
of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thousand agricultural 
horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horse- 
tax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses 
in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding " only in England, 
amounts to about 350,000Z. per year. See Race Horses. 

HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem, 
who were under religious vows ; instituted by opening a hospital for the 
reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in a. d. 1048. They became a monastic 
order in 1092 ; and a military order in 1118. See Malta. 

HOSPITALS OF LONDON. Several of these most valuable and merciful in- 
stitutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most muni- 
ficent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, Southwark, 
a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,793Z., and 
endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,499Z. See Infirmaries. 

HOST, Elevation of the. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and pros- 
tration enjoined, in a. d. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontifi^ who 
decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to 
the adoration of the host, which is done to this day. — Dr. A. Rees. 

HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 b. c, when 
L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. 
Previously to the invention of water-clocks (lohich see), 158 b. c, the time 
was called at Rome by public criers. The Chinese divide the day into 
twelve parts of t\vo hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round, 
instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the 
measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult : one expedient was 
by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning 
twenty-four liours : these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hour- 
glasses not being then known in England, a. d. 886. 

HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a 
North-West passage to the Pacific Ocean, a. d. 1610 ; but in fact, this part 
of North America may more properly be said to have been discovered by 
Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further 
north. The latter pas.sing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was, 
with four others thrown by liis sailors into a boat, and left to perish. The 
Hudson-Bay Company obtained cliartered possessions here, in 1670. The 
forts were destroyed liy the Frencli in 1686 and 1782. 



358 



THE world's progress. 



[ HUH 



HUE AN]) CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing " with horn and 
with voice," from hundred to hundred, and count}'' to county, all .robbers 
and felons. Formerly the hundred was bound to make good all loss occa- 
sioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken; 
but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damage committed 
by riotous assemblies. 

HUGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a term 
of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrjauen of the 
reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. The 
memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St. 
Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572. — See Bartholomew, St. A con- 
siderable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North Ame- 
rica, and settled on the Delawai-e, and in the Carolinas. 

HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was 
formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I., 
1162. This order had ninety monasteries ; but it was abolished for luxury 
and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domini- 
cans and Cordeliers, in 1570. 

HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients; and subject to the Romans, 11 
B. c, and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the 
Cliristian era, the Vandals drove them out of it. About forty years after- 
wards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, and their deserted settlements 
were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were 
expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, hekded by Attila, 
whose dreadful ravages obtained him the ai^pellation of "The Scourge of 
God." — In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed 
with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians, Croats, Russians, and Vandals ; be- 
sides German settlers, as Austrians, Styrians, Bavarians, Franks, Swabians, 
Saxons, &c. Hungary was annexed to the empire of Germany under Char- 
lemagne, but it^^became an independent kingdom in 920. 



Stephen receive.? tlie title of Apostolic 
king from the pope - - A. D. 997 

The Poles overrun Hungary - - 1061 

Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under 
the sonsof Jenghis Khan, throughout 
Hungary,Bohemia,and Russia, 1226 et seq. 

Victories of Louis the Great in Bulga- 
ria, Servia, and Dalmaiia - - 1342 

Louis carrie.s his arms into Italy - 1342 

He dies, and the history of Hungary 
now presents a frightful catalogue of 
crimes ----- 1378 

Charles Duras is murdered; Elizabeth, 
queen of Louis, is drowned, and king' 
Mary, their daughter, marries Sigis- 
mond, marquis of Brandcrd^arg, and 
causes ihe rivers of Hungary to flow 
with blood . . - . 1378 

The unhappy Hungarians call the 
Turks to their assistance - - 1380 

Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond 
in battle .... 1389 

Sigismond recovers from this blow, 
and makes Wallaclua and Moldavia 
tributarv to him - - - 1390 



He obtains the crown of Bohemia, and 
is elected emperor of Germany - 1410 

Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne 
of Hungary, thus la,ying the founda- 
tion oflhe subsequent power and 
greatness of the house of Austria - 1437 

It passes to the king of Poland - 1439 

Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, in- 
vades Hungary, and takes Buda; 
battle of Mohatz (which see) - - 1520 

Buda sacked a second time by the 
Turks, and all the inhabitants put to 
the sword .... ]540 

Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540 . 

Temeswar taken by them - - 1552 

Transylvania seized by Solyman - 1556 

The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 men 
in a fruitless attempt to take Buda 
from the Turks - - - 1681 

He at length carries Buda by storm, 
and delivers up the Mahometans to 
the fury of the soldiers - - 1686 

Temeswar wrested from the Tui'ks by 
prince Eugene - . • . 17Ib 



' The Hungarian people have nn irreconcilable aversion to the naxae of gueen ; and ooiise- 
qaently, whenever a female succeeds to the throne of Hungary, she reigns with the title of king. 
Thus, in 1.3S-% when Mary, the daughter of Cliarles Uuras, came to the crown, she was styled 
King Mary. 



flUN J 



DICTfONARY OF DA^tES. 



359 



HUNGARY, continued. 

Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey 
at the peace of Belgrade - • 1739 

Temeswar incorporated with the king- 
dom of Hungary - - - 1778 

The struggle for independence com- 
menced m - - - - 1SJ8 

Count Lomburg, Austrian commission- 
er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27, 

The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the 
emperor of Austria ; martial law 
proclaimed ; Jellachich, Ban of Cro- 
atia, appointed to the supreme gov- 
ernment, - - Oct. 3, 1848 

Kossuth appointed by the Diet presi- 
dent of the defence committee and 
dictator - - - - Oct. 1848 

[InsuiTection of Vienna, Oct. 6.] 

Hungarian army advances within six 



miles of Vienna ; Jellachich also ad- 
vances there, October 11; Kossuth 
retreats to Hungarian territory, 17th, 

Hungary declares itself an independent 
republic - - - Dec. 1848 

Raab (Dec.) and Buda Pesth, entered 
by Windisgratz - - Jan. 5, 1849 

Ukase of Russian emperor Nicholas, 
declaring his purpose of aiding Aus- 
tria against Hungary - April 26, 

Gorgey, commander-in-chief, surren- 
ders the Hungarian army to the Aus- 
trians at Villargos - Aug. 11, 18-49 

The war ended by ihe complete subju- 
gation of Hungary, and the flight or 
execution of her leaders. 
See Gerinany. 



KINGS OP HUNGARY. 



A. D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of king. 
1038 Peter I., deposed. 
1041 Otto, killed in battle. 
1044 Peter again ascends the throne ; is 

again deposed, and has liis eyes put 

out. 
1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother 

Bela. 
1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous 

tower. 
1063 Solomon, deposed by his son. 
1073 Geiga I. 
1076 St. Ladislaus. 
1095 Ooloman. 

1114 Stephen 11,, surnamed Thunder; turn- 
ed monk. 
1131 Bela II. ; he had his eyes put out by 

his uncle Coloman, so that his queen 

ruled the kinadom. 
1141 Geisa II. 
1161 Stephen III. 
1173 Bela 111. 
1191 Emeric. 

1200 Ladislaus 11. 

1201 Andrew II. 
1235 Bela IV. 
1275 Stephen IV. 

1278 Ladislaus III., miu-.lered. 
1291 Andrew III. 
1301 Wenceslaus. 
1304 Otho. 



1309 Charles Robert. 

1342 Louis I. the Great. 

1383 Mary. 

1.389 Mary, and her husband Sigism ltd. 

1437 Albert ; he died of a surfeit of melons. 

1440 Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the 
Turks. 

1444 LadLslaus V. , poisoned while an infant. 

1458 Matthias I., son of Huniades, late re- 
gent. 

1490 Ladislaus VL 

1516 Louis II. drowned whilst fighting the 
Turks. 

1526 John Sepusius, deposed. 

1327 Ferdinand, king ol' Bohemia. 

1534 John Sepusius, again. 

1539 John II. 

1561 Maximilian, afterwards emperor of 
Germany. 

1.573 Rodolphus. 

1609 Matthias 11. 

1618 Ferdinand II., emperor of Germany. 

1625 Ferdinand HI., ditto. 

1647 Ferdinand IV. 

1656 Leopold, emperor of Germany. 

1687 Joseph, ditto 

1711 Charles VI ditto. 

1740 Maria Theresa. 

1780 Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany. 
See Germany. 



On the death of Charles VI., m 1740, his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had 
married into the house of Lorraine, was in danger of being deprived of her 
father's hereditary dominions by France, and also by Bavaria ; but at length 
overcoming all difficulties, her husband was elected emperor, and Hungary, 
Austria, and Bohemia are at this time governed by their descendants. See 
Germany. 

HUNS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 1200 
years ; they Avere almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese, in a.d. 93, and 
the remnants settled on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the 
Danube, in 376 ; but having been subsidized imder Attila, they turned their 
arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by 
them, about a. d. 433. 100 000 of them were slain on the plains of Cham- 
pagne in_447. Tliey were detVated liv Charles the Great in several battles 
during eight years, and were almosi cxtiipated and soon ceased to appear a.>i 



360 THE world's progress. ' [ lAJl 

a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they gave it the 
name of Hungarj^, which see ; see also Attlla. 

HUSS, JOHN ; His Martyrdom. The clergy having instigated the pope to 
issue a bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealous to promote a refor- 
mation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give 
an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigis- 
mund sent him a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the 
strength of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was soon 
thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be 
burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resig- 
nation, July 6, 1415. The same luihappy fate was borne with the same 
fortitude and constancy of mind by Jerome op Prague, the intimate com- 
panion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of sup- 
porting and seconding his persecuted friend : he, too, suffered, May 30, 1416. 
See Cranmer, and MarLyrs. 

HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary ; and as 
they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are sup- 
posed to have taken their names from the huzzas or shout they made at their 
lirst onset. They were generally opijosed to the Turkish horse, "and were 
oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on 
their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather," 
— Pardon. 

HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydrometer occurs in the fifth 
century, and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia; but it is 
not imjDrobable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs 
of it are to be found.— i?«7.:/Ma?iw. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 a. d., 
and Archimedes was killed 212 b. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science 
in 1746. 

HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, about 
300 B. c. The pressure of fiuids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250 
B. c. The forcing-pump and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 120 
B. c. Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The 
science was i-evived by Galileo, about a. d. 1600. The theory of rivers was 
scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fiuids and oscilla- 
tion of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714. A scientific form was given 
to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738. 

HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in praise 
of their false deities, and afterwards introduced both into the Jewish and 
Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said 
to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches, 
about a. d. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with 
trumpets, drums, and cymbals. 



IAMBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of 
Sparta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over 
Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, 
stories, and poetical effusions ; and from her free and satirical verses have 
been called Iambics. — Apollodorus. Iambic verses were first written, about 
700 B. c, by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycam- 
Ijes ; but after a promise of marriage, the father preferred another suitor, 
richer than the poet; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on tho 
old man's avarice, that he hanffcd himself. — Hcroiioliis. 



:D0 J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 361 

ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than the water which 
composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1597. Ice produced in summer by 
means of chemical mixtures, prepared by Mr. Walker and others, in 1782. 
Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pump by placing under it a 
vessel full of oil of vitriol. One part of sal-ammonia and two of common 
salt, with five of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the 
zero of Fahrenheit. Fivp parts of muriate of lime and four of snow freeze 
mercury ; and mercury can be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid, 
so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. See Cold. 

ICE TRADE, The, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, 
of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to 
Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are 
capable of containing 141,332 tons. 

ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to 
leave their native country, a. d. 871 ; according to some accounts, it had 
been previouslj^ visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the 
Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous vol- 
canic eruption on record ; it Avas accompanied by violent wind and rain, and 
a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to 
pieces. Three fire spouts broke out of Mount Skapta, which, after rising 
to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that 
flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken 
breadth of nearly 12 miles : 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally 
overwhelmed bj' fire or water ; and 34 others were materially injured. 

ICELANDIC LITERATURE, Royal Society of, in Copenhagen. Their 
library, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS. and many books, burnt, September 
26, 1847. 

ICONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished by 
some peculiar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image reiDresen- 
tation. Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe ; Jupiter 
with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side ; Neptune with a trident, in a 
chariot drawn by sea-horses ; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his 
heels ; Bacchus, crowned with ivy ; Pallas, leaning on her a3gis ; Venus, 
drawn by Swans or pigeons ; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. Heathen mytho- 
logy gave rise to the later worship of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects ; 
and to the repre.sentation of the true God in various forms; and to images. 
The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Roman Catholic church in the 
early part of the eighth century. See Iduls. 

IDES. In the Roman calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each 
month except in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was 
the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before tlie nones, 
and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the daj^' on 
which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the senate house by Casca and other 
conspirators, 44 b. c. 

IDIOTS. It is shown by the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see In- 
sanity), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national 
institutions, males, 8372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. In England there is 
one lunatic or idiot in everj^ 1083 individuals ; in Wales, there is one in 
every 807 ; in Scotland, one in 731 ; and in Ireland, one in 812. 

IDOLS, AND IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ni- 
nus, king of Assyria, 2059 b. c. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have origi- 
nated in the pillar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 b. c. — Dufresnoy. 
Constantino, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to" be de- 
stroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 a. d. — Diifresiioy. In Britain, the 

in 



362 THE world's PE-OGEESS. [ IM1< 

religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous supersti- 
tions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon 
overspread the country with them : they had a god for every day in the 
week. See Week. The idolatry of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after 
the coming of St. Augustin. See Christianity. 

ILIUM. A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 b. c. 
Troy {which see), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 b. c. ; and 
Ilus, his successor, called the country Ilium. This kingdom existed 296 
years from the reign of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The 
Trojan war was undertaken by the united states of Greece to recover Helen, 
whom Paris, son of Priam, had borne away from lier husband, Menelaus, 
king of Sparta, 1204 b. c. See Helen. More than 100,000 warriors engaged 
in this expedition ; and the invaders, having wasted many defenceless towns 
and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1193 b. c. Troy was taken after ten 
years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the 
inhabitants to the sword, or carried them off as slaves, 1184 b. c. — A^ulo- 
dorus. 

ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Caho- 
kia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of 
1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants from other states since 1800. In 1789 it 
was part of the North-West territory. In 1809 it was made a separate terri- 
tory, and in 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d state. Population 
in 1810, 12,282 ; in 1830, 157,575 ; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free state and has 
always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn ; it has in- 
exhaustible lead-mines. New constitution adopted August 81, 1847. 

ILLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they were 
called Alumbrados, about a. d. 1575 ; and after their suppression in Spain, 
they appeared in France. One of their leaders was the friar Anthony Bou- 
chet. The chief doctrine of this sect was, that they obtained grace, and 
attained perfection, by their own sublime manner of prayer. A secret 
society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 
1776. 

ILLUMINATED BOOKS and PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments, 
drawings, and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of 
great antiquity ; and illuminated pages are, many of them, exquisitely painted. 
Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished Avith 
their likenesses, about 70 b. c. — Plin. Hist. Nat. 

IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parlia- 
ment, and the first of a lord chancellor, Avas in 1386. By statute of the 12th 
and 13th of William and Mary, it was enacted, that no pardon under the 
great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons in i^arlia- 
ment, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeachment of Warren Hastings, Feb. 
13, 1788 ; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 1795, in an acquittal. 
Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29, and his acquittal, June 12, 1806. 
Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle against the duke of 
York, commenced Jan. 26, and ended March 20, 1809, in his acquittal. 
Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, be- 
fore the house of lords, commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on 
her majesty's defence, Oct. 3 ; and the last debate on the bill took place, 
Nov. 10, 1820. See Queen of George IV. 

IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament of 
Great Britain became Imperial ; and the first Imperial parliament, admit- 
ting 100 Irish members into the commons, and 28 temporal and 4 spiritual 
peers into the hoitse of lords, was held at Westminster, Jamiary 22, 1801. 



IMP J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



36S 



The Imperial parliament is now constituted thus : in the Commons, since 
the passing of the Reform Bill {which see), in 1832, there are 471 English; 
29 Welsh ; 105 Irish ; and 53 Scotch members — in all 658. In the Lords, 
459 members, of whom 28 are temporal, and 4 spiritual representative peers 
of Ireland ; and 16 representative peers of Scotland. See Commons, Lords, 
Parliament, and Reform. 

IMPORTS OP MERCHANDISE m the UNITED STATES. See Exports, &c. 
Table, p. 317. 

VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. 

In 1710 - jB4,753,777 I In 1800 - je30,.570,605 1 In 1830 - .£46,315,241 
1750 - - 7,289,582 1810 - - 41,136,135 1840 - - 62,004,000 
1775 - - 14,815,855 1 1820 - - 36,514,564 1 1845 - - 85,281,958 

1 IMPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other im- 
postors, would fill a volume ; they have been, of course, found in every 
country, and, have existed in every age. The following are selected from 
various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary : — 

Boleyn. She and her confederates were 



Aldebert, who, in the eighth century, pre- 
tended he had a letter from the Redeem- 
er, wliich fell from heaven at .lerusalem ; 
he seduced multitudes to follow him into 
woods and deserts, and to live in imitation 
of John the Baptist. 

Gonsalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to 
be the angel Michael j he was burnt by 
the inquisition of Spam, in 1360. 

George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, 
styled himself the nephew of God, sent 
into the world to adopt children worthy of 
heaven; he denied the resurrection, 
preached against marriage, in favor of a 
community of women, and taught that 
the body only could be defiled by sin ; he 
had many foUowere ; died at Basle, 1556. 

Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre- 
tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of 
Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had 
put to death ; but he maintained that ano- 
ther child had been substituted in his 
place : he was supported by the arms of 
Poland ; his success astonished the Rus- 
sians, who invited him to the throne, and 
delivered into his hands Fedor, the reign- 
ing czar, and all his family, whom he 
cruelly put to death : his impositioii being 
discovered, he was assassinated in his 
palace, 1606. — D' AleinberV s Revolutions 
of Russia. 

Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused 
the Turks and Jews a long time at Con- 
stantinople and other places, by person- 
ating our Saviour, 1666. 

IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH 
HISTORY. 

Two men crucified, both pretending to be 
the Messiah ; and two women executed for 
assuming the characters of the Virgin 
Mary and Mary Masdalen, 5 Henry III., 
1221. 

Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy maid of 
Kent, spirited up to hinder the Reforma- 
tion, by pretending to inspirations from 
heaven, fortelling that the king would have 
an early and violent death if "he divorced 
Catherine of Spain, and married Anne 



hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIII, 1534.— 
Rapin. 

In the first year of Mary's reign, after her 
marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth 
Croft, a girl of 18 years of age, was se- 
creted in a wall, and with a wliistle, made 
for the purpose, uttered many seditious 
speeches against the queen and the princs, 
and also against the mass and confession, 
for which she was sentenced to stand upon 
a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during ser- 
mon-time, and make public confession of 
her unposture, 1553: she was called the 
Spirit of the Wa.\\.— Baker's Chron. 

William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our 
Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy, 
34 Eliz., 1591. 

James Naylor, personated our Saviour ; he 
was convicted of blasphemy, scourged, 
and his tongue bored through with a hot 
iron on the pillory, by sentence of the 
House of Commons, under Cromwell's 
administration, 1656. 

Valentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostoi', 
who pretended to cure all diseases by 
stroking the patient ; his imposture de- 
ceived the credulous, and occasioned very 
warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in 
England, where it fell into disrepute, in 
1666, upon his examination belbre the 
Royal Society, after which we hear no 
more of him. Birch's Memoirs of the 
Roy. Society. 

Dr. Titus Gates. See Conspiracies. 

Mary Tofts, of Godalming, by pretending 
she bred rabbits within her, so imposed 
upon many persons (among others, Mr. 
St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they 
espoused her cause, 1726. 

The Cock-lane ghost imposture by William 
Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 1762. 

Johanna Southcote, Trho proclaimed her 
conception of the Messiah, and had a mul 
titude of followers ; she died in Dec. 1S14 

IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Matthias, alias Matthews, who professed to 

be the Messiah, New- York. 18.30-31. 
Joseph Smith. See article Mormons. 

IMPRESSMENT of SEAMEN. Affirmed bv Sir M. Fester to be of ancient 



364 THE world's progress. [ind 

practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well 
known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355. 
Pressing, either for the sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the Bri- 
tish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the king's naval service 
above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsmen who have not served at 
sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons, 
and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the pub- 
lic boards, and none except by an ofiicer with a press-warrant. 

INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and 
Gothic constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to 
death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry VI., 1429 ; and 
it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII., 1528. 

[N(^EST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and 
Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with in- 
stances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns. Physcon married his 
brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughter by his 
brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 b. c. See Egypt. 
In our own countiy, Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own 
daughter, a. d. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria, 
queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil, June, 1760; and 
the son of that incestuous marriage, Josepli, then in his sixteenth year, mar- 
ried his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of 
Portugal was betrothed to his niece, Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna, 
in Oct. 1826, she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was 
early punished with death ; and was again made capital by a law of the 
Commonwealth, in 1650. 

INCOME TAX IN ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new impost. 
In 1512, parliamenC granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons, 
and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with 
France. — Rapm. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799 : and again in 
1802; but was abandoned. In 1803, it was revived, at the rate of 5 per 
cent, on all incomes above 150Z., and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 
1805, it was increased to 6^ per cent. ; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent, 
embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced — 

In 1804, at Is. in the pound - £4,650,000 I In 1806, at 2s. in the pound - jEU, 500,000 
In 1805, at Is. Zd. ditto - - 5,937,500 | And subsequently - - 16,548,935 

The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., 8,657,937^. ; from fund- 
ed and stock properties, 2,885 505/. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088/. 
and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456/.; total, sixteen millions and a half. 
Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax 
of 21. 18s. Ad. per cent, per ann., to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 
1842 ; it produced about 5,350,000/. a year. This tax was renewed for three 
years more, in March, 1845. 

INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland. They 
are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congregation 
may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa- 
sion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and 
prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they affirm 
that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex- 
communicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England was 
that by Henry Jacobs, 1616. 

INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church of 
Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent. 



ind] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



365 



The index of heretical boolis, by which tlie reading of tlie Scriptures was 
forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull of 
pope Clement VIII. in 1595. It enumerated most of the celebrated works 
of France. Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited. 
— Ashe. , 

INDIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty- 
rians and Egj^ptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by 
Alexander, 327 b. c, and subsequently the intercourse between India and 
the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan is 
reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, a. d. 1000. — 
Rennel. 



Irruption of the Mahometans, under 
Mahmud Gazni - - a. d. 1000 

Patna, or Afghan empire founded - 1205 

Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most 
bloody conquerors of the world ; 
14,000,000 of the human race perish 
by his sword, under the pretence of 
establishing the worship of one god : 
he died 1237 

The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct 
of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer- 
lane, invade Hindostan - - 1398 

Tamerlane takes the city of Delhi ; de- 
feats the Indian army, makes a con- 
quest of Hindostan, and butchers 
100,000 of its people - - -1399 

The passage to India discovered by 
Vasco da Gama - - - 1497 

Conquest of the country completed by 
the sultan Baber, founder of the Mo- I 

gul empire .... 1525 

Reign of the illustrious Acbar, tlie I 

greatest prince of Hindostan - - 1555 

Reign of Aurungzebe ; his dominions 
extending from 10 to 35 degrees in 
latitude, and nearly as much m longi- 
tude, and his revenue amounting to 
32,000,000^. sterling - - - 1660 

Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or 
Kouli Khan .... 1738 

At Delhi he orders a general massacre, 
and 150,000 persons perish - - 1738 

He carries away treasure amounting 
to 125,000,000/. sterling - . 1739 

Defeat of the last imperial army by the 
Rohillas .... 1749 

[The Mogul empire now became mere- 
ly nominal, distinct and independent 
sovereignties being formel by nu- 
merous petty princes. The empe- 
rors were of no political consequence 
from this period. 

BKITISH POWER IN INDIA. 

Attempt made to reach India by the 

north-east and north-west passages - 1528 
Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579 

Levant company make a land expedi- 
tion to India - - . - 1589 
First adventure from England - - 1591 
First charter to the London company 

of merchants .... I6OO 
Second charter to the East India com- 
pany 1609 

Calcutta purchased - - - 1698 

Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla. 

See Calcutta. - - - . 1756 

He imprisons 146 British subjects, of 



whom 123 perish in one night. See 
Blackhole. - - May 19, 1756 

Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards 
lord Clive ; he defeats the soubah, at 
Plassey - - June 20, 1757 

Warren Hastings becomus governor of 
Bengal - - - April 13, 1772 

India Bill. See India Bill June 16, 1773 

Supreme court established - - 1773 

Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778 

The strong fortress of Gualior taken by 
major Popham - Aug. 4, 1778 

Hyder All overruns the Carnatic, and 
defeats the British - Sept. 10, 1780 

He takes Arcot - - Oct. 31, 17S0 

Lord Macartney arrives as governor of 
Madras - - - June 22, 1781 

Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre 
Coote - - - -July 1,178) 

Death of Hyder, and accession of his 
son, Tippoo Saib - Dec. 11, 1782 

Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hast- 
ings, Trial of - Feb, 13, 1788 

Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two 
sons hostages - - March 19, 1792 

Government of lord Mornington, after- 
wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1798 

Seringa patam stormed, and Tippoo 
Saib killed - - May 4, 1799 

Victories of the British ; the Carnatic 
conquered .... igoo 

Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley - I8OS 

Marquis Comwallis resumes the gov- 
ernment - - July 30, 1805 

Act by which the trade to India was 
thrown open ; that to China remain, 
ing with the company July 31, 1813 

Lord Amherst's government . Aug. 1, 1823 

Lord William Bentinck arrives as go- 
vernor-general - - July 4, 1828 

Act opening the trade to India, and tea 
trade, <fec. to China, forming a new 
era in British commerce - Aug. 28, 1833 

Lord Auckland, governor-general; he 
leaves England - . Sept. 1835 

Battle of Ghizny ; victory of Sir John, 
now Lord Keane. (See Ghizny) 

July 23, 1339 

Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty, 
and he and the British army enter 
Cabul . - - Aug. 7, 1839 

English defeat Dost Mahomed, - Oct. 18, 1840 

Kurrock Singe, king of Lahore, dies ; at 
his funeral his successor is killed by 
accident, and Dost Mahomed, next 
heir, surrenders to England - Nov. 5, 1840 

General rising against the British at 



366 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



riNi> 



INDIA, continued. 

Cabul ; Sir Alexander Burnes and 
other officers murdered - Nov. 2, 1841 

Lord EUenborough appointed governor- 
general - - - Oct. 13, 1841 

Sir William Macnaghten treacherously 
assassinated - - Dec. 25, 1841 

The British, under a convention, evacu- 
ate Cabul, placing Lady Sale, &c., as 
hostages in the hands of Akbar Khan ; 
a dreadful massacre ensues - Jan. 6, 1842 

THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE 

The Silch troops cross the Sutlej river, 

and attack the British post at Feroze- 

pore, which was held by Sir John 

Littler - - - Dec. 14, 1845 

Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated 

Jan. 28, 1846 
Battle of Sobraon; the enemy defeated 

with immense loss in killed and 

'drowned - - Feb. 10, 184G 

[The Sikhs lost 10,000 men ; the British 

2,338 in killed and wounded.] 

INDIA COMPANY, the East. The first commercial intercourse of the En- 
glish with the East Indies, was a private adventure with three ships fitted 
out in 1591 ; only one of them reached India, and after a voj'age of three 
years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was hroug-ht home in another 
ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; but his information gave rise to 
a capital mercantile voj'age, and the Company's first charter, in Dec. 1600. 
Their stock then consisted of 72,000/., and they fitted out four ships, and 
meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since. India stock sold 
at 500/. for a share of lOOZ., in 1683. A new company was formed in 1698; 
and both were united in 1702. The India-house was built in 1726, and en- 
larged in 1799. Board of control instituted 1784. 

INDIA BILL. The bill placing the company's affairs under the control of the 
British government, and re-organizing the various departments in India, 
passed June 16, 1773. See East India BUI. Mr. Fox's celebrated bill 
passed in the commons, but was thrown out in the lords' house, 1783. Mr. 
Pitt's bill constituting the Board of Control passed August 18, 1784. 



Ameers of Scinde defeated by Sir Char- 
les Napier ; Scinde is afterwards an- 
nexed to the British empire - Feb. 17, 1843 

Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar ; 
the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gib- 
raltar of the East," taken - Dec. 29, 1843 

Sir Henry Hardinge appointed gover- 
nor-general - - May 2, 1844 



SIKHS AND THE BRITISH. 

The citadel of Lahore is occupied by 
the British under Sir Hugh Gough ; 
and the war terminates - Feb. 20, 1846 

Great battle between the British under 
Lord Gough, and the Sikhs under 
Sheere Singh, at Ramluggar, Nov. 22, 1848 

Moultan taken, after a long siesre, Jan. 3, 1849 

Sheere Sing defeated by Lord Gough 

Feb. 21, 1849 

The Punjaub formally annexed to the 
British crown - March 29, 1849 



INDIA RUBBER. Also called Caoutchouc, first brought to Europe from 
South America, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Several 
plants produce various kinds of elastic gum; but that in commerce is 
chiefly the juice of the Slphonia Elastica, or syringe tree. Incisions in the 
bark of this tree give vent to a liquid which forms India rubber. No sub- 
stance is yet known which is so pliable, and at the same time so exceedingly 
elastic ; it oozes out under the form of a vegetable milk, from incisions 
made in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, because it 
flows then most abundantly. — M. Macqiter. 

INDIANA, one of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes by the 
French ; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement made 
by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Suffered 
much during the war of 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted into 
the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641 ; in 1820, 147,178 ; in 1840. 
685,866. 

INDIANS, North American. The origin of the aborigines of this continent 
continues to be a matter of speculation among the ethnologists. They 
have gradually but now almost entirely disappeared before the track of the 
white man east of the Mississippi, and even in the far west their numbers 



IND ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 367 

are yearly becoming smaller. King Philip's Indian war in New England, 
1675. Indians joined the French against the English colonies, 1690. At- 
tacked bv Capt. Church, 1704; burned Deerfield, Mass., 1704; and Haver- 
hill, N. H., 1708 ; Indian war in South Carolina, 1715 ; again joined the 
French, 1754-9 ; CheroKecs subdued, 1761 ; Indians besieged Detroit, 1763. 
[During the revolutionary war the Indians were employed at times on both 
sides, but chiefly by the British.] Treaty with the Choctaws, 1786 ; with 
the Creeks, 1790 ; Gen. Harmer defeated by the Indians near Chillicothe, 
1790 ; Gen. Butler defeated by the Indians on the Miami, 1791 ; treaty 
with Six Nations, &c., 1794 ; with the Delawares, 1804 ; Gov. Harrison de- 
feated hostile Indians on the "Wabash, May 16, 1811 ; Creek war in Florida, 
Gen. Jackson, 1813 ; treaty with Choctaws, Cherokees, &c., by Gen. Jack- 
son, 1816 ; Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States, 1816 ; war with 
Seminoles, 1817 ; bill for removing the Indians west of Mississippi, passed 
May 27, 1832 ; war with Winnebagoes, 1832 ; Black Hawk captured, Aug. 

27, 1832; Winnebagoes subdued by Gen. Scott, 1832; war against the 
Indians in Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, conducted by Gens. Scott, Gaines, 
Jessup, &c., 1835-40. In 1836 the Secretary of War reported as follows : 

Number of Indians emigrated from the Atlantic States to the lands provided for 
them west of the Mississippi - ..... 31,357 

Number yet to be removed ...------ 72,131 

Number of Indians of indigenous tribes, between the, Mississippi and the Rocky 
JMountains ...... 150,341 

Total within the territory of the United States - - 352,879 

Treaty with the Sioux, they relinquishing- 5,000,000 acres west of Missis- 
sippi for S'1;000,000, Sept. 29, 1837 ; Avith Winnebagoes, Oct. 1, 1837; Powell 
alias Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 50 warriors, taken prisoners in Flo- 
rida, Oct. 20, 1837 ; great mortality from small-pox among the Mandans, 
Mintarees, Blackfeet, and other Indians in Missouri territory — the Mandans 
tribe entirely destroyed— Nov., Dec, 1837; fight in Arkansas between the 
Ross and Ridge parties and Cherokees — Ross and about 40 others killed, June 

28, 1839 ; 150 Chippewas treaclierously massacred by the Sioux, at a meet- 
ing for a treaty at the Falls of St. Anthony, July 1, 1839 ; Cayuse Indians 
in Oregon having attacked and murdered 15 persons, and carried off 64 pri- 
soners from a missionary station, are chastised by the settlers in a severe 
engagement, Nov. 29, 1847. 

[NDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo iised 
in Europe came from the East Indies ; and until the discovery of a passage 
round the Cape of Good Hope, it was conveyed like other Indian products, 
partly through the Persian Gulf, and partly by land to Babylon, or through 
Arabia and up the Red Sea to Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so 
little known in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as appears by 
letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the principality 
of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 28, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call 
indicum, is supposed to have been our indigo. — Beckmann. The first men- 
tion of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. The first brought to 
Europe was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina, 
in 1747. The quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840, was 5,831,2691b., 
and in 1845, it was 10,127,4881b. 

INDULGENCES. They were commenced by Leo. HI., about a. d. 800 ; were 
much used by Urban II. 1090 ; and were subsequently conferred by the Ro- 
man pontiffs in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. Clement 
V. was the first pope who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517, 
Leo. X. published general indulgences throughout Euroiie, when the prac- 
tice led to the Reformation in Genuany, in 1517, and to the Reformation in 



368 T'-iE world's progress. [ ino 

England, in 1584. — Boicers Lives of the Popes. Indulgences were for the 
pardon of sins, and were sometimes so extensive as to be for the past, pre- 
sent, and to come. They were written upon parchment, and sealed and 
signed by the pope or his delegates. — Ashe. 

INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Dis- 
eased persons, however, were carried to the temple of ^sculapius for a cure, 
as Christian believers were taken to churches which contained wonder- 
working images. Benevolent institutions for the accommodation of tra- 
vellers, the indigent, and sick, were first introduced with Christianity, and 
the first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monaste- 
ries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be 
visited, a. d. 855. In Jerusalem the knights and brothers attended on the 
sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th cen- 
tury. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infir- 
maries, occurs in 1437. — Beckmann. See Hospitals. 

INFORMERS. This tribe was once very numerous in Greece and Rome, they 
being countenanced by wicked princes. The emperor Titus punished in- 
formers by banishment, and sometimes death ; and Pliny gives praise to 
Trajan for the like good policy. In England, and particxilarly in London, 
numbers of unprincipled men obtain large gains as informers against per- 
sons whose slightest infractions of the law, often unconsciously committed, 
subject them to the power and exactions of this despised class. 

INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory-black, and 
Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black ; but they had likewise various 
colors, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Red ink was made by them of ver- 
milion and various kinds of gum. Indian ink is brought from China, and 
must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages, 
most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. 
It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is com- 
posed of a fine black and animal glue. — Beckmann. 

INNS OF COURT. A number of inns of court were established at different 
periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the law. The Temple (of 
which there were three societies, namely, the Inner, the Middle and the 
Outer) was originally founded in the Temple church, built by the knights 
Templars, 32 Henry II. 1185. The inner and Middle Temple were made 
inns of law in the reign of Edward III., about 1340 ; the Oater not until the 
reign of Elizabeth, about 1560. — Stowe's Survey. 

INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation in 
England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrian- 
ople, with perfect success ; and she Avas allowed to have it tried, for the 
first time in England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 George I. 1721. 
The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other clergy 
from that period until 1760.* Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr. 
Jenner, January 21, 1799 ; he had discovered its virtue in 1796, and had 
been making experiments during the intermediate three years. He was 
voted 10,000^. as a reward by parliament, June 2, 1802. The emperor Na- 
poleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly that he libe- 
berated Dr. Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner'g request, and 
subsequently the emperor liberated whole families of English, making it a 

* Inoculation was deemed a very precarious affair by our grandfathers. The London Daily 
Advertiser (Nov. 7, 1751) has this paragraph : — " We hear that the son and daughter of Thomss 
Davison, esq., of Blakestone, have been inoculated in tliis town (Newcastle"), and that they are 
both well recovered." Dr. Mead practised inoculation veiy successfully up to 1754, and Dr 
Dimsdale of London inoculated Catharine II., empress of Russia, in 1768. See Small Pox. 



INS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 369 

point to refuse him nothing that he asked. Innoculation introduced in the 
United States by Dr. B. Waterliouse, 1800. See Small Po.-cand Vaccination. 

INQUISITION. Before the conversion of Constantino the Great, the bishops 
only examined into doctrines, and punished heresy with excommunica- 
tion ; but after the emperors became Christians, they ordained that such as 
were excommunicated should be also banished and foi-feit their estates. 
This continued till about the year 800, when the western bishops' power 
was enlarged to the authority of citing persons to their courts, both to con- 
vict and punish them by imprisonment, penances, or death. In the twelfth 
century, heresy, as it was then called, was much increased ; and the inqui- 
sition arose in the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses. It was 
instituted by pope Innocent III., in 1203 ; and Gregory IX. in a council held 
at Toulouse in 1229, gave it its final form, committing the management of 
it to the bishops ; but afterwards thinking these too indulgent, he gave the 
direction of his inquisition to the Dominicans. It was established in France, 
by St. Louis, in 1226 ; and in the four Christian kingdoms of Spain. It was 
established in Portugal in 1536. The last great Auto da Fe was celebrated 
in 1781 ; and although the i-ack and faggot are not now employed in the 
work of torture and death, yet the power of the Holy office is still exer- 
cised in encouraging vexations ; enjoining ridiculous penances and priva- 
tions ; prohibiting liberal institutions ; and interdicting useful books. 

INSANITY. In England within twenty j^ears, insanity has more than 
tripled. In France it is more extensive in proportion to its population than 
it is in most other countries. The total number of lunatics and idiots in 
England is as follows: lunatics 6806 — idiots 5741 — together 12,547; but 
allowing for defective returns, the number may be taken at 14,000 — an ave- 
rage of oiie to every tlwusand of the population. In Wales : lunatics 133 — 
idiots 763 — total 896 ; and adding for parishes that have made no returns, 
they may be set down at 1000 — a proportion of one to eight hundred. Scotland 
has 3652 insane persons — or one to about seven hundred. In Ireland the num- 
ber of lunatics and idiots exceeds 8000, as shown by returns, which, however, 
Avere not completed. — Sir Andrew Halliday. The number of insane persons 
and idiots in the United States, in 1840, was 17,434. There were 23 asylums 
capable of containing 2840 patients. Great advances have been made of 
late years in the treatment of insanity. The late Dr, A. Brigham of Utica, 
formerly of Hartford, was an able and successful philanthropist in this 
cause. 

INSOLVENCY m the UNITED STATES. In May, 1837, a ' commercial crisis' 
was at its height. The ' heavy' failures, in two months, in New York alone 
amounted to 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans 
to the amount of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov. 
1, 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie pay- 
ments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generally, immediately 
after. 

INSOLVENCY. The first Insolvent Act in England was passed in 1649, but it 
was of limited operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were 
passed at varioys periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The 
benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England, 
by 50,733 insolvents, from the time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a 
period of thirteen years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency have 
been several times amended. Persons not traders, or, being traders, whose 
debts are less than 300?., may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose 
compositions, and have pro tern, protection from all process against his per- 
son and property, 6 Vict., 1842. Act amended, 8 Vict., Aug., 1844. 

INSURANCE ON SHIPS and MERCHANDISE. Suetonius conjectures that 

16* 



370 THE woe-ld's progress. [ino 

Claudius was the first contriver of it, a. d. 43. Insurance was in general use 
in Italy in 1194, and in England in 1560. Insurance policies were first used in 
Florence in 1523. The first law relating to insurance was enacted in 1601. 
Insurance of houses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the year 
following that of the great fire of London. An office was then set up for 
insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of 
the first and most extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular 
office set up in London was the Hand-in-Hand, in 1696. A duty was laid 
on insurances of Is. Qd. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782 : this duty was 
increased in 1797, and was variously altered since. The date of the first in- 
surance office in the United States, has not been ascertained. 

INSURRECTIONS in the UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in Massa- 
chusetts (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insur- 
rection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts 
of Conspiracies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. 

INTEREST or MONEY. It was twenty per cent, in Europe in the twelfth cen- 
tury. Fixed at twelve per cent, in Spain, Germany and Flanders, by Charles 
V. in 1560. — Robertson. Till the fifteenth century, no Christians were allow- 
ed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, there- 
fore, often banished and persecuted. Interest was first settled by law in 
England at ten per cent., 37 Henry VIII. , 1546. This law was repealed by 
Edward VI. ; but it was restored by Elizabeth. In those days the monarch 
could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest 
was reduced to eight ;;t'r cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21 
James I., 1624. Reduced by the Riimp-parliament to six per cent.-^ and so 
confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne, 1714, at 
which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six per cent. ; regulated 14 
George III., 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usury, 
and punishable by the statute. — Blackstone. The law does not now apply to 
bills having onlj^ 60 days to run. See Us^iry Laios. 

INTEREST OP MONEY in the UNITED STATES. The rates vary in differ- 
' ent States, viz: — In La. five pr. ct., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., 
N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N. Ca., Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., Illin., Misso., 
Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In 
N. Y., S. Ca., Mich., and Wise, seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and 
Flor., eight per cejii. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the 
whole debt, in Me., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury, 
and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void 
in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. 

INUNDATIONS, It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous 
catastrophes which class under this head; the following are among the most 
remarkable: — 



An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned 
more than 400 families, 738. — Fordun. 

Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town 
and liarbor of Ostend totally immersed, 
1108. The present city was built above a 
league from the channel where the old one 
lies submerged. — Ilistoire de Flandre. 

At the Texel, which first raised the com- 
merce of Amsterdam, 1400. 

The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 
villages, and 100,000 people, and formed 
the Zuyder Sea (see Dorl), April 17, 1446. 

The Severn overflovi'ed during ten days, and 
carried away men, women, and children, 
in their beds, ar.d covered ihe tops of many 
mountains ; the waters settled upon the 



lands, and were called The Great Waters 
for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 14&3.— 
HolUnshed. 

A general inundation by the failure of the 
dikes in Holland, 1530 ; the number of 
drowned said to have been 400,000. 

At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perish- 
ed, 1617. 

An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock 
opened, and poured out water to the height 
of a church steeple, 1686. — Vide Phil. 
Trans. 

Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants 
were drowned, and incredible damage was 
done at Hamburg. 1717. 

At Madrid, several of i.he Snanish nobilit-j 



low J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



371 



INUNDATIONS, co7itvmed. 

and other persons of distinction perished, 
1723. — Du Fresnoy. 

In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their 
lives by the torrents from the mountains, 
Sept. 1787. 

At Pest, near Presburg, the overflow of the 
Danube, by which 24 villages and their 
inhabitants were swept away, April 1811. 

By the overflow of the Danube, a Turkish 
corps of 2000 men, on a small island near 
Widdin, were surprised, and met instant 
death, Sept. 14, 1813. 

In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the 
ruin of the French army under Macdonald 
was accelerated by the floods ; also in Po- 
land 4000 lives were supposed to have 
been lost, same year. 

In Germany, 119 villages were laid under 
water, and great loss of life and property 
was sustained, in March 1816. 

Awful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by 
the Vistula breaking through some of its 
dikes, by which 10,000 head of cattle and 
4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous 



At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its iri' 
habitants laid under water, Feb. 1830. 

10,000 houses swept away, ard &bout 1000 
persons perished, at Cantor.!, ir. China, in 
consequence of an inundation, occasioned 
by incessant rains. Equal or greater ca- 
lamity was produced by the same cause 
in other parts of China, Oct. 1833. 

Awful inundation in France ; the Saone 
poured its waters into the Rhone, broka 
through its banks, amd covered 60,000 
acres ; Lyons was inundated, in Avignon 
100 houses were swept away ; 218 houses 
were carried away at La Guillotiere ; and 
upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and 
Nismes ; the Saone had not attained such 
a height for 238 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, 
1810. 

Inundation of the Mississippi at New Or- 
leans, 160 squares and 1600 houses flood- 
ed. May 12, 1849. 

The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi, 
&c., at different times, have caused great 
destruction of property, and (at times) of 
life. 



liveslost, April 9, 1829. 

INVOCATION OP THE VIRGIN and SAINTS. The practice of the Romish 
church of invoking the intei'cessiou of saints with God, particularly the 
prayers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great, 
about A. D. 593. — Ashe. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by 
calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the di- 
vine ofBces ; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to ca- 
nonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives 
gave them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies, 
prayers and oblations for and to them. 

IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a 
manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812; the discovery was pursued with 
great advantage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active ; it is of a 
violet hue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees ; changes vegetable 
blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yel- 
low color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of 
iodine form iodic acid. 

IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded by the treaty 
of Campo-Forniio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and 
Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the latter power, 
November 5, 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of 
England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands 
are now among the free states of Europe. Corfu is the principal, and the 
seat of government. 

IONIC ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement 
on the Doric, was founded by the lonians, about 1350 b. c. — VUruvius by 
PerrmiU. 

IONIC SECT OP PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 b. c. 
This sect dtstinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under 
the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anax- 
imenes, Auaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. 

IOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French posses- 
sions, and was included in the vast tract of country purchased in 1803 
under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the 
Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a ter- 
ritory, 1838. Admitted into the Union, Dec. 1846. Poi^ulation in 1840, 43,111, 



J72 



THE world's progress. 



[IRO 



IPSUS, Battle of, by which Seleucus is confirmed in his kicgdom by the de- 
feat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigo- 
nus and his son ; on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cas- 
sander. The former led into the field an army of above 70,009 foot, and 
10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 in- 
fantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Anti- 
gonus and his son were defeated, 301 b. c. — Plutarch. 

IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country was 
originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the 
first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ireland about 
2048 B.C. The descent of the Damnonii was made aboiit 1463 b. c. This was 
followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Gali- 
cia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 
kings. 

Arrival of Heremon - - b. c. 1070 

A colony from Spain bring -vvith them 

the Phoenician letters, about - - 500 

Arrival of St. Patrick - - a. ». 448 

. The renowned Brian Boiroimhe ia 

crowned at Tara - - -1002 

Battle of Clontarf, which terminates 

the power of the Danes • - 1039 

[In the twelfth century Ireland is divi 



ded into five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, 
Leinster, Meath, Connaught, and 
Munster ; besides a number of petty 
principalities, whose sovereigns con- 
tinually war with each other.] 

Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to in- 
vade Ireland, on condition that he 
compelled every Irish family to pay 
a carolus to the Holy See, and held 
it as a fief of the church - -1157 

Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re- 
ceives the submissions of the kings 
and princes of the country, settles the 
government upon a footing similar to 
that of England, and makes his son 
John lord of Ireland - • - 1172 

Ireland wholly subdued - - - 1210 

English laws and customs introduced 
by king Jolm - - - - 1210 

Henry VIII. assttmes the title of king, 
instead of lord of Ireland - - 1542 



sacre the Protestant settlers in Ulster, 
to the number of 40,000 persons, com- 
menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641 

Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole 
island to Obedience between 1649 and 1656 

Landing of king William HI. at Car- 
rickfergus - - June 14, 1690 

Battle of the Boyne ; the Duke of 
Schomberg killed - July 1,1690 

Memorable Irish rebellion commenced 
May 4, 1798, and was not finally sup- 
pressed until the next year - - 1799 

Legislative Union of Great Britain and 
Ireland - - - Jan. 1, 1801 

Emmett's insurrection - July 23, 1803 

Roman Catholic emancipation. (See 
Ro7nan Catholics) - April 13, 1829 

Great repeal movement; meeting at 
Trim. (See Repeal) ■ March 19, 1843 

O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) Jan. 15, 1844 

O'Connell died at Genoa, sA. 72, May 15, 1847 

Famine and great distress in Ireland 
throughout - - - - 1847 

Relieved by England, and by voluntary 
gifts from the^United States. 

Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland 
passed parliament - Dec. 20. 1847 

Mitchell convicted of treason - May 26, 1848 

Habeas Corpus act suspended, July 25, 1848 

Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebel- 
lion put down - - Aug. 5, 1848 



The Catholics enter into a conspiracy to 
expel the English, and cruelly mas- 

IRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the 
mount having been burnt by lightning, 1432 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles. 
The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass 
to the Phoenicians ; but Moses relates that iron was Avrought by Tubal-Cain. 
Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were 
placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds. 
Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of 
Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in Sussex, 
in 1543. — Eij7ner's Fcedera. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into 
bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first 
introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800,000 tons of 
iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamtirs, 
&c., see Steamers. 



* T'neie is iron enough in the blood of forty-two men to make a ploughshare weighing twenty- 
four pounds. — Anon. 



ita] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 373 



IRON- MASK, THE MAN of the. A mj^sterious prisoner in France, wearing a 
mask, and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Mar- 
guerite, and afterwards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was 
treated with profound respect ; but his keepers had orders to dispatch him 
if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed the dishes on his 
table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture him to have been an 
Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, although he died 
ten years before the mask ; others that he was the count de Vermandois, 
son of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have perished in the camp 
before Dixmude. More believe him to have been the celebrated duke of 
Beaufcit, whose head is recorded to have been taken olF before Candia ; 
while ^till more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Mon- 
mouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners, at least, was executed on 
Tower-hill. But there are two better conjectures ; he is said to have been 
a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIII., his father being the duke 
of Buckingham ; or the twin-brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was con- 
cealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day have 
caused. The mask died after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703. 

ISLAMISM. The religion of Mahomet, planned by him in a cave near Mecca, 
where he employed a Persian Jew, well versed in history and laws, and two 
Christians, to assist him. One of these latter was of the Jacobite, and the 
other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he ft-amed his 
Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at different times 
from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he 
publicly assumed the prophetical character, calling himself the apostle of 
God, A. D. 604. See Koran, Mecca, ifc. 

ISLE OF FRANCE. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500 ; but the Dutch 
were the first settlers in 1598. The French formed their establishment at 
Port Louis in 1715. This island, together with six French frigates and 
many Indiamen was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. They retain pos- 
session of it, and it is now a fixed British colony. SeeMauritius. 

ISMAEL, Siege of, in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who 
lost 20;000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, December 
22, 1790 ; Avhen the Russian general, Suwarrow, the most merciless and sa- 
vage warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting 
of 30,000 men, to the sword ; everj^ man was butchered ; and Suwarrow, 
not satisfied with this vengeance, delivered up Ismael to the pillage of 
his ferocious soldiery, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women, who were 
murdered in cold blood. 

ISSUS, Battle of. Alexander defeats Darius in this, his second great battle 
with him ; Darius loses 100,000 men, and his queen and family are cap- 
tured, 333 B. c. — Plutarch. The Persians lost 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse 
in the field; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 150 horse. — Diodorus 
Slcnlus. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot 
and 100,000 horse, and 61,000 of the former, and 10,000 of the latter, were 
left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. — Justin. 

ISTHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received 
their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed, insti- 
tuted in honor of Melicerta, 1326 b. c. — Lenglet. They were re-instituted 
in honor of Neptune by Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred 
and inviolable that even a public calamity could not prevent it. 1259 b. c— 
Arundelian Marbles. 

ITALY. The garden of Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It re- 
ceived its name from Italus, a king of the country, or from Italos, a Greek 
word signifying an ox. The aborigines of Italy were the progenj'- of 



sr4 



THE WOK.LD S PROGRESS. 



[ JAO 



Meshecti, the sixth son of Japheth. In pi-ocess of time, the Gomerites oi 
Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, sent several colonies into 
Italy, while other colonists arrived from Greece, and the country was di- 
vided into three grand parts, viz. — Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of the 
Celts; Italia Propria, the residence 'of the first inhabitants; and Magna 
Grascia, the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy 
may be derived from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely 
to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and who founded on its ruins the 
kingdoms of Italy and Lombardy. For Roman empire, see Tabular Vieiis. 



447 



553 



568 
596 
697 
774 

800 



Rome taken and plundered by the Visi- 
goths under Alaric, See Rome A. D. 410 

The Huns ravage the Roman empire 
under Attila, " the Scourge of Gtjd" - 

The Western Roman empire is de- 
stroyed by the Heruli, whose leader, 
Odoacer, erects the kingdom of Italy 476 

The reign of Totila, who twice pillages 
Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to 
such distress, that the ladies and peo- 
ple of quality are obliged to beg tor 
bread at the doors of the Goths - 511 to 552 

The power of the Goths destroyed, and 
their kingdom overthrown by the ge- 
nerals of the Eastern empire - 

Narses, governor of Italy, invites the 
Lombards from Germany into this 
country . . . - 

The Lombards overrun Italy 

Venice first governed by a doge 

Charlemagne invades Italy - 

He repairs to Rome, and is crowned 
emperor of the West - 

[During the reign of Charlemagne, the 
pope of Rome, who had hitherto been 
merely a spiritual minister, finds 
means to assume a temporal power, 
not only independent of, but superior 
to all others.] 

Pope Damasius II. is the first who caus- 
es himself to be crowned with a tiara 1053 

Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hildo- 
brand, pretends to universal sove- 
reignty, in which he is assisted by the 
countess Matilda, mistress of the 
greater part of Italy, who makes a do- 
nation of all her estates to the Church 1076 

Disputes between the popes and empe- 
rors, relative to the appointment of 
bishops, begin about 1106, and agitate 
Italy and Germany during several 
centuries. 

The Venetians obtain many victories 
over the Eastern emperors - -1125 

Tuscany becomes independent - - 1208 

The duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and 
Reggio are created - - - 1228 

Milan erected mto a duchy - - 1277 



The papal seat removed for seventy 
years to Avignon, in France - - 1308 

The cardinals not agreeing in the elec- 
tion 'of a pope, they set fire to the con- 
clave, and separate, and the papal 
chair is left vacant for two years - 1314 

Louis Gonzaga makes himself master 
of Mantua, with the title of imperial 
vicar . - - - 1328 

Lucca becomes an independent reput 
lie 1370 

Naples conquered by Cjiarles VIII. - 1492 

The republic of Venice loses all its Ita- 
lian provinces in a single campaign, 
assailed by the pope, the emperor, 
and the kings of Spain and France - 1509 

Leo X. having exhausted all his finan- 
ces, opens the sale of indulgences and 
absolutions, which soon replenislies 
■ his treasury .... 1517 

Parma and Placentia made a duchy - 1545 

Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke oi' 
Tuscany by Pius V. • - - 1569 

Pope Gregory XIII. reforms the calen- 
dar. See Cale7idar - - - 1582 

Ambassadors from Japan to the pope. 
See Jeddo .... 1619 

The Corsicans revolt from the Genoese, 
•and choose Theodore for their king. 
See Corsica .... 1736 

Milan vested in the house af Austria by 
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle - 1748 

Division of 'Jhe Venetian states by 
France and Austria - - - 1797 

Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by 
Bonaparte - ... - 1798 

The Italian republic - . - 1802 

Italy formed into a kingdom, and Napo- 
leon crowned - - - - 1805 

Eugene Beauhamois made Viceroy of 
Italy 1805 

The kingdom ceases on the overthrow 
of Napoleon - - - - 1814 

[The various other events relating to 
Italy will be found under the respec- 
tive heads of Genoa, Lombardy, Mi- 
Ian,, Naples, Rome, Venice, ^c.} 



The population of the whole of Italy proper now aiBOunts to 23,677,000.— 
Alvi. de Gotha. 



S. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660. — Du 
Frcsnoy. 

JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French re- 
volution. The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association 
of about forty gentlemen and men of letters, who had united to disseminate 



JAN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 375 

political and other opinions ; the members were called Jacobins from their 
meeting in the hall of the Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became nu- 
merous and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the prin- 
cipal to>vias of the kingdom. From its institution, one principal object was, 
to disciiss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the 
national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They 
are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristo- 
cracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first grand 
spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 1794. The 
religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules 
of St. Dominick. See Dominicans. 

JACOBITES. A sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Ba- 
radseus, a Syrian, whose heresy spread to a ^reat extent in the sixth and 
seventli centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites. 
They were the partisans of James II., and were so named after his expul- 
sion in 1688. Those who openly appeared in arms for, or who expressed 
their wishes to restore the abdicated family, were called Jacobites ; the dis- 
tinction is now entii'ely lost. 

JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jonah embarked, 
and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history, 
the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by Bona- 
parte in February 1799 ; and the French were driven out by tlie British in 
June, same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 
3800 prisoners bj^ Bonaparte : but this is reasonably doubted. 

JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from 
the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded by Venables 
in 1655 ; the expedition had been planned bj^ Oliver Cromwell against St. 
Domingo. An awful earthquake occurred here in 1692 ; and the island was 
desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722 ; and again 1734 and 1751. In June 
1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the moimtains, rose 
against the English, and were not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous 
hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundreds of houses 
washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned, October 
1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which 
numerous plantations were burned, and property of immense value destroy- 
ed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared, 
the island under martial law, Dec. 22, 1831. Awful fire here, Aug. 26, 
1843. The Cholera in 1850. 

JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly 
reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by 
Amurath I. in 1361 ; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to 
an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them 
were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman 
was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards. 

JANSENISM. Tliis sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, 
about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his "Augusti- 
nus" a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace, 
and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce contro- 
versy on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Ur- 
ban VIII. 

JANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a 
divinity among the early Romans. See next article. January was added to 
the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 b. c. He placed it about the winter sol- 
stice, and made it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside 
over the beginning of all business. This god was painted with two faces, 



376 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ JEN 

because, as some persons have it, on the one side the first of January looked 
towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first 
day, it was customary for friends and acquaintances to make each other 
presents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among 
us, was originally taken. 

JANUS, Temple op, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in 
the time of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during 
above 700 years, via : — under Numa, 714 b. c. and under Augustus, 5 b. c. ; 
and during that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed 
in war, 

JANVILLIERS, Battle of, between the French and Prussians, in which, after 
an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was 
driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About 
this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher, 
and Napoleon and prince Schwartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris, 
March 31, 1814. 

JAPAN. This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo ; and 
was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous as 
the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period begins 
with the hereditarj^ succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year 
660 B. c. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great num- 
ber of Christians in different parts of the empire ; but, in 1622, they under- 
went great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See 
Jeddo. 

JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by theDutch, 
sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740, 
and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon 
their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August 
8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary 
prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland 
in 1814. 

JEDDO. The capital of Japan, containing about 1,680,000 inhabitants, a num- 
nearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the 
court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion, 
which their master had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit mis- 
sionaries ; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to over- 
turn the Japanese government, caused them to be expelled in 1622, and the 
inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of 
indescribable magnificence ; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars 
of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories 
high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, con- 
cubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city. 

JEMMAPPES, Battle of, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modern 
times ; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in 
woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number 
of cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle, 
whish lasted four days. According to the most authentic accounts, the 
number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,000, on that 
of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792. 

JENA, Battle of, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the 
French and Prussian armies; the one commanded by the emperor Na- 
poleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated, with 
the loss of 80,000 slain, and nearly as many thousands made prisoners. In 



JES J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 377 

this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced to 
Berlin, Oct. 14, 1806. 

JERSEY, GUERNSEY, SARK, and ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy 
of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Con- 
queror, in 1066. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A 
body of French troops surprised the governor, made him prisoner, and 
compelled him to sign a capitulation; but major Pierson, the commander of 
the English troops, refusing to abide by this forced capitulation, attacked 
the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war; but he was 
killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781. 

JERUSALEM. Built 1800 b. c. The first and most famed Temple was found- 
ed by Solomon, 1015 b. c. ; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, October 
30, 1004 B. c, being one thousand years before the birth of Christ — Blair ; 
Usher ; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 b. c. and by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, a. d. 70, after one 
of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1,100,000 of the Jews 
perished on this occasion. A citj^ was built on the ruins of the former by 
the emperor Adrian, a. d. 130. The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eu- 
doxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614; by the Saracens 
in 636; and by the crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword, 
1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from 
the Chi'istians by Saladin, in 1187; and by the Turks, who drove away the 
Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte in 
February 1799. See Jews. 

JESTER. In some ancient works, a jester is described as " a witty and jocose 
person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other 
men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of the early English 
kings kept jesters, and particularly the Tudors. There was a jester at court 
in the reign of James I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards. 

JESUITS. The order Avas founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized), 
a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army. 
Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, a. d. 
1521, devoted himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the mi- 
litary for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedi- 
cate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; he next made a pilgrimage 
to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foi^ndation for his new order 
in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul HI. who 
made many objections to them ; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of 
chastity, povertj^, and obedience, a fourth of imjilicit submission to the 
holy see, the institution was confirmed by a bull, September 27, 1540, by 
which their number was not to exceed 60. That clog, however, was taken 
oflf by another bull, March 14, 1548 ; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and 
Gregory XHL, granted them such great privileges as rendered them pow- 
erful and numerous. But though Francois Xavier, and other missionaries, 
the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable 
globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at Fxris. The 
Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution, 
as being calculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful. 
Even in Romish countries, the intrigues and seditious writings of this order, 
have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled Eng- 
land by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were put 
down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated, 
1764 ; and were banished Spain 1767. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV. 
in 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814 ; and since tolerated in other states, 



378 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[ JEW 



and e'ven where not tolerated, the body, as now in England, possesses a se- 
cret and extensive existence. 

JESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 25, a. m. 4004, in the year of 
Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated four years before the commence- 
ment of the common era. See Nativity. Christ's baptism by John, and 
his first ministry, a. d. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted 
the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fri- 
day, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 5 ; ascended 
to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14, following : and hia 
Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24, 
A. D. 33. 

JEWELRY. Woi-n by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the ex- 
travagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw LoUia 
Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322,916Z. sterling. Jewels 
were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was ex- 
tensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article Dress. 

JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucidas until 
the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. 
They date from the creation, which thej'^ consider to have been 3760 years 
and three months before the commencement of our era. To redxice Jewisli 
time to ours, subtract 3761 years. 

JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They 
derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testa- 
ment and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 b. c. See Tabular 
Views, p. 6 to p. 42. 

JEWS, Modern HrsTORV of. 

Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and 
temple are sacked and burnt, and 
1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi- 
tudes destroying themselves A. D. 70 

100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur- 
dered by the Jews about Cyrene - 115 

Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects 
a temple to Jupiter - - - 130 

More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain 
by the Romans, in 135 and - - 136 

[They are now banished from Judea by 
an edict of the emperor, and are for- 
bidden to return, or even to look back 
upon their once flourishing and be- 
loved city, on pain of death. From 
this period, the Jews have been scat- 
tered among all other nations.] 

GENERAL HISTORY. 

Jews first arrive in England - - 1078 

Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at 

a solemnization of the Passover, they 

sacrifice a j-outh, the son of a rich 

tradesman at Paris, for which the 

criminals are executed, and all Jews 

banished France - - - 1080 

The Jews massacred in London, on the 

coronation-day of Richard I., at the 

instigation of the priests - -1089 

500 being besieged in York castle by 

the mob, they cut each other's throats 

to avoid their fury - - - 1190 

Jews of both se.\es imprisoned ; their 

eyes or teeth plucked out, and num- 
bers inhumanly butchered, by king 

John 1204 

They circumcise and attempt to cruci- 
fy a child at Norwich ; the offenders 



are condemned in a fine of 20,000 
marks - ... - 1235 

They crucify a child at Lincoln, for 
which eighteen are hanged - - 1255 

700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew 
having forced a Christian to pay him 
more than 2s. per week as interest 
upon a loan of 20s. — Slowe - - 1262 

Statute that no Jew should enjoy a free- 
hold, passed .... 1269 

Every Jew lending money on interest 
compelled to wear a plate on his 
breast signifying that he was a usu- 
rer, or to quit the realm - - 1274 

267 Jews hanged and quartered for 
clipping coin - - - - 1277 

They crucify a child at Northampton, 
for which fifty are drawn at horses' 
tails and hanged - - - 1282 

15,660 Jews are apprehended in one 
day, and are all banished England. — 
Rophi ----- 1287 

Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the 
peasantry ; 500 defend themselves in 
a castle, where, for want of weapons, 
they throw their children at their en- 
emies, and then destroy one another 131 

A fatal distemper raging in Europe, 
they are suspected of having poison- 
ed the springs, and 1,500,000 are mas- 
sacred. — Lenglet. - - - 1348 

500,000 Jews are banished Spam, and 
150,000 from Portugal - - 1492 

They are banished France - - 1494 

After having been banished England 
365 years, they are re-admitted by 
Cromwell, in virtue of a treaty with 
Blanasseh Ben Israel - - - 1652 



JUD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 379 



land, lost on the second reading, by a 
majority in tlie Commons, 22S against 
165 - - - Blay 17, 1830 

Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheritf 
of London ; and knighted by the 
queen, being the first Jew on whom 
tliat honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 1837 

Ukase of the emperor of Russia, jjer- 
mitting the title of citizen of tlie first 
class to be held by any Jew who ren- 
ders himself worthy of it - - 1839 

Owing to the disappearance of a Greek 
priest, a persecution of the Jews be- 
gan at Dan. ascus. — See Damascus 

Feb. 1, 1840 



JEWS, continued. 

Statute to naturalize them in England, 

passed ----- 1753 
This act repealed on the petition of all 

the cities in England - - - 1754 

The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and 

Avianon are declared to be citizens 

of France . . - . 1790 

Sitting of the great Sanhedrim, of Paris, 

convened by the emperor Napoleon 

Jan. 20, 1807 
London Society for promoting Christi- 
anity among the Jews - - 1808 
Alexander of Russia grants land on the 

sea of Azoph to converted Jews, 

Sept. 1, 1820 
Bill for Jewish emancipation in Eng- | 

JOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine 
of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, ,/oan of 
Arc pretended she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles 
VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised 
the siege, and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429, and the En- 
glish who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the 
enterprise, May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession 
of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429._ 
In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct." 
She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed 
any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, 
May 25, 1431 ; and to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a 
witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her 
age. — Voltaire's Piicelle d' Orleans. 

JOHN DOE AND RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well 
known in the law. Magna Charta demanded witnesses before trial, and 
since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard 
Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses. 

JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty 
years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by 
pope Boniface VIII. , in the j^ear 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years 
by command of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban 
VI. to every thirty-third year ; and Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year, at 
which period it is now fixed, 

JTJDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Justiciarms 
AnglicB: these judges continued until the erection of the Courts of King's 
Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the office of Justiciarius Anglice 
was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward I. 
1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land; and in 1351, Wil- 
liam de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kent- 
ish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring des- 
potism, and other judges were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of 
Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the bench, 
1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1535. 
Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken off the bench 
and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of 
them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the 
crown, 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge Jefferies was committed by 
the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died, 1689. The independence of the 
judges in England was established by making their appointments patents 
for life, 1761. Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judges, 



380 THE world's progress. [ JUl 

one to each court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took his seat as 
vice-cliancellor, May 5, 1813. 
JUDGES IN THE UNITED STATES. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in 
number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and 
Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have 
been John Jay, appointed, 1789; Wilham Cushing, of Mass., 179G; Oliver 
Ellsworth, 1796 ; John Marshall, 1801 ; Roger B. Taney, 1836. U. S. Cir- 
cuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges of the several States 
are thus appointed : — 

By the Governor and Legislature, or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New 
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Maryland, Louisiana, Missouri, Indiana, and 
Michigan. 

By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, 
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, 
Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. 

By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky. 

By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York.* 

The term of Office of the superior judges, is for life (or " during good 
behavior ") in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Kentucky and Illinois. 

Until seventy jj'ears of age, in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut. 

Until sixty-five j'ears of age, in Missouri. 

For periods varying from tivo to twelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Ala- 
bama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan ; arid for 
one year in Rhode Island, and Vermont. 

They are removable — 
By impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court 
of law, in Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate, and two- thirds of As- 
sembly, in New York. 
JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the PRIVY COUNCIL, in lieu of the Court of 
Delegates, for appeals from the Lord Chancellors of England and Ire 
land in cases of lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Court^ 

■ of England, and Vice Admiralty Courts abroad — from the Courts of the 
Isle of Man, the Colonial Courts, &c., fixed by statute 3 and 4 William 
IV. 1833. 
JUGGERNAUT, or " Lord of the world." The first object of Hindoo venera- 
tion, is a celebrated idol of an irregular pjTamidical black stone, with two 
rich diamonds to represent eyes ; the nose and mouth are painted yermil- 
lion, and the visage is frightful. The number of pilgrims that visit the god 
is stated at 1,200,000 annually: of these a great many never return, and 
to the distance of fifty miles the waj^ is strewed with human bones : the 
temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. 
JUGURTHA, the War with. A memorable war against the Numidian to re- 
duce his kingdom, commenced 111 b. c. and continued five years. Cfficilius 
Metell us was first sent against him, and defeated him in two battles; and 
afterwards Sylla and Marius ; the latter of whom dragged him in chains to 
Rome to adorn his triumph. The name and wars of Jugurtha have been 
immortalized by the pen of Sallust. 
JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the 
lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It consists of 7980 

* The election of judges by the people, in New York, was first provided for by the new consti 
tution of 1846. 



jur] dictionary of dates. 381 

years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in comput- 
ing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period 
antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mun- 
dane eras used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian 
period, our year is found ; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 
4714. For Julian j'ear, see Calendar and Year. 

JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Julius, the surname of 
C. Ceesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month 
in the Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the 
year, 718 b. c. See those months severally, and article Year. 

JTJNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year. 
It had its name Junius, which some derive a Junone, and others a Juniori- 
bus, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons. 
When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is 
now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 b. c. See Year. 

JUNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political 
writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser, in 1769. They 
were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a power- 
ful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British 
literature. These letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William 
Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes, 
Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. 
Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd, Mr. Samuel Dyer, ge- 
neral Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis; but the matter is still 
hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall 
perish with me." — Junius. 

JUPITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans : to the for- 
mer, it is said 3000, Te. c. ; and correctly inserted in a chart of the heavens, 
made about 600 b. c, and in which 1460 stars are accurately described ; this 
chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter 
were discovered by Galileo, a. d. 1610; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed 
some acquaintance with them about twenty years before. 

JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Hep- 
tarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen 
appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property, 
and made responsible with their whole estates, real and personal, for false 
verdicts. — Lambard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed 
to Alfred. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of 
the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shaU be 
one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edward III. 1353. 
By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge 
peremptorily thirty-five, being under thi-ee juries ; but a lord of parliament, 
and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge 
any of his peers. 

JURIES, Coercion of. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used 
to feed the jury empanelled in their action, and hence arose the common 
law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A 
jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree 
upon a verdict ; and maybe confined without meat, drink, or candle, till 
they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their 
pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though 
they did not eat it. — Leon. Dyer. 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able "to 
agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the 
court where they were locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791.— 
Phillips. 



382 THE world's progress. [ KIE 

JUSTICES OP THE PEACE. These are local magistrates, invested with ex- 
tensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punish- 
ment by the king's bench for an abuse of tlieir authority. Justices of the 
peace in every county first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076. 
— Stowe. In the United States the office is held by special appointment, 
and the tenure is different in different States ; it is usually for seven years. 

JUSTINIAN CODE. Wherein was written what may be termed the statute 
law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed a. d. 529. 
To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and 
Novels. These compilations have since been calle(i. collectively, the body 
of civil law {corpics jims civilis). A digest was made in 533. — Blair. 

K. 

KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and pro- 
duces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr. 
Brewster of Edinburgh ; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument 
perfected in 1817, when it found its way into every body's hands. It is in- 
tended to assist jewellers, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in the 
formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number. 

KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was dis- 
covered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, a. d. 1690; and was taken possession of 
by Russia in 1697 ; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by 
Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be 
considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year 
being dreary winter. 

KENIL WORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected 
subsequently by John of Gaunt ; and its remains now form one of the most 
picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred 
on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards en- 
tertained within its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment 
of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily lOOOZ. a vast 
expenditure in those times. 

KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone, 
an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775. 
Was a part of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad 
mitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73,677; in 1810, 406,511 , 
in 1830, 688,844; in 1840, 779,828, including 182,258 slaves. 

KEYS. The invention of them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny, 
about 730 b. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of 
Troy, 1193 b. c. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form 
was a simple crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient 
keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze. 
The late Francis Douce, esq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft ter- 
minating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of this 
description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again 
upon divorce or separation. 

ivIEL, Treaty or. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed Jan- 
uary 14, 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously 
the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent 
a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The ruission 
was fruitless. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports of Norway, 
and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave actions, 
but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and the 
diet elect'i'^ the king of Sweden to be their king. 



KIN j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 383 

KING. The Latin Rex, the Scythian Reis, the Spanish Rey, the French Roi, 
all come from the Hebrew Rosch, chief, or head. Nimrod Avas the first 
founder of a kingdom, 2245 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. Misraim built cities in 
Egj"pt, and was the first who assumed the title of king- in that division of the 
earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 b. c. Most of the Grecian states 
were governed by kings ; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians 
understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the peo- 
ple happy ; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, the 
sovereign was as muchbound by the laws as his meanest subject: there was 
a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of pubhc 
and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he should 
devote each day to the services of religon, the administration of justice, 
the quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was served, 
were all i^rescribed. 

KING OF ENGLAND. The style " kirg of England," was first used by Egbert 
A. D. 828; but the title Rex gentis Angloriim, king of the English nation, 
existed during the Heptarchy. See Britain. The plural phraseology of we, 
lis, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of " king of Ire- 
land," by British sovereigns, was not assumed until . 542, when Henry VHI. 
changed" lord of Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted 
at the union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707 ; and of the "United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, Jan- 
uary 1, 1801, when the royal style and title was appointed to run thus : — 
"Georgius Tertms, Dei G-ratia Britaimiaruin Rex, Fidei Defensor," "George 
the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith." 

KING OF THE FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title ol 
" king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that ol 
" king of the French," October 16, 1789. The royal title was abolished in 
1792; but restored in the Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I. 
was invited to the monarchy under the style of the " king of the French," 
August 9, 1830. See France. 

KING OF HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term 
queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds 
to the throne, she shall be called king. Thus it will be seen in the annals of 
Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as king Mary, in 1383. See 
Hungary. 

KING OP THE ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest 
sons might be chosen their successors, in their own lifetime politically ob- 
tained them the title of "king of the Romans," this people being compre- 
hended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV., in 
1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was induced to go to 
Germany, where he disbursed vast sums imder the promise of being elected 
next emperor; he obtained the title of "king of the Romans," but failed in 
succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style " king of Rome " was revived 
by Bonaparte, who conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in April, 1811 ; 
but the title ceased with the extinction of the dynasty of Napoleon, April 
5, 1814. 

KING'S BENCH, Court of, in England. Obtained its name from the khig 
sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the 
judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdic- 
tion of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control 
as othei-s, because the law presunu-s the king to be here in person. The 
name of this court has been altered to that of Qn.cen's Bench, since the 



384 THE world's progress. [ KNl 

accession of Victoria, in June, 1837, as is ttie case with all institutions in 
immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign. 

KING'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of England. 
The first who touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. This vulgar 
credulity had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that in four- 
teen years, 92,107 persons were touched ; and, according to Wiseman, the 
king's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an- 
nounced in the London Gazette, March 12, 1712, her royal intention to touch 
publicly for the cure of the evil ; and touching for it continued a custom un- 
til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714. 

KING'S SPEECH. The first royal speech from the throne was delivered by 
Henry I., in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarking with his accus- 
tomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become 
chief of a new administration, said — " Canning being now minister, of one 
thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we shall have no more grammati- 
cal blunders in king's speeches ; these things will still be written in the 
same meagre way, in point of matter, as before ; but we shall have them in 
a perspicuous and pure style."-^Colibett. 

KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to 
have been the Nimrod of Holy Writ ; he was the founder of the Babylonian 
monarchy, 2245 b. c. — Usher. Menes, or Misral'm, makes his son Atholas, 
surnaraed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt ; and another son, Tose- 
thrus, he establishes at Memphis, 2188 b. c. — Blair. Ninus founds the As- 
syrian monarchy, 2059 b. c. — Lenglet. 

KISSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing 
was a mode of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas 
approaching his master with a kiss ; it was also customary in Rome. Kiss- 
ing the poi:)e's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns, 
and began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the eighth century. 
From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling 
to his lord in homage, first practised, a.d. 709. 

KIT-KAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and 
gentlemen of distinguished abilities, instituted in 1703, fur the purpose of 
promoting the Protestant succession in the house of Hanover, which they 
eflfected by spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele, 
and Dr. Garth were members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts of 
the club. The club took its name from one Christoi^her Kat, a pastry-cook, 
who lived near the tavern where they met, in King-street, Westminster, and 
who served them with pastry. — Bowyer's Life of Queen Anne. 

KNIGHT. The origin of this title as a military honor is said to be derived 
from the siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in 
Homer. With certainty we may trace the distinction to the Romans, who. 
after their union with the Sabines, created three centuries of knights, about 
750 B. c. — Livij. 

KiNIGHT-ERRANTRY. Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations, 
particularly the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain, France, and 
Germany. Tilts and tournaments commenced with the return of the cru- 
saders from the holy wars, and for about 300 years they were the chief 
amusements of courts, and the successful combatants acquired knighthood, 
and the favor of .the ladies. When public combats declined, the knights 
travelled in search of adventures, to correct injustice, and fight in the 
cause of the fair ; and the consequent follies gave rise to the novel of Don 
Quixote. 

KNIGHTHOOD. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, after 



KNl] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



385 



confession and consecration of tlie sword, during tlie Saxon Heptarchy. 
The first knight made by tlie sovereign with the sword of state was Athel- 
stan, on whom Alfred bestoAved this new dignity, a. d. 900. — Spelmmi. The 
custom of ecclesiastics conferring the honor of knighthood was suppressed 
in a synod held at Westminster in 1100. — Ashmole's Institutes. All persons 
having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay a fine, 
38 Henry HI. l2^L~Salmon. 

KNIGHTHOOD in EUROPE. As a system, under the denomination of chi- 
valry, knighthood is to be dated from the eleventh century. On the de- 
cline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state of 
anarch j^, the proprietor of everj' manor became a petty sovereign ; his man- 
sion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a castle. 
Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and 
treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich 
fiefs associated to repres these marauders, and to make property secure, and 
to protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow, 
and the sanction of a religious cei'emony. The first knights being men of 
the highest rank and largest possessions, adriisBion into the order was 
deemed a great honor. 



MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND 

Alcantara, instituted - - a. d. 

Alexander Nevskoi, Russia 

Amaranta, Sweden - - 

"Angelic Knights, Greece - - • 

Annunciada, Mantua 

Annunciation, Savoy 

Argonauts, Naples ... 

Avis, Portugal - - - - 

Band, Spairi .... 

Bannerets, England, 13G0. Kenewed. 
See Bannerets - - - - 

Batii, England, 1399. Renewed. See 
Bath ..... 

Bear, Switzerland - - - - 

Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by 
Frederick I. - 

Blood of Christ, Mantua - - - 

Brotherly Love, instituted 

Burgundian Cross - - - - 

Calatrava, Castile, instituled by San- 
cho III. - . . - - 

Carpet, England - - - - 

Catharine, Russia 

Chase, instituted by the duke of Wir- 
temberg - - - - - 

Christ, Livonia - - . - 

Christ, Portugal - - - - 

Christian Charity, France 

Cincinnatus, America 

Conception of the Virgin 

Concord, Prussia, instituted by Chris- 
tian Ernest, elector of Brandenburgh 

Crescent, Naples - - - - 

Crown Royal, France - 

Daneburgh, Denmark, instituted by 
Waldemar II., 1219 ; revived by 
Christian V. - - - - 

Death's Head, Female Order, by the 
widow -Louisa Elizabetlr of Saxe 
Mersburgh . . . . 

Dove of Castile - - - - 

Dragon, Hungary 

Ear of Corn, Brittany - - - 

Elephant, Denmark, by Christian I. - 

Ermine, France - - - - 

Garter, England • - - - 

i: 



1700 
1615 
456 
1618 
1355 
1382 
1147 
1232 

1485 

1725 
1213 

1701 
1608 
1708 
1535 

1150 
1553 
1698 

1719 
1203 
1319 
1590 
1783 
1619 

1660 

1448 
802 



1671 



1709 
1379 
1439 
1050 
1478 
14.50 
1360 



Revived - 



HONORARY ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 

1160 Generosity, Brandenburgh 

Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by 

Philip, surnamed the Good 
Golden Lion, Hesse-Cassel 
Golden Shield and Thistle 
Golden Spur, by Pius IV. 
Guelphic, Hanover - 
Holy Ghost, France, 1468. 
Holy Ghost, Rome 
Holy Trinity - 
Hospitallers (which see) 
Januarius, Naples - 
.Jerusalem. See Malta - 
.lesus, France 
Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John 

XXII., 1415. Reformed by Paul V. 
Knot, Naples . . . - 

La Calza, Venice - - - - 

Legion of Honor, France, instituted by 

Napoleon Bonaparte - 
Lily of Arragon - - - - 

Liiy of Navarre - - . - 

Loreito, Lady of - - - - 

ftlalta. See Malta. 

Martyrs, Palestine - - - - 

Maria-Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain 
Mauritians, Savoy 
Merit, instituted by the landgrave of 

Hesse Cassel • - - - 

Merit, Prussia ... - 

Noble Passion, Germany - 
Oak of Navarre, Spain - 
Passion of Jesus Christ, France 
Pius, founded by Pius IV. - 
Porcupine, France 

Red Eagle, Prussia - - - - 

Redemption, instituted - 
Rosary, Spain - - - - 

Round Table, England — See Knights 

of the Romid Table - 
St. Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribes 

to this saint the introduction of Chris 

tianity into Muscovy) 
St. Andrew, Scotland, 809 ; renewed 

14.52 ; and again by James VI. 
St. Anihnny, Ethiopia r 



1685 

1429 
1785 
1370 
1559 
1816 
1559 
1198 
1211 
1092 
1738 
1048 
1206 

1610 
1351 
1400 

1802 
1403 
1048 
1587 
1531 
1319 
1792 
1430 

17S5 
1740 
1704 
722 
1382 
1.559 
1393 
1792 
1212 
1172 

528 



- 1698 



1605 
357 



386 



THE world's progress. 



[kni 



KNIGHTHOOD in EUROPE, continued. 

■ 1382 

- - 1250 

- 1163 

■ - 1698 
- 1267 



St. Anthony, Hainault - 
St. Blaze, Aeon 
St. Catharine, Palestine - 
St. Catharine, Russia 
St. Denis, France 



St. George, Austria - - - - 1470 

St. George, Carinthia - - • 1279 

St. George, Defender of the Immacu- 
late Conception, Bavaria - • 1729 
St. George, England; instituted by Ed- 
ward 111. See Garter - - 1349 
St. George; tutelary saint of Genoa, by 

Frederick III. - - -' -1460 

St. George, Rome - - - 1496 

St. George, Russia - - - - 1782 

St. George, Spain - • - 1318 

St. George, Venice - - - - 1200 

St. Hubert, Germany, by the duke of 

Juliers and Cleves - - - 1447 

St. James, Holland - • - - 1290 

St. James, Portugal - - - 1310 

St. James, Spain - • - - 1030 

St. Jerome, Germany - - -11.54 

St. John of Aeon - - - -1370 

St. John of Jerusalem - - -1048 

St. John of Malta - - - - 1522 

St. John of Rhodes - • - 1300 

St. Julian, of Alcantara - - - 1176 

St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Eman- 
uel Philibert, duke of Savoy - -1572 
St. Louis, France - - - - 1693 
St. Mark, Venice, 830 ; renewed • 1562 
St. Mary the Glorious - - - 1233 
St. Mary de Merced, Spain •■ - 1218 
St. Michael, France - - - - 1469 



St. Michael, Germanj - 

St. Patrick, Ireland - 

St. Paul, Rome - 

St. Peter, Rome 

St. Rupert, Germany, by ths archbish- 
op ol Saltzburgh 

St. Sepulchre, Palestine 

St. Stephen, by Casimir de Medicis, 
grand-duke of Tuscany 

St. Thomas of Aeon • 

Saviour, Greece - - June 1 

Seraphiuis, Sweden - - - 

Ship and C re -cent, France 

Sincerity, instituted by the elector of 
Saxony - - . . 

Slaves of Virtue, Germany 

Swan, Cleves 

Sword, Cyprus - 

Sword, Sweden, 1523 ; revived 

Templars. — See Templars- 

Teste Morte, Wurtemburg - 

Teutonic, 1190 ; renewed in Prussia 

Thistle of Bourbon 

Thistle of Scotland, 812 ; revived - 

Trinitarians, Spain 

Truxillo, Spain 

United Ladies for the honor of tiie 
Cross, in Germany 

Virgin Mary - 

Virgin of Mount Carmel, France 

Warfare of Christ, Poland - 

Warfare of Christ, Russia 

Wing of St. Michael, Portugal 

Wladimir, Russia 



1613 
1783 
1540 
1520 

1701 
1092 

1561 
1370 
1833 
1334 
1269 

1690 
1662 
960 
1195 
1772 
1118 
1652 
1522 
1370 
1540 
1594 
1227 

1666 
1233 
1607 
1705 
1325 
1165 
1682 



KNIGHTS, Female. The title of knight, which was given to men of superior 
worth, ability, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to women 
also. As an instance, it was conferred on the women who preserved the 
city of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their 
stout resistance and vigorous attack of the besiegers, by which means the 
Moors were forced to raise the siege. Large immunities and favors were 
granted to them and their descendants for their heroism on this occasion. 

KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Arthur, about a. d. 
528. — Asset's Life of Alfred. This ancient order was revived by Edward 
III. at Windsor," upon New Year's day, 1344. The king, with a view to the 
recovery of France, which descended to him in right of his mother, became 
anxious to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon 
projecting and setting up king Arthur's Round Table, he proclaimed a 
solemn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and courage to the exercise. 
He published his royal letters of protection, for the safe coming and return 
of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at those 
jousts and tournaments. — Beatson. 

KNIGHTS OF THii; SHIRE. Tiie barons, or tenants in chief, or freeholders by 
Doomsday-book, were 700 in mimber, but being split into small parts, wer(! 
greater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in parliament ; but tht; 
fatter, or lesser barons, were allowed to choose two representatives, hence 
called knights of the shire, a. d. 1307. 

KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. A religious and military order, instituted a. d. 1118. 
They came to England early in Stephen's reign, and settled at the Temple 
in London ; and at other places in the reign of Henry II. All the knights 
were arrested in France in one day, being charged with great crimes, and 
possessing great riches ; fifty-nine of them were burnt alive at Paris in Oct., 



LAB "I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 38» 

1307. Those ia England were all seized the same j'^ear. Their order was 
abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the council of Vienne, in 1312 ; 
and many thousands were subsequently massacred, their wealth being given 
to the knights of Malta. See Malta. 

KNIVES. First made in England in 1563. They were the earliest branch of 
cutlerj"-, and were first manufactured by one Mathews, of Fleet-Bridge, Lon- 
don, 5th Eliz., 1563. — Chamberlain's England, edit. 1683. See Forks. 

KORAN, OR ALKORAN of MAHOMET, written about a. d. 610. Its general 
aim was, to unite the professions of Idolatry and the Jews and Christians in 
the worship of one God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), under 
certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the pro- 
phet. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which cer- 
tainly possessed every fine quality, was said to be that of paradise. Maho- 
met asserted that the Koran was revealed to iim, during a period of twenty- 
three years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this volume is beautiful, 
fluent, and concise, and %vhere the majesty and attributes of God are de- 
scribed, it is sublime and magnificent. Mahomet admitted the divine mis- 
sion both of Moses and Jesus Christ. — Dr. Jortin. The leading artkjle of 
faith which this impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, and 
a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet 
is the apostle of God. — Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 
1143 ; and into English and other European languages about 1763, et seq. 
It is a rhapsody of 3000 verses, divided into 114 sections. See Alcoran; 
Islamisni; Mecca; Makometism, <^c. 

L. 

LA HOGUE, Battle of, between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under 
admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French fleet commanded bj' admiral 
Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a 
splendid victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight 
more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus pi'eventing a threatened descent upon 
England, May 19, 1692. 

LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed 
from France for the Pacific, with the Boussole and Astrolabe under his com- 
mand. The last direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay, 
in March 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search 
of Perouse, but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the 
East India ship Research, ascertained that the French ships had been cast 
a.way on two diiFerent islands of the New Hebrides — a fate authenticated by 
various articles of the wreck of these vessels, which capt. Dillon brought 
with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards. 

LA VENDEE, War of. The French Royalists here took to arms, and were 
successful in a number of battles with the Republican armies, fought be- 
tween July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, when they experienced a severe 
reverse. Numerous other engagements were fought, with various success, 
until this war terminated, Jan. 10, 1800. 

LABYRINTH. Thei-e were four most famous in history : the first was built by 
Dtedalus, in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 b. c. ; 
the second in Egypt in the isle of Moeris, by Psammeticus, king of that 
place, 683 b. c. ; and the fourth in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of the 
Hetruriffi, about 520 b. c. — Pliny. The beauty and art of the labyrinth of 
Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with 
pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with sculpture. — Herodotus. 
The labvrintli of Woodstock i.s famou.s from its connection with the storv of 



388 THE world's progress. [ LAM 

Fair Rosamond, mistress of Hemy 11. ; there is a ciirious Maze at Hampton 
Court that is much visited. 
LACE. Mention is made of it as being of very delicate texture in France and 
Flanders in 1320 ; and line laces were much in use for ruffles and frills for 
the men, and headdresses for the women, in the fifteenth century. Lace 
was general in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valencien- 
nes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine lace. An 
ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds 
in London, and its value when manufactured has been increased to forty 
pounds, ten times the price of standard gold. 

LACED^MON. See Sparta. Lelez begins the kingdom of Lelegia, in Laco- 
nia, 1516 b. c. Eurotas gives his daughter Sparta in marriage to Laced^^ 
mon, and makes him partner on the throne, 1490 b. c. The city of Sparta 
was built about this time, and hence the name by which the country is most 
known. The Lacedsemon republic became famous in history after 700 b. c. 
particularly by the conquest of Athens. It was made a Roman province 71 
B. c. The territory now belongs to the Turks. — Thucydides ; Priestley. 

LADIES. The mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to the 
poor weekly Avith their own hands certain quantities of bread, and were 
therefore called Lef-days — two Saxon words signifying bread-giver, and the 
words were at length corrupted, and the mistress is called to this day Lady, 
that is, Lff-day. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of 
Louis XII. of France in 1499. As a title of honor, the title of lady properlj'' 
belongs only to the daugliters of earls, and all of higher rank ; but custom 
has made it a term of complaisance for the wives of knights, and all women 
of eminence or gentility. See Lord. 

LADRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan, in 1520 ; they are eleven in num- 
ber ; at the island of Guam he first touched. Here, some of the natives 
having stolen some of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft, 
he named the islands the Ladrones, or Islands of Thieves, which they are 
called to this day. 

LADY DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about a. d. 350, 
according to some authorities, and not before the sevehth century accord- 
ing to others. On this day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought 
to the Virgin Mary the message concerning her son Jesus ; hence it is called 
the Annunciation, and is celebrated in the Catholic church as one of its 
chief feasts ; and in the Reformed church also, on account of the con- 
nection between the circumstance commemorated and the Incarnation. In 
England, before the alteration of the style, the new year began on the 25th 
of March. 

LA FAYETTE'S first visit to the United States, to aid the cause of American 
independence ; he arrived at Charleston, April 25, 1777, being then nineteen 
years old. He raiied a corps at his own expense ; was wounded at Brandy- 
wine ; employed in Rhode Island, 1778 ; visited France, promoting new re- 
inforcements for the United States, and returned 1779. His triumphal 
reception in the United States on a visit of pleasure, Aug. 13, 1824 ; re- 
ceived from Congress the sum of $200,000 and a township of land in reward 
for his sei'vices ; returned to France in the frigate Brandywine, September 
7, 1825. 

LAMPS. See Lanterns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages ; they 
were in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epic- 
tetus the philosopher had in his study sold, after his death, for 3000 
drachmas, a. d. 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. 
Lamps were in general use through the streets of London up to the close 



LAN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 389 

of the 18tli century, as were flambeaux which were carried by link-boys. 
London streets were first lighted by oil-lamps in 1681 ; and with gas lamps 
in 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant manufacture ; of this kind 
is the Argaud lamp, brought into general use in England in 1785, et seq. 
See Safely Lamp. 

LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutual 
instruction, propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell ; they were not 
much patronized till about 1808, when Lancaster's system attracted general 
attention, notwithstanding the prejudices that existed against the founder, 
who had been laboring to introduce schools upon his economic plan from 
1798. They became general in 1818, and there are now some hundreds of 
them in England, and in London more than forty. They were founded in 
Senegal, and were extensively instituted in Russia, in 1819. 

LAND. "Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 36 Hemy VIII. 1544. 
The whole rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,OOOZ. in 1600. It was 
about 14,000,000Z. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 
10 per cent, on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50 
millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 4Q 
millions ; but in this estimate v/ere exempted much land and the inferior 
class of houses. See Incmne Tax. The rental of the United Kingdom has 
been recently estimated in parliament at 127 millions, but authorities vary 
much on the amount. See Public Lands, U. S. 

LANDGRAVE. This is from land, and grave a count, a German title of do- 
minion, which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century ; it be- 
came the title of the house of Hesse Cassel, about the year 1300 ; and the 
rank was subsequently assumed by the branches of Hesse Homburg, Hesse 
Philipstal, Hesse Darmstadt, &c. See Hesse. 

LANGSIDE, Battle op ; between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the 
earl of Murraj^, and the army of Mai-y queen of Scots, in which the latter 
suffered a complete defeat. May 15, 1568. Immediatelj^ after this last fatal 
battle, the unfortunate Mai-y fled to England, and landed at Workington, in 
Cumberland, on May 16; and was soon afterwards imprisoned by Elizabeth. 

LANGUAGE. Language must either have been revealed originally from hea- 
ven, or it is the fruit of human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by 
Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers ; the 
former opinion by the gi-eat majority of the Jews and Christians,and the pro- 
foundest philosophers of France and England. It has been affirmed that 
Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam : but others deny this, and say that 
the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are only dialects of the original, which has 
for many ages been lost and unknown. Psammeticus the Powerful, desiring 
to know the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two 
children to be kept from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they 
were tAvo years old : they were then brought into his presence, and they 
both pronounced the sound b'eccos, the Phoenician term for bread. He there- 
fore gave the Phoenician the precedence, in point of antiquity, to all other 
nations, 647 b. c. — Herodohcs, Pohjan., Slrabo. 

LANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. The 
original European ones are thirteen, viz : Greek, Latin, Dutch, Sclavonian, 
spoken in the east ; Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish, Albanian, in 
the mountains of Epirus, Tartarian, the old Illyrian, the Jazj^gian, remain- 
ing yet in Liburnia; the Chaucin, in the north of Hungary; and the Finnic, 
in East Friesland. Arabic is the mother tongue of Africa. From the Latin 
sprung the Italian, French and Spanish; and from the Spanish the Portu- 
guese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From the High 
, Dutch, or Teutonic, sprang the Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, 



390 THE world's PUOGR.ESS. [ laT 

&c. There are 3664 known languages now used in the world. Of these, 
937 are Asiatic ; 587 European ; 276 African; and 1624 American languages 
and dialects. — Professor Adelimg. 

LANTERNS. In general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn 
were invented in England, it is said by Alfred, and it is supposed that horn 
was used for window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's reign, 
A. D. 872-901. — Stowc's Chron. London was lighted by suspended lanterns, 
with glass sides, a. d. 1415. The pellucid laminae of the ox horn has served 
for ages for the sides of lanterns instead of glass, and for many uses aro 
preferred. See article. Lamps. 

LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, is universally 
allowed to be the triumph of Grecian sculpture. It was modelled by Ages- 
ander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus. all of Rhodes, and of great eminenco 
as statuaries ; and in all ages, and by all nations, this beautiful group is 
allowed to be the greatest victory of art that has ever been achieved by 
human hands. 

LATERAN, COUNCILS or the. They were held in the Basilica of the La- 
teran, at Rome. Of these, councils there were five : by the first, the right 
of investitures was settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry 
v., 1122 ; by the second council was secured the temporalities of ecclesias- 
tics, 1189 ; the third was to denounce schismatics, 1179 ; the fourth on 
church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and 1000 abbots ; and the fifth was 
the famous council of Julius II., 1512. 

liATHE, for turning ivory, wood, iron, and other substances, so as to shape 
them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude 
construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 b. c. 
Pliny ascribes the invention to Theodore of Samos. Modern lathe engines 
frequently cost thousands of pounds. 

LATIN LANGUAGE. One of the thirteen original languages of Europe, and 
from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named after the 
Latini, and the Latini from Latinus, their king. A vast portion of our most 
beautiful and expressive words are derived from the Latin. It ceased to be 
spoken in Italy, about a. d. 681 ; and was first taught in England by Adel- 
mus, brother of Ina, in the seventh century. During six or seven hundred 
years the Latin tongue prevailed in all public proceedings from the Tweed 
to the Euphrates, and from the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has been more 
or less retained even to this day. In England it was ordered to be discon- 
tinued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731. 

LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 b. c. It is 
the extent of the earth, or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to 
either pole. Maupertuis, in latitude 66.20, measured a degree of latitude, 
and made it 69.493 ; he measured it in 1737. Swanberg, in 1803, made it 
69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68.732 ; and 
Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 68.743. Mudge, in England, made it 
69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12 ; and Biot, 
68.769 ; while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68.63 — less than at 
the equator ; and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a pro- 
late spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler, and 
others, while it has more generally been regarded as an oblate spheroid. 

LATIUM. Now the city of Romania ; built by Latinus, king of Janiculum, 
who gave his name to the country, calling his subjects Latines, 904 b. c. 
Laurentum was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavinium 
under -^Zneas, and Alba under Ascanius. The Latins, though originally 
known only among their neighbors, soon rose in rank when Romulus had 
founded the city of Rome in their country. 



LAW J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 39. 

LATTER-DAY SAINTS. A new sect, whose principles are variously repre- 
sented. By some we are told that their tenets do not vary much from those 
•of the Church of England, the Scriptures, without mysticism, being the 
foundation of them. By others it is said that they assume the power of 
curing the sick, resisting the operations of the deadliest poisons, and work- 
ing miracles of several kinds ; and maintain that this is the last generation 
of men. They have appeared in Hertfordshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire ; 
and an address was published by them at Manchester, in May, 1840. Great 
numbers of these fanatics have lately emigrated to the United States. 

LAWS. ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 1807 
B. c, were the first Attic laws, reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athe- 
nians, 623 B. c. ; but the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of 
Solon, 578 b. c. The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made 884 b. c. ; they 
remained in full force for 700 years, and are calculated to raise our admira- 
tion, as well by their singularity, as by the eftect they had in forming a race 
of men totally different from all others living in civilized society. The Roman 
laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The Gregorian and Hermogin'an 
codes were published in a. d. 290. The Theodosian code in 435. The Jus- 
tinian code, in 529, and the digest, in 533. — Blair. See Civil Law. 

LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earliest date were translated into the 
Saxon, in a. d. 590. The Saxon laws of Ina were published in 709. Alfred's 
code of laws, which is the foundation of the common law of England, was 
compiled in 887, but in use previously. Edward the Confessor promulgated 
his laws, in 1065. Stephen's charter of genei-al liberties, 1136; Henry II. 's 
confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The maritime laws of Richard I., 1194. 
See article Oleron. Magna Charta, by king John, 1215. Its confirmation 
by Henry III., 1216, ei scq. See Magna Charta and Forests, Charter of the. 
Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of the King's Bench, 
"That no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the' 
fact as to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. — Lord Mansfield. 

LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The pro- 
jector, John Law, of Edinburgh, raised himself to the dignity of comptroller- 
general of the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for esta- 
blishing a bank, an East India, and a Mississippi company, by the profits of 
which the national debt of France was to be paid off". He first offered his 
plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful 
enough to ruin himself The French ministry accepted it in 1710 ; and in 
1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke 
of Orleans, regent of France ; and most of the people of property of every 
rank in that kingdom, seduced by the i)rospect of immense gains, subscribed 
both in the bank and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a Royal 
bank, and the shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original value, so 
that in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all the 
current specie in France. But the following year this great fabric of false 
credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government, 
ruining tens of thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same des- 
perate game Avas played by the South Sea directors in England, in the same 
fatal year, 1720. — Hist, of France, Nouv. Diet. 

liAWYERS. The pleaders of the bar, called barristers, are said to have been 
first appointed by Edward I. or in his reign, 1291. Serjeants, the highest- 
members of the bar, are alone permitted to plead in the court of Common 
Pleas. The first king's counsel luxler the degree of serjeant was sir Francis 
Bacon, in 1604. There are about 1200 barristers in England: and the num- 
ber of lawyers in England and Wales, counting London and country attor- 
neys, solicitors, &c., is about 14,000. A list of 19,527 practising lawyers in 
the United States, was published in NcAv-York, 1850. 



392 THE world's puogkess. [lea 

LEAD. Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various i^arts of Bri- 
tain, and in some places richlj^ mixed with silver ore. The famous Clydes- 
dale mines were discovered in 1513. The lead mines of Cumberland lind 
Derbyshire yield about 15.000 tons per annum. The finest sort of black lead, 
that most fit for pencils, is produced only at Borrowdale, but there in great 
quantities. Leaden pipes for the convevance of water were brought into use 
in 1236. 

LEAGUES, POLITICAL and RELIGIOUS. The League of the Public Good, 
was one between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other 
princes against Louis XI. of France, in 1464. The League of Cambray was 
entered into in 1508. The Holy League against Louis XII., 1510. The 
League of Smalcald, 1529. The League of the Beggars (the Protestants so 
called, though Catholics joined the league) to oppose the institution of the 
Inquisition in Flanders, 1560. The League, so denominated by way of emi- 
nence, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France, Avho was then of the 
reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The League of Wurtzburg, 
1610. League against the emperor, 1626. Solemn League and Covenant in 
Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church, and the regal 
authority, 13 Charles I., 1638. League of Augsburg, 1686. 

LEAP-YEAR, or BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astrono- 
mers of Julius Cffisar, 45 b. c. They fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours, 
comprising, as they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another ; 
the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years, forming a day, the 
fourth j'ear was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added was 
called intercalary, and was added to February. See Bissextile. This almost 
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed through- 
out the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIIL, in 1582, when 
the calendar was altered to its present state. See Calendar. The difference 
between 365 days 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, 
and 6 decimals, which last is the true length of the astronomical year, in 
the course of years caused 1700 and 1808 not to be leap-years, nor will 1900 
be a leap-year; but the year 2000 will be one. See Julian Year., Gregorian 
CaleJidar, (^-c. 

LEARNING and the ARTS. These were carried to their height among the 
Greeks during the fourth century b. c. ; and with the Romans with the com- 
mencement of the Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined 
until the refugees from Greece caused them to revive in Itaty, about a. d. 
1250. Learning had been found so to obstruct the tyranny of the emperors, 
that mathematicians and philosophers were, by several decrees, banished from 
Rome, A. D. 16, and 89, et scq. After the dark ages, came Brunetto, Latini, 
and numerous enlightened men; and Leo X., about 1513, gave vast encou- 
ragement to literature and the arts. 

The illustrisus Medici family greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550. 
— Fontana. And about this time literature began to flourish in France, 
Germany, and England. The reign of Anne has been called by some the 
"golden," by others, the "Augustan age " of English hterature. 

LEATHER. It was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of 
manufactured hides were used for ropes, harness, &c., by all ancient nations. 
The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 b. c. The ancients un- 
derstood the art of tanning leather, and it was practised early in England, 
and great improvements made in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into 
many uses: a leathern cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times, 
and foimd to answer, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. The duty on leather produced 
annually in England, 450,000Z., and in Ireland, about 50,OOOZ. It was abohsh- 
ed in both countries. May 29, 1830. 



LEP j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 393 

LEGHORN. Livorno. This city suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741, 
It was entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July 17, 1796, 
but the immense amount of British property then there had been previously 
removed. Leghorn was evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retaken 
the following year. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Ital- 
ian allied forces, in Dec. 1813. 

r^EGION. The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first 
formed by Romulus, under whom it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, 
about 750 b. c. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 b. c, the legion consisted 
of 5000 soldiers ; and under Marius, in 88 b. c. it was 6200 soldiers, besides 
700 horse. There were ten and sometimes as many as eighteen legions kept 
at Rome. Augustus maintained a standing army of twenty-five legions, 
about 5 B. c; and the peace-establishment of Adrian W3S thirty of these 
formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected by three legions, 
A legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with 
a vexillum, or standard guarded by 10 men. 

LEGION OP HONOR. A military order in France, embracing all distinctions 
in the army, and including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such 
individuals as have eminently distinguished themselves for services to the 
state, military deeds, and for public virtue ; instituted by Napoleon Bona- 
parte, when first consul. May 18, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbon 
family, Louis XVIII. confirmed this order, April 1814. 

LEIPSIC. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Gustavus Adolphus, 
king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept. 7, 1631. The siege of Leip- 
sic was sustained in 1637. Leipsic was taken lay the Prussian army, 1756. In 
the same year, the Austrians laid siege to Liepsic in vain, but they took it 
two years afterwards, though they did not retain it long. In the late wars 
it has frequently fallen into adverse hands. See next article. 

LEIPSIC, Battle op. One of the greatest, most sanguinary, and decisive of 
modern times, between the French army, commanded by Napoleon, on the 
one side, and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other ; the 
former 160,000, and the latter 240,000 strong. This great battle was lost 
by the French, chiefly owing to 17 German battalions, their Saxon allies, 
turiung upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80,000 men perished in 
the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of 
artillery, and many standards. The victory of the allies was followed by 
the capture, next day, of Leipsic, and of the rear-guard of the French army. 
The king of Saxonj' and his family were also made prisoners ; and the em- 
peror of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Swe- 
den, entered Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and 18, 1813. 

LENT. The quadragesimal fast observed in the Catholic church, from Ash- 
Wednesday {which see) to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostolic institu- 
tion. The primitive Christains did not commence their Lent until the Sunday 
which is now called the first Sunday of Lent : and the four days beginning 
were added by pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of 
fasting days should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in England 
by command of Ercombcrt, king of Kent, in 640. Baker's Chron. 

LEPANTO, Battle of. The great naval engagement between the combined 
fleets of Spain. Venice, and Pius V., and the whole maritime force of the 
Turks. Don John of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, which consist- 
ed of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men, while the Turks had 250 galleys, of 
which, after a dreadful conflict, they saved but 100, losing 30,000 men in 
killed and prisoners ; and thus was prostrated for a time the naval power of 
Turkey, Oct. 7, Ibll.—Voltain. 

17=^ 



394 THE world's iPROGRESS. [ LEX 

LETTERS. Those of the alphabet were invented by Memnon, the Egyptian, 
1822 B. c. — Usher, Blair. The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew 
alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by other 
nations to A. The letters, both in the ancient and modern languages, so 
vary in number and sound, that a volume might be written in describing the 
alphabets which are known. See Alphabet. 

LETTERS OP MARQUE and REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued in 
England by Edward L, for the seizure of the enemy's vessels, and for repri- 
sal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. — Rymer's Fadera. They were 
first granted in 1295. — Baker^s Chron. They are usually granted in time of 
war to private armed ships, and do great mischief to the commerce of 
belligerent nations. — Poioel. 

LETTERS DE CACHET. These instruments of oppression were so much in 
use by the French government previously to the Revolution, that one of the 
earliest acts of the National Assembly was to denounce them, and decree 
their abolition, and the abolition of arbitrary imprisonment, Nov. 1, 1789. — 
Hist, of the French Revol. 

tiEUCTRA, B.iTTLE OF. One of the most famous of ancient history, fought at 
the village of Leuctra, between Platsea and Thespia, between the Thebans, 
under Epaminondas, and the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 
the victory being with the former. In this battle, 4000 Spartans, with their 

■ king, were slain, and not more than 300 Thebans ; July 8, 371 b. c. From 
this day the Spartans lost their preponderance in Greece, which they had 
maintained for about 500 years, and it passed to the Thebans. — Plutarch. 

LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and bring all 
things to a level or equality. — Collier. There were various associations of 
this kind. The most extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck 
were the chiefs. These two began by pulling down all the images in the 
churches which Luther had left standing ; and then, finding an army in their 
followers, they became levellers, and Muncer openly taught that all distinc- 
tions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. At the head of 
40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes in Germany and to the ma- 
gistrates of cities to resign their authority ; and on his march to enforce 
these principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the coun- 
try. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him ; 7000 of the enthusi- 
asts fell in battle, and the rest, with their leader, fied ; he was taken and be- 
headed at Mulhausen, in 1525. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. At the period of the French 
Revolution some knots of persons styled levellers appeared in England. 

LEWES, Battle oi . Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort, 
earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In this 
battle the royal army was overthrown, and the king, his brother, Richard 
king of the Romans, his son, and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., 
were taken prisoners. One division of four of Montfort's army, a body of 
Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, who pursuing 
the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. From this time Montfort 
used his power so despotically as to be in the end the cause of his own de- 
struction. See Evesham. 

LEXICOGRAPHY. Morrison mentions a standard dictionary in the Chinese 
language of 40,000 hieroglyphic characters, as having been compiled 1100 
B. c. Numerous dictionaries appeared in Europe about the close of the fif- 
teenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. Calipini's dictionary ap- 
peared about A. D. 1500. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published in 1759. 
See article, Dlciionary. 

LEXINGTON, Battle of. .This battle claims distinction as being the first 
fought between Great Britain and the United States of America, in the war 



LIB ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 395 



of independence. The British troops, under Major Pitcairn, sent from Bos- 
ton to destroy the American stores at Lexington, were attacked by the 
Americans and 273 of tliem were killed and wounded, April 19, 1775. 

LEYDEN, Siege of. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain, 
and during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, a. d, 
1574. In commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, ce- 
lebrated for its colleges and medicinal garden, and valuable library, 1575. 
The university was almost destroyed by the catastrophe of a vessel laden 
with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolishing a large 
part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 1807. 

LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the XII. Tables), libels which affected 
the reputation of another, were made capital offences. In the British law, 
whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion or esteem 
of the world, is deemed a libel. "The greater the truth, the greater the 
libel," the well-known law maxim of a high authority, is now disputed. 
Among the most remarkable cases of libel were, viz. : Lord George Gor- 
don's libel on the queen of France, for whicli he was sentenced to imprison- 
ment for five years and fined 500^., Jan. 28, 1788. The Times' libel on 
the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., Feb. 1790. The Morning Post's 
libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 4000^. July 9, 1792. Peltier's libel 
on Napoleon Bonaparte, in L'Ambigu, of which he was found giiilty, Feb. 
21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the of- 
fender by banishment for the second offence, passed in England, 1820. Act 
regulating the law of libel in England, July 1830. By statute in New York 
and Massachusetts, the truth may be a justification, if the publication was 
made with good motives and for justifiable ends. 

LIBERIA. Colony in West Africa, founded by colored people sent out by 
American Colonization Society, 1822 ; Jehudi Ashmun was the first super- 
intendent of the colony ; new Constitution — Roberts elected president — 
Oct. 5, 1847 ; ratification of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, Au- 
gust 1, 1849. 

LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstroiis doctrines. Its heads 
were persons named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever 
was done by men was done by the Spirit of God, and that there was no 
sin but to those who thought so ; that to live without any doubt or scruple 
was to return to the state of innocency ; that the soul died with the body ; 
that heaven was a dream, and hell a phantom ; religion a mere state trick; 
with many other monstrous opinions. This sect arose in a. d. 1525 ; and 
the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since. 

LIBRARY. The first public library of Avhich we have any certain account in 
aistory was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 b. c. The second of any 
note Avas founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 b. c. It was nearly de- 
stroyed when Julius Caesar set fire to Alexandria, 47 b. c. 400,000 valuable 
books in MS. are said to have been lost by this catastrophe. — Blair. The 
first private library was the property of Aristotle, 834 b. c. — Strabo. The 
first library at Rome was instituted 167 b. c. : it was brought from Ma- 
cedonia. The library of Apellicon was sent to Rome, by Sylla, from Athens, 
86 B. c. This library was enriched by the original manuscripts of Aristotle's 
works. A library was founded at Constantinople by Constantine the Great, 
about A. D. 335 ; it was destroyed in 477. A second library was formed 
from the remains of tlie first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, con- 
ststing of 700,000 volumes, whicli was totally destroyed by the Saracens, who 
heated the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead 
of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642. — Nouv, 
Diet. Hist. Pope Gregoiy I. ordered that, the library of the Palatine 



396 



THE world's progress. 



[ LIE 



Apollo should be committed to the flames, under the notion of confining the 
clergy to the attention of the Scriptures. From that time, all ancient learn- 
ing which was not sanctioned by the authority of the church, has been 
emphatically distinguished as profane in opposition to sacred. The early 
Chinese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in the 
destruction of the Alexandrian library ; their emperor, Chee-whang-tee, 
ordered all writings to be destroyed, that every thing might begin anew as 
from his reign ; and books and records were afterwards recovered by suc- 
ceeding emperors with great difficulty. 
LIBRARIES IN EUROPE. There are in Europe 883 public libraries, contain- 
ing over 10,000 volumes each. The number of books which are thus pub- 
licly accessible are in this proportion, viz. : in Saxony, for every 100 inhabit; 
ants, there are 417 books ; in Denmark, 412 ; in Bavaria, 339 ; in Tuscany; 
261 ; in Prussia, 200 ; in Austria 167 ; in France, 129 ; in Belgium, 95 ; in 
Great Britain, 53. The first public library in Europe, before the inventiop 
of printing is said to have been founded by Richard de Bury, chancellor of 
England, as early as 1341. The first in Italy was founded by Nicholas 
Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning ; at his death he left his li- 
brary for the use of the public, a. d. 1436. It was enlarged by Cosmo de 
Medici. The first permanent libraries were, Turin Univ., 1436 ; Vienna, 
(imperial,) 1440; Vatican, 1465; &c. See table, below. 
In the following tables, the libraries containing less than 10,000 volumes 
each (of which there are, in France alone, at least seventy or eighty,) are 
not taken Into the accoiint: 

France has 107 Public Li- 
braries, containing 4,000,000 vols. 
Belgium has 14 do. ' 538,000 " 
Prussia " 44 do. 2,400,000 " 
Austria " 48 do. 2,400,000 " 



Saxony has 6 containing 
Bavaria " 17 do. 
Denmark " 5 do. 
Tuscany " 9 do. 
G. Britain " 33 do. 



554.000 vols 

1,267,000 " 

645,000 " 

411,000 " 

1,771,493 " 



Taking the capital cities we find the following results :- 



Paris has 9 Public 

braries, containing 
Brussels has 2 do. 

2 do. 

3 do. 
2 do. 



Berlin 
Vienna 
Milan 



1,474,000 vols. 
143,500 " 
530,000 " 
453,000 " 
230,000 " 



Dresden has 4 containing 
Munich " 2 do. ■ 

Copenhagen " 3 do. 
Florence " 6 do. 
London " 4 do. 



340,500 vols. 
800,000 " 
557,000 " 
318,000 " 
490,500 " 



Arranging 
follows :— 



these libraries according to their extent, they would stand as 



Foiinded. Vols. 
1595 824,000 



Paris (1) National Lib., 

Munich, Royal Lib., 1550 60O;0OO 

Petersburg Imperial Lib., 446,000 

London, British Museum, 1753 435,000 

Copenhagen, Royal Lib., 1550 412,000 

Berlin, Royal Lib., 1650 410,000 

Vienna, Imperial Lib., 1440 313,000 

Dresden, Royal Lib., 1656 300,000 

Madrid National Lib., 1712 200,000 

Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Lib., 1604 200,000 

Stuttgard, Royal Lib., 1765 187,000 

Paris (2) Arsenal Lib., 1781 180,000 

The chief University Libraries may be ranked in the followin. 
Founded. Vo!s. 

Gottingen, University Lib., 1736 360,000 
Breslau, University Lib., 1811 
" ■ ■ "■ 1597 
1562 



Milan, Brerea Lib., 
Paris (3), St. Genevieve, 
Darmstadt, Grand Ducal, 
Florence, Magliabecchian, 
Naples, Royal Lib., 
Brussels, Royal Lib., 
Rome (1), Casanate Lib. 
Hague, Royal Lib., 
Paris (4), Mazarine Lib., 
Rome (2), Vatican Lib., 
Parma, Ducal Lib., 



Founded. Vols. 
1797 170,000 



250,000 

Oxford, Bodleian Lib., ' 1597 220,000 

Tubingen, University Lib., 1562 200,000 

Munich, University Lib., 200,000 

Heidelburg. University lib., 1703 200,000 

Cambridge,' Public Lib., 1484 166,724 

Bologna, University Lib., 1690 1.50,000 

Prague, University Lib., 1777 130,000 



1624 
1760 
1714 

18.39 
1760 

1C61 
1465 
1760 

; order: — 
Founded. Vols. 
1777 115,000 



150,000 
1.50,000 
150,000 
150,000 
133,500 
120,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 



Vienna, University Lib., 

Leipsic, University Lib., 1.544 il2,00t5 

Copenhagen, University Lib., 1730 1 10,000 

Turin, University Lib., 1436 110,000 

Louvaine University Lib. , 1639 105,000 

Dublin, Trinity College Lib., 104,239 

Upsal, University Lib., 1621 100,000 

Erlangen, University Lib., 1743 100,000 

Edinburgh, Univ. Lib., 1582 90,354 



LIB J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



39r 



undec 


I. Vols. 


Founded. 


1753 


435,000 


Royal Institution, London, 


1598 


220,000 


London Institution, 


1484 


166,724 


London Library, 


1682 


148,000 


Sion College, «&c. 


1601 


104,239 





The largest Libraries in Great Britain are those of the 

Vol's 

1 British Museum, London, 

2 Bodleian, Oxford, 

3 University, Cambridge, 

4 Advocates, Edinburgh, 

5 Trinity College, Dublin, 

LIBRARIES IN THE UNITED STATES. The number of volumes in the chief 
public and college libraries of the United States ."n 1849, was stated to be 
1,294,000. The number of libraries is 182. Of these, 43 contain over 
10,000 volumes each; 9 over 20,000; and only 2 over 50,000. In 1849 the 
precedence of the largest as to numbers stood thus : 

Vols. 

1 Harvard College, including Divin- 

ity and Law Schools - - 72,000 

2 Philadelphia and Loganian Library 60,000 

3 Boston Athenasum - - - 50,000 

4 Library of Congress - - - 50,000 

5 New York Society Library - - 32,000 

The Astor Librarj^ is scarcely yet opened, and the building is not yet erected. 
The Smithsonian Institute at Washington has not yet commenced collecting 
its library. The number of volumes in the School District libraries of the 
State of New York, in 1849, was 1,338,848. There are 10,621 school dis- 
tricts, and 1,785 incorporated or private schools. The mercantile libraries, 
chiefly for merchants' clerks, in the large cities, are of comparatively recent 
date and of great utility. That in New York was founded in 1820, and 
contains 32,000 volumes ; in Boston, founded 1820, contains 7,637 volumes ; 
in Philadelphia, founded 1822, contains 12 200 volumes. There are similar 
ones in Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Troy, &c. 

The public libraries containing over 5000 volumes, were distributed (accord- 
ing to evidence in the British Museum Report in 1849) thus : 

Vols. 



6 Mercantile Library, New York 

7 Georgetown College, D. C. 

8 Brovm University 

9 New Y'ork State Library - 

10 Yale College - 

11 Astor Library, New York - 



Vols. 
■ 32,000 
-25,000 

- 24,000 

- 24,000 

- 21,000 

- 20,000 



1 Alabama, has 1 


Public Library, 


6,000 


2 Columbia, Dist. 


of 


has 


2, 


53,000 


3 Connecticut. 




" 


6, 


81,449 


4 Georgia, 




" 


1, 


13,000 


5 Kentucky, 




" 


1. 


7,000 


6 Louisiana, 




" 


1, 


5,500 


7 Maine, 






3, 


38,860 


8 Maryland, 




" 


1, 


12,000 


D Massachusetts, 




" 


14, 


200.000 


10 Missouri, 




" 


2, 


14;300 


11 New Hampshire 


, 


" 


2, 


22,500 







Vols. 


Brought up. 


34, 


454,366 


12 New Jersey, has 3. 


28,500 


13 New Y^ork, ' 


12, 


157,411 


14 North Carolina, ' 


1, 


10,000 


15 Ohio, ' 


1, 


30,497 


16 Pennsylvania, ' 


14, 


159,200 


17 Rhode Island, ' 


3. 


37,185 


18 South Carolina, ' 


2, 


30,000 


19 Tennessee, ' 


2, 


16,000 


20 Vermont, ' 


2, 


16,254 


21 Virsinia, ' 


4, 


41,000 



34, 454,366 Total - - - 81, 980,134 

The above estimate is perhaps below the mark, and does not include school, 
parish and town libraries, which are numerous, but of moderate extent. 
The city of Paris alone has 1,474,000 volumes, in large public libraries ; i. e. 
half as many again as the whole of the United States. See Pari. Rep. Brit. 
Mus. ; Prof. Jeioett's Rep. Smithsonian List. ; G. Livermorein N. Amer. Rev., 
July 1850, cf-c. 

LIEGE. Formerly called, on account of the number of its churches and con- 
vents, " the paradise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of wo- 
men." In the time of Louis XI. of France, a. d. 1461, Liege was a large 
and wealthy place, and the prince bishop was a prelate of almost sovereign 
power. Taken by the English under the duke of Marlborough, in 1702 ; 
and by the French and other powers, at various times, up to 1796, when it 
was annexed to France. Liee-e was incorporated with the Netherlands, in 
1814. 



398 THE world's progress. I LIS 

LIGHT-HOUSES. They were erected by all the ancient commercial i)eople, 
and called Tors, or pillars, as those of Hercules, near Gibraltar ; that of 
Pharos, at Alexandria, 550 feet high, and visible forty-two miles ; the Pharos 
of Messina; the Colossus of Rhodes. &.c. There are forty-two round the 
coasts of England, fifteen on the east coast, thirteen in the English channel, 
and fourteen in the Irish channel. There are seventeen on the Scottish 
coasts, and twenty-six on the Irish coasts. 

LIGURIAN REPUBLIC. Founded in June, 1802, upon the ruins of that of 
Genoa. The doge of this new republic was solemnlj^ invested at Geaoa, 
August 10, 1802. The Ligurian repubUc was incorporated with France, it 
having demanded a union with the latter country, May 25, 1805. It merged 
into the kingdom of Italy. 

LIMA. See America and Columbia. In 1524, Pizarro, marching through Peru, 
was struck with the beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a 
city, and gave it the name of Ciudad de los Reyes, or City of the Kings. 
This Spanish name it retains in all legal deeds, but it is better known as 
Lima. Awful earthquakes occurred here, since solemnly commemorated by 
annual festivals, a. d. 1586, 1630, 1687, and October 28, 1746. In the last it 
was almost totally destroyed, as well as Callao, which sec. 

LINEN. A fabric of very remote antiquity. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in ves- 
tures of fine linen. — Gen. xli. 42. This article was first manufactured in 
England by Flemish weavers, under the protection of Henry III., 1253. 
Before this period woollen shirts were generally worn. A company of linen 
weavers established itself in London, in 1368 ; and the art of staining linen 
became known in 1579. A colony of Scots in the reign of James I., and 
other Presbyterians who fled from persecution in that country in the suc- 
ceeding inglorious reigns, planted themselves in the northeast part of Ire- 
land, and there established the linen manufacture. It was liberally encou- 
raged by the lord dej^uty Wentworth, in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, thread, 
and yarn, from Ireland, were permitted to be exported duty free, 1696. 
This law gave rise to the subsequently improved state of the manufacture 
there. The Irish Linen Board was established in 1711 ; the Linen-hall, Dub- 
lin, was opened, 1728 ; the board was abolished in 1828. Dunfermline in 
Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, and Barnsley in Yorkshire, are, in Great 
Britain, chief seats of the linen manufacture. 

LINN^AN SYSTEM. The system of Botany of the eminent Linne, a Swede, 
or, as his name is Latinized, Linnajus, was commenced about 1725-30; and 
his first great work was a dictionary of 7300 plants arranged in classes, 
orders and genera ; he classed the plants according to the number and situ- 
ation of the sexual parts, and made the flower and fruit the test of his vari- 
ous genera. The Linntean Society in London was instituted in 1788, and 
was incorporated March 26, 1802. 

LISBON. The Moors are said to have given the name of Lisboa to this city 
when they conquered it, a. d. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by 
Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon was almost destroyed by an earthquake, November 
1, 1755. See Earthquakes. It became a point of the late war, and the court 
fled to the Brazils, November, 1807, in which month (the SOtli) the French 
army under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle 
of Vimeira, in which they wei'e defeated by the British, under sir Arthur 
Wellesley, August 21, 1808. Insurrection at Lisbon, August 21, 1831. Mas- 
sacre at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Portugal. 

LISLE, Siege OF. Lisle was besieged by the duke of Marlborough and the 
allies ; and though its immense fortifications were deemed impregnable, it 
was taken after a three months' siege, in 1708. It was restored by the treaty 
of Utrecht, in 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the fortifications 



LIV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 399 

of Dunkirk : this siege is reckoned one of the most famous of modern his- 
tory. In the Revolutionary war, Lisle sustained a severe bombardment from 
the Austrians, who were obliged to raise the siege, Oct. 7, 1792. 

LITANIES. They were first used in processions and other devotions, about 
A. D. 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced by pope Greg- 
ory I., in or about 595. — Newton on the Prophecies. The first English litany 
was commanded to be used in the Reformed Churches by Henry VIII., in 
1543. — Collier's Ecc. Hist. 

LITERARY PROPERTY, in England. See Copyright. The statute of queen 
Anne, 1709-10, securing literary property, was confirmed by a memorable 
decision at the bar of the House of Lords, and the claim of perpetual copy- 
right was overruled Feb. 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have 
an exclusive right for 14 years, and if at the end of that term he were living, 
the right to again return to him for the same term of years. The later acts 
extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that time, 
then to the remainder of his life. By the 5th and 6th of Victoria, the right 
is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after his death ; 
but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for 
42 years, for which term also any work published after the author's death is 
to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript ; act passed July 
1, 1842. The Dramatic Authors' Protection act, passed June 10, 1833. The 
International Copyright bill, passed July 81, 1888 ; this act secures protec- 
tion in England to works of authors of auj'' country which concedes the 
same protection to English authors. 

LITERARY SOCIETIES, CLUB, FUND, &c. The various societies connected 
with litei-ature in London, will be found in their respective places through 
the volume. The celebrated Literary Club was instituted by Dr. Johnson, 
and included many of the illustrious men in literature of the age, 1765. 
The Literary Fund, in Lincoln's-Inn Fields, Avas founded in 1790, to relieve 
authors and literary men who by age or infirmities are reduced to poverty : 
this society was incorporated in 1818. The Royal Society of Literature was 
established Sept. 15, 1825. 

LITHOGRAPHY. The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, whose 
first essays were executed about 1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was 
announced in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It became par- 
tially known in England in 1801 et seq., but its general introduction may be 
referred to Mr. Ackermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder died in 
1841. 

LTTURGY. In the ancient Greek and Roman churches the word Liturgy was 
restrained to signify the mass only. The present English Liturgy was first 
composed, and was approved and confirmed by parliament, in 1547-8. The 
ofiices for morning and evening prayer were then put into nearly the same 
form in which we now have them, but other parts were difierent. Upon the 
solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy was reviewed and altered to 
very nearly its present state, 1551. It was first read in Ireland, in the Eng- 
lish language in 1550. and in Scotland, where it occasioned a tumult, in 1637. 
Again altered in 1661. The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly 
chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pil- 
kington, and dean May, and secretary Smith. 

LIVERIES. In England they originated with our ancestors, who clothed their 
vassals in uniform, thereby to distinguish families ; they were originally a 
single article of dress, or a particular color used on a part of some one gar- 
ment ; and in the end they became rich suits and gaudy trappings. — Ashe. 

LIVERPOOL. This town, which within the last century has, by a progressivo 



400 THE world's PKOGRESS. [ LOG 

increase in extent, population, and commercial importance, obtained the first 
rank after the metropolis, in England, is supposed to be noticed in Domes- 
day-book under the name Esmedune, or, Sniedune. In other ancient records 
its various appellations are, Lithcrpul, and Lq/rpul, signifying probably, in the 
ancient dialect of the county, the lower pool ; though some have deduced 
its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the "Liver," 
or from a sea-weed of that name ; it was but a small fishing place, until, in 
1172, its favorable situation, and the convenience of its port, attracted the 
notice of Henry II., who made it the place of rendezvous and embarkation 
of his troops for the conquest of Ireland. In 1843, the number of ships 
which entered the port of Liverpool was as follows ; British, 2,615, of the 
aggregate burthen of 691,707 tons; foreign, 1,014, burthen, 417,621 tons. 
The amount of duties paid at the custom-house for the year ending 5th Jan- 
uary, 1844, was £4,121,522.— Par/. Ret. 

LLOYD'S, London. The coffee-house in connection with the Roj'-al Exchange, 
and held previously to the late fire (see Exchange) on the northern side 
of that building. Lloyd's was established in 1772, and is the resort of 
eminent merchants, underwriters, insurance brokers, &c. ; and here are 
effected insurances for all the world on ships and merchandise. The books 
kei^t here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and are 
remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs. 

liOADSTONE. One of the most wonderful productions of the earth. Its 
virtues were but indistinctly known to the ancients, yet its attractive qua- 
lity had been taken notice of from very remote times. —Stur7?iius. Aristotle 
assures us that Thales made mention of it, and Hippocrates speaks of it 
under the name of stone that attracts iron, and Pliny was struck with its 
attractive power. The polar attraction of the loadstone was, it is said, 
known in France before a. d. 1180 ; but this honor is accorded to Roger 
Bacon about 1267. The Italians discovered that it could communicate its 
virtues to steel or iron ; and Flavio Giojo of Amalfi, was the inventor of 
the mariner's compass. See Compass. 

LOANS. Those for the service of the crown of England were generally bor- 
rowed at Antwerp until after the reign of Elizabeth. In 155'J, that queen 
borrowed 200,000/. of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own 
coin, and sir Thomas Gresham and the city of London joined in the secu- 
rit}^ — Rapi7i. The amount of the English loans, during four late memo- 
rable periods, was, viz : 

Seven years' war from 1755 to 1763 - - jESS, 100,000 

American y^x IVom 1776 to 1784 - - - 75.500,000 

French revolutionary war from 1793 to 1802 - - 168,500,000 

War against Bonaparte " from 1S03 to 1814 - - - 206,300,000 

Besides the property tax. In 1813, were raised two loans of twenty-one 
millions and twenty-two millions ; and it deserves to be recorded that a 
subscription loan to carry on the war against France was filled up in Lon- 
don in fifteen hours and twentj' minutes, to the amount of eighteen mil- 
lions, Dec. 5, 1796. 
LOCHLEVEN CASTLE, Kinross. Built on an island in the celebrated lake 
of Loch Leven, in 1257, and was a royal residence when Alexander III. and 
his queen were forcibly taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the 
English in 1301, and again in 1335. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of 
St. Andrew's, was imprisoned and died within its walls, 1447. The earl 
of Northumberland was confined in it in 1569. It is, however, chiefly re- 
markable as the place of the unfortunate qiieen Mary's imprisonment, in 
1567, and of her escape, on Sunday, May 2, 1568. In this castle Mary was 
compelled to sign her abdication of the throne of Scotland, of which an 
interesting account is given by sir Walter Scott, in Thr. Abbot ; and of which 



LOM J DICTIONARY OF DATliS. 401 

also, some new and affectiLg- particiijars ave given by Mr. Tytler, in the 7th 
vohime of his History of ScoUand, published in August, 1840. 

LOCKS. Those of the Egj'^ptians, Greeks, and Romans, were clumsy con- 
trivances. Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange 
mentions locks and padlocks as early as a. d. 1381. The French are ac- 
counted the worst locksmiths in Europe and the English the best. Bra- 
mah's celebrated patent locks Avere registered in 1784. Locks have been 
made at Wolverhampton in suits of eight, ten, or more, of exquisite Avork- 
manship, all with different keys, so that none of them can open any but its 
own lock, yet a master key will open all. Sec Keys. 

LOCUSTS. The visits of these animals in Eastern countries have frequently 
superinduced pestilence and death, and many instances are recorded of 
these consequences. Owing to the putrefaction of vast swarms in Egypt 
and Lybia, upwards of 800,000 persons perished, 128 b. c. The country of 
Palestine was infested with such swarms that they darkened the air, and 
after devouring the fruits of the earth thej^ died, and their intolerable 
stench caused a pestilential fever, a. d. 406. A similar catastrophe occurred 
in France in 873. A remarkable swarm of locusts settled upon the ground 
about London, and consumed the vegetables ; great numbers fell in the 
streets, and were preserved by the curious ; they resembled grasshoppers, 
but were three times the siz?, and their colors more variegated, Aug. 4, 
1748. They infested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June 
1816. 

LODI, Battle of the Bridge of. One of the great earlj^ achievements in 
Italy of Bonaparte. He commanded the French army, which was opposed 
to the Austrians commanded by general Beaulieu, and obtained a brilliant 
and decisive victory after a bloody engagement in which several thousands 
of the Imperialists perished on the field, and many thousands were made 
prisoners. May 10, 1796. The conqueror pursued his advantage with won- 
derful rapidity, as after this battle all Lombardy lay open to his army, and 
the republican flag floated in Milan a few days afterwards. 

LOG-LINE, used in navigation, a. d. 1570 ; and first mentioned by Bourne 
in 1577. The log-line is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way which 
the ship makes is measured by a half-minute sand glass, which bears nearly 
the same proportion to an hour that fifty feet bear to a mile : the line used 
in the royal navy is forty-eight feet. 

LOGARITHMS, so useful in mathematics, are the indexes of the ratio of 
numbers one to another. They were invented by baron Merchiston, an 
eminent Scotchman (sir John Napier) in 1614. The method of computing 
by means of marked pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time, 
and hence called Napier^s bones. The invention was afterwards completed 
by Mr. Briggs, at Oxford. 

LOLLARDS. The name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic 
religion in England, and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wick- 
liffe. — Chaucer. The original sect was founded by Walter Lollard in 1315 ; 
he was burned for heresy' at Cologne in 1322. After his death the disciples 
of Wickliffe were called Lollards. The first martyr in England on account 
of religious opinions was William Sawtree, the parish ptriest of St. Osith, 
London, Feb. 19, 1401, reign of Henry IV. The Lollards were proscribed 
by the English parliament in 1416, and about 1414, numbers of them, or 
persons to whom the name was given, were burnt alive. — Moreri; Carte. 

LOMBARD MERCHANTS. In England they were understood to be com- 
posed of natives of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, 
or Venice. — Anderson on Commerce. Lombard usurers were sent to England 



402 THE world's PllOGR,ESS. [ LOC 

by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, communities, and private 
persons, Avho were not able to pay down the tenths which were collected 
throughout the kingdom with great rigor that year, 13 Henry III., 1229. 
They had offices in Lombard-street, which great banking street is called 
after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their expulsion 
from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 
LOMBARDY. The Lombards were a detachment of Alemanni from the 
marches of Brandenburgh, famous for their braverj'. They were invited 
into Italy by Justinian, to serve against the Goths. To reward their ser- 
vices, the emperor gave them part of Upper Pannonia, a. d. 548. The] 
passed into Italy, and their chief was proclaimed king by his army at Milan, 
in 570. The kingdom of Lombardy supported itself and iiade considerable 
conquests till 772, when Charlemagne took Desiderius, the last king, ami 
annexed his territories to the German empire. — La Combe. See Milan, &c. 

LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some will have it that 
a city existed on the spot 1107 j'cars before the birth of Christ, and 351 
years before the foundation of Rome. It was the capital of the Trinobantes 
54 B. c. and long previously the royal seat of their kings. In a.d. 61, it 
was known to the Romans as Lundiuium. Lundinium or Colonia Augusta 
was the chief residence of merchants at that period, and the great mart of 
trade and commerce, though not dignified with the name of a colony. — 
Tacitus. It is said, but not trulj^, to have derived its name from Lud, an 
old British king, who was buried near where Ludgate formerl}^ stood ; but 
its name is from Llijn-Din, the -'town on the lake." See Fires, Plague, &c. 

LONGEVITY. In Great Britain the instances of it are remarkable, thougli 
rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to 
have kept 180 Christmasses in his own house, and died in the reign of 
Charles I., being the oldest man on any thing approaching to authentic re- 
cord for upwards of 3000 years. — Grcig. Thomas Parr, a laboring man of 
Shropshire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and 
considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 153d year, and in per- 
fect health ; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, Nov. 
15, the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was 
buried in Bolton chui'ch-j^ard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. There 
are some extraordinary instances of great age in Russia ; and at Dantzic a 
man is said to have died at 184 ; and another to be living in Wallachia, aged 
186 years. In Holy Writ, Methuselah is stated to have lived 969 years, the 
greatest age of any on record, according to the reckoning before the Flood ; 
but the length of the years of that time is not ascertained ; hence there is 
no fixed principle to determine the real ages of that epoch. 

LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degree 
in the Canaries, 162 b. c. Harrison made a time-keej^er in a. d. 1759, which 
in two voyages was found to correct the longitude within the limits required 
by the act of parliament, 12th Anne, 1714 ; and in 1763, he applied for the 
reward of 20,000Z. offered by that act, which he received. The celebrated 
Le Roi of Paris, in 1776, invented a watch that keeps time better; and the 
chronometers of Arnold, Eai-nshaw, and Breguet bring the longitude al- 
most to the truth. Philosophers have sought the longitude in vain ; but 
Newton has said it will yet be discovered by a fool. 

LOOKING-GLASSES. Made only at Venice in 1300. They were made in 
England, by Venetian artists, some of whom took up their abode in Lam- 
beth, in 1673. — Salmon. The French excelled in their manufacture of them 
in the last century ; but the English have brought their factories to great 
perfection of late years, and now make looking-glasses to cover, in a single 
plate, the -walls of large rooms. 



LOT I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 403 

LOOM-ENGINE. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought 
into use in London from Holland, in or about the year 1676, since when the 
general principal of the loom has been infinitely varied by mechanical in- 
genuity. There are about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, and 75,000 
power-looms, each bBing equal to three hand looms, making twenty-two 
yards each per day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807. 

LORD. In the Old and New Testament, Lord is a particular appellation for 
the supreme majesty of God and Christ, and in that sense cannot be ap- 
plied to tiny other being. With us, it is a tei"m of nobility. — See Lords and 
Baron. The word lord is abbreviated from two syllables : it was originally 
Hlaford, which, by dropping the aspirate became Laford, and afterwards by 
contraction Lord. "The etymology of this word," a writer observes, "is 
worth observing, for it was composed of hlaf, a loaf of bread, and/wrf, to 
give or afford ; so that Hlaford, now Lord, implies a giver of bread ; be- 
cause in those ages, such great men kept extraordinary houses, and fed the 
poor ; for which reason they were called givers of bread." — See Ladies. The 
nickname of " My Lord," given by vulgar people to hunchbacked persons, 
is from the Greek word lordos, crooked. — Haydn. 

LORDS. The now recognized nobility of England take their creation from the 
1st of William the Conqueror, 1066, when William Fitzosborne, the first 
peer, was made earl of Hereford ; Walter Devereux made earl of Salisbury ; 
Copsi, earl of Northumberland; Henry de Ferrei'S made earl of Derby, and 
Gerbodus (a Fleming) made earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were 
made in this sovereign's reign. Peers of England are free from all arrests 
for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors. Therefoi'e a peer can- 
not be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his per- 
son; but execution may be taken upon his lands ^nd goods. For the same 
reason, they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriff's turns; or, 
in case of a riot, from attending the posse comitatus. See Baron; Earl; 
Marquess, &c. 

LORDS, House of. The peers of England were summoned ad consulenduvi, to 
consult, in early reigns, and were summoned by writ 6 and 7 John, 1205. 
The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation until 
some ages after the conquest. — Hume. Deputies from certain boroughs 
were returned to meet the barons and the clergy in 1258. — Goldsmith. And 
writs are extant of the date of Jan. 23, 1265 ; but several historians maintain 
that the first regular parliament of the three estates, as now constituted, was 
held 22 Edward I., 1293-4. The house of lords includes the spiritual as well 
as temporal peers of England. The bishops are supposed to hold cer- 
tain ancient baroni'^s under the king, in right whereof they have seats in 
this house. The teuij)oral lords consist of the several degrees of nobility : 
some sit bj^ descent, as do all ancient peers ; some by creation, as all new- 
made peers ; and others by election, since the union with Scotland in 1707, 
and with Ireland in 1801. Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Ire- 
land 4 spiritual lords by rotation in sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life. 
The house of lords now consists of 3 princes, 20 dukes, 21 marquesses, 115 
earls, 22 viscounts, 201 barons, 16 Scotch lords, 28 Irish lords, 26 English 
prelates, and 4 Irish bishops — in all 456 peers. 

LOTTERY, STATE. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at 
the western door of St. Paul's cathedral, January 11, 1569, and continued 
day and knight until May 6 following. Its profits were for repairing the 
fortifications on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate. 
The first lottery mentioned for sums of money took place in 1630. Lotte- 
ries were established in 1693, and for more than 130 years yielded a large 
annual revenue to the crown. The Irish state lottery was drawn in Dublia 



404 THE AVOJtLU's niOGRESS. [ hVT 

in 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in France bj^ a decree of the national 
convention, Iv ov. 15, 1793. They were abolished in England, 1826 ; and an act 
was passed imposing a penalty of 501. for advertising'tbreign or any lotteries 
in the British newspapers, 1836. Abolished in Bavaria by unanimous vote 
of the deputies, Oct. 19, 1847. They have long been abolished in New Eng- 
land ; in New York they were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the states 
thei-e is a penalty against lotteries not specially authorized by the legislatures. 

I/JUISIANA, One of the United States. First explored by the French, and 
received its name in 1682, from M. La Salle, in honor of Louis 'XIV., and a 
settlement was attempted in 1684, but failed. In 1699, a more successful 
attempt was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Miss., and founded a 
colony. His efforts were folowed up by one Crozat, a man of wealth, who 
held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the 
year 1717, he transferred his interest in the province to a chartered company, 
at the head of which was the notorious John Law, whose national bank and 
Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half the French nobility. In 
1731; the company resigned the concern to the crown, who, in 1762, ceded 
the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In 1800, Spain reconveyed the province 
to the French, of whom it was purchased by the United States, in 1803, for 
il5,000,000. The purchase included the territory of the United States ^Y. of 
the Mississippi. In 1812, the present State of Louisiana formed a constitu- 
tion, and was admitted into the Union. Population in 1810, 76.556 ; in 1820, 
153,407; in 1830, 215,575; in 1840, 352,411, including 168,452 slaves. 

LOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris was a roj^al residence in the reign 
of Dagobert, a. d. 628 ; but Francis I. laid the foundation of what is now 
called the Old Louvre, 1522. Here were deposited the finest collection of 
paintings, of statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief 
of them were brought from Italy during the triumph of Bonaparte's arms, 
but most of them have since been restored to the rightful possessors. 

LUCCA, The Ddchy of, adjoining Tuscan}^. On the fall of the Lombard, king- 
dom, A. D. 774, it was annexed to the German empire. In 1815 it was occupied 
by the Austrians and granted to Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles IV. of 
Spain. The duke retires to Massa, but returns and yields to his people's 
demand for reforms, Sept. 3, 1847 : appointed a regency and again fled, 
Sept. 15. The duchy sold by the duke to Tuscany for an annuity of $215,- 
000, until he should succeed to the duchy of Parma, on the death of Maria 
Louisa, j^resent duchess, Oct. 10, 1847. 

LUCIA, St. First settled by the French in 1650. Taken by the British several 
tirfies in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French 
ne^-roes, April 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, Grenada, Domi- 
nica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucie, wei-e taken by the British. St. Lucia was 
restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was again siezed on by Eng- 
land the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 18l4. 
See Colonies. 

LUNEVILLE, Peace of, concluded between the French republic and the em- 
peror of Germany, confirming the cessions made by the treaty of Campo 
Formio, stipulating that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form 
the boundary of France, and recognizing the independence of the Batavian, 
Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Feb. 9, 1801. 

LUSTRUM. An expiatory sacrifice made for the whole body of the Roman 
people, at the end of every five years, after the census had been taken, 572 
B. c. Every five years were called a lustrum ; and ten, fifteen, or twenty 
years were commonly expressed by two, three, or four lustra. 

LTJTHERANISM. Sprung up in Germany in 1517, in which year Leo X. pub- 
lished his indulgences for money ; and Iccelius, a Dominican friar, who waa 



LYC j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 405 

deputed with others of his order to collect in Saxony, carried his zeal to such 
a height as to declare his commission unbounded ; that no crime could be 
committed too great to be pardoned : and that by purchasing indulgences, 
not only past sins, but those which were intended, were to be forgiven. 
Against these practices Luther openly preached Avith wonderful success, and 
thus began the Reformation in Germany. — Melchior Adam, in Vita Lutheri. 

LUTZEN, Battle of, between the French army commanded by Napoleon on 
the one side, and the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded 
by general Wittgenstein, fought Maj^ 2, 1813. This sanguinary battle opened 
the campaign of that year ; and though each of the adversaries claimed the 
victorJ^ it was manifestly on the side of France ; but in this engagement 
marshal Duroc was mortally wounded. The battles of Bautzen and Wurt- 
zen immediately followed (May 20 and 26), both in favor of Napoleon, when 
the allies were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to, 
and afterwards prolonged, but unfortunately for the French emperor it did 
not produce peace. 

LUTZENGEN, or LUTZEN, Battle op ; Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, 
against the emperor. In this sanguinary and memorable battle, Gustavus, 
the most illustrious hero of his time, and the chief support of the Protest- 
ant religion in Germany, and in alliance with Charles L of England, was 
foully killed in the moment of victory, Nov. 6, 1632. This is also called the 
battle of Lippstadt. 

LUXEMBURG. Considered the strongest fortress in the world. It was taken 
and pillaged by the French in 1543 ; was taken by the Spaniards in 1544 ; 
by the French in 1684 ; and restored to Spain in 1697. It was again taken 
by the French in 1701 ; and afterwards given to the Dutch as a barrier town, 
and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. These are among the chief 
occurrences. Luxemburg withstood several sieges in the last century ; it 
surrendered to the French after a long and memorable siege, June 7, 1795. 
The garrison, on their capitulation, took an oath not to serve against the re- 
public of France until exchanged, and were conducted to the right side of 
the Rhine immediately after. 

LUXURY. The instances of extravagance and luxirry are numerous in the his- 
tory of almost all countries, ancient and modern, and many laws have been 
enforced to repress them. Horace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine, 
muscles and oysters from the Lucrine lake and Circean promontory, and 
black game from the Umbrian forests. — Lardner. Lucullus, at Rome, was 
distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his meals ; his halls were 
named from the different gods ; and when Cicero and Porapey attempted to 
surprise him, they were amazed by the costliness of a supper which had been 
prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his attendants to 
serve it in the hall of Apollo : this feast for three persons casually met, 
would have sufficed for three hundred nobles specially invited. In England, 
luxurj^ was restricted by a law wherein the prelates and nobility were con- 
fined to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, 
except on gi-eat festivals. The law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a 
free estate of lOOZ. per annmn, from wearing furs (see Furs), skins, or siik : 
and the use of foreign cloth was confined to the royal family alone ; to all 
others it was prohibited, a. d. 1337. An edict was issued by Charles VI. o[ 
France, Avhich said, " Let no man presume to treat with more than a soup 
and two dishes," 1340. 

LYCEUM The Lyceum took its name from its having been originally a tem- 
ple of Apollo Lyceus ; or rather, a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, son 
of Apollo. The Lyceum was a celebrated spot near the banks of the llis- 
sus in Attica where Aristotle taught philosophy ; anrl as he generally tauglit 



406 



THE world's progress. 



[lyr 



his pupils while he walked, hence they were called peripatetics, and his phi- 
losophy was called from this place, the philosophy of the Lyceum, 342 b. c. 
— Stanley. 

LYDIA. A very ancient kingdom under a long dynasty of kings, the last of 
whom was Croesus, whose riches became a proverb : he was conquered by 
Cyrus, 548 b. c. The coinage of money of gold and silver (together with 
many other useful inventions, and the encouragement of commerce) is as- 
cribed to the Lydians. A number of illustrious men flourished here. — Hero- 
dotus. 



Argon, a descendant of Hercules, reigns 
in Lydia. — Herod. - b. c. 1223 

The kingdom of Lydia, properly so 
called, begins under Ardysus L — 
Blair 797 

Alyattes reigns .... 761 

Meles commences his rule - - - 747 

Reign of Candaules . - - 735 

Gyges, first of the race called Mermna- 
dse, J3uts Candaules to death, marries 
his queen, usurps ihe throne, and 
makes great conquests 

Ardysus II. reigns ; the Cimbri besiege 
Sardis, the capital of Lydia 

The Milesian war commenced under 
Gyges, is continued by Sadyattes, who 
reigns .... 

Reign of Alyattes n. 

Battle upon the river Halys between the 
Lydians and Medes, intercepted by an 
almost toial eclipse of the sun, which 
superstitiously occasions a conclu- 
sion of the war. — Blair - May 2S, 

[This eclipse had been predicted many 
years before by Thales, of Miletus. — 



718 



585 



CrcEsus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the 
throne, and becomes celebrated for his 
victories and conquests - b. c. 562 

Ephesus falls into his hands ; the loni- 
ans, Cohans, and other parts of Asia 
Minor are subjected to his dominion - 551 

All the nations west of the Halys are 
conquered, and that river becomes 
the boundary of the kingdom.Blair ■ 550 

Crcesus, dreading the power of Cyrus, 
whose conquests had reached to the 
borders of I^ydia, crosses the Halys 
to attack the Medes, with an army of 
420,000 men and 60,000 horse . 548 

He is defeated by Cyrus, pursued, be- 
sieged in his capital, and taken - 548 

The conqueror orders Crossus to be 
bui'ned alive, and the pile is already 
on fire, when he calls on the name of 
Solon in agony of mindj and Cyrus 
hearing him pronounce it, spares his 
life - 548 

Lydia, the kingdom of the "richest of 
mankind," is made a province of the 
Persian empire . . - 548 



Blair.] 

.^sop, the Phrygian fabulist, Alcman, the first Greek poet who wrote in a 
style of gallantry, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon of 
Teos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in Lydia. The country remain- 
ed subject to the Persian empire until the latter was conquered by Alexan- 
der, about 330 b. c. It next became part of the new kingdom of Pergamus, 
founded by Philasterus, the eunuch ; Attains afterwards bequeathed it to the 
Romans, and finally the Turks conquered it from the Eastern Empire, a. d. 
132Q.— Priestley. 

LYONS. Founded by L. Plancus, 43 b. c. The city was reduced to ashes in a 
single night by lightning, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. Two gen- 
eral councils were held here in the 13th and 14th ci-ntiiries. The silk man- 
ufacture commenced in tlie reign of Francis I., 1515. Lyons was besieged 
in 1793 by the convention army of GO 000 men, and surrendered Oct. 7, 
when awful scenes of blood and rapine followed. The National Convention 
decreed the deiuolition of the city, Oct. 12, same year. It capitulated to the 
Austrians, March 1814, and July 1815. An insurrection among the artisans, 
which led to great popular excesses for many days, broke out, Nov. 21, 1831. 
Dreadful riots, April 15, 1834. A dreadful inundation occurred at Lyons, 
Nov 4, 1840. See Itiundatio7is. 

i-YRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Mercury, who, according to 
Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and 
accompanied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre with three 
strings, is due to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpander added several 
strings to the lyre, making the number seven, 673 b. c. Phrynis, a musician 
of Mitylene, added two more making nine, 438 b. c. 



MAC ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



407 



M. 



MACEDON. The first kingdom was founded by Caramis, about 814 e. c. It 
was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under the protection of Athens, 
sometimes of Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Philip, 
the father of Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom as a politician, and 
exploits as a general, made it a powerful kingdom, and paved the way to his 
son's greatness. Macedon had twenty-one kings, from Caranus to Alexan- 
der inclusive: after the conqueror's death, when his dominions were divid- 
ed among his generals, Cassander seized Macedon, and established a new 
kingdom. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to p. 37. 



Reign of Caranus - - B.C. 

Reign of Perdiccas I. • • • 

Reign of Argaeus I. • - - 

Reign of Pliilip I - - - - 

Reign of .3Eropas ; he conquers the lUy- 

rians - - . - - 

Reign of Amyntas - • - - 

Reign of Alexander I. - 

Reign of Perdiccas II. - - - 

Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, 

murders the legitimate heirs of his 

father, and seizes the throne - 

He is surnamed the " Patron of Learn- 



602 

547 
497 
454 



413 



- 411 



399 
399 
398 

397 



392 
390 
371 
370 
366 
360 

360 



He is mvtrdered by a favorite to whom 
he promised liis daughter in marriage, 
yet gave her to another 
Reign of Amyntas II. - - - 

He is driven from the throne - 
Recovers his crown, and puts Pausanias 

to death .... 

The lUyrians enter l\Iacedonia, expsl 

Amyntas, and put Argseus, brother of 

Pausanias, on the throne 
Amyntas again recovers his kingdom - 
Reign of Alexander II. - 
He is assassinated - • - - 

Reign of Perdiccas 111. - 
He IS killed in battle 
Reign of Philip II. and institution of the 

Macedonian phalanx - 
Philip gains the battle of Methon over 

the Athenians - . - - 

He defeats the Illyrians in a desperate 

engagement - - ■ • 

He takes Amphipolis, and receives an 

arrow in his right eye. See Archery 358 
He conquers Thrace and Illyria - 356 

Birth of Alexander the Great - • 356 
Philip adds to his conquests - - 348 

Close of the first sacred war - - 348 

lUyricum overrun by the army of Philip 344 
Thrace made tributary to Macedon - 343 
Aristotle appointed tutor to the young 

prince Alexander - - ■ 343 

War against the Athenians - - 341 

Philip besieges Byzantium - - 341 

Battle of Chaeronea; Philip conquers. 

See Chai'onea - - - . 338 

Philip is assassinated by Pausanias, at 

Egffia, during the celebration of games 

in honor of his daughter's nuptials - 
Alexander III., surnamed the Great, 

succeeds his father 
He enters Greece - - - - 

The Greeks appoint him general of iheir 

armies against the Persians - 
Tlie Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebe.-: 



814 1 to the ground ; the house of Pindar is 
729 I alone left standing 
678 I The Almighty iavors Alexander with a 
640 vision, in which the high-priest of the 
Jews appears to him, exhorting him 
to pass into Asia. See Jeuis 

He passes into Asia, and gains his first 
battle over Dariu;. See Granicus, 
Battle of ■ ■ - - 

Sardis surrenders to the conqueror ; Ha- 
licarnassus is taken, and numerous 
cities in Asia Minor . 

Memnon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius 
takes the field with 460,000 infantry 
and 100,000 cavalry - 

Battle of Issus {lohich see) - 

Alexander, in liis way to Egypt, lays 
siege to Tyre, which is destroyed after 
seven months .... 

Damascus is taken, and the vast trea- 
sures of Darius come into the posses- 
sion of the victor 

Gaza surrenders - - - - 

Alexander enters Jerusalem ; and 
Egypt conquered 

Alexandria founded - • - • 

Great battle of Arbela, the third and 
last between Alexander and Darius ; 
the Persian army totally defeated. 
See Arbela .... 

Alexander proclaimed master of Asia ; 
he enters Babylon in triumph 



360 
3.59 



336 



135 



335 



334 



333 
333 



332 



332 
332 



332 
332 



GEBCIAN OR MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 

.Alexander sits on the throne of Darius, 
at Susa - . - 

Parthia and Hyrcania are overrun by 
Alexander - - - - - 

Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits 
him, attended by a retinue of 300 wo^ 
men. See Amazons' - 

He puts his i'riend Parmenio to death, 
on a charge of conspiracy, supposed 
to be false .... 

Alexander makes more conquests 

His expedition to India ; Porus, king uf 
India, is defeated and taken ; and the 
country as far as the Ganges is over- 
run ..... 

Calisihenes is put to the torture for re- 
fusing to render divine homage to 
Alexander - - - - - 

Subjection of the Cosseans 

Death of Alexander 

His conquests are divided among his 
generals . . . . 

His remains are transported to Alexan- 
dria, and buried by Ptolemy 



331 
331 

330 
329 

- 329 



329 
328 



32i 



326 
326 
323 



32W 



40)8 THE world's TROGRESS. [ MAD 



MACEDON, continued. 

The Greeks defeated by sea and land 

near Cranon (lohich see) - b. c. 322 

Thebes rebuilt by Cassander - - 315 

Seleucus recovers Babylon - - 312 

Cassander puts Roxana and her son to 

death, and usurps the throne - 311 

Battle of Ipsus (which see) - - - 301 

New division of the empire - - 301 



Reign of Antigonus Gonatus - B.C. 277 
Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats An- 

tigonus, and is proclaimed king - 274 

Pyrrhus slain ; Antisonus restored - 272 

Antigonus takes Athens - - - 268 

The Gauls again invade Macedon - 268 

Revolt of the Parthians - - 250 

Reign of Demetrius II. - - - 242 

Reign of Philip, his son " - - 2-32 

His Vf-Ax against the Rhodians - - 202 

Philip is defeated by the Romans - 198 

He is totally subdued - - - 196 

The reign of Perseus - - - 179 

Perseus defeated by the Romans - 171 



MACEDON II. 

Death of Cassander - - - - 298 

Reign of Alexander and Antipater - 298 
Demetrius mi;rders Alexander, and 

seizes the erown of Macedon - - 294 

Irruption of the Gauls - - - 279 

The consul ^inilius Paulu,s enters Macedon, and pronounces it a Roman 
province. Perseus and liis sons are made prisoners, 168 b. c, and next year 
walk in chains before the chariot of Emilias in his triumph for the conquest 
of Macedon. The country is finally conquered \>y the Turks under Amuratli 
II. iu A. D. 1429. Pnestley. 

MACHIAVELIAN PRINCIPLES. These are principles laid down by Nicho- 
las Machiavel, of Florence, in his Practice of Politics, and The Prince. By 
some they are stigmatized as " the most pernicious maxims of government, 
founded on the vilest policy ;" and bj' others as " sound doctrines, notwith- 
standing the prejudice erroneousl.v raised against them." The work appeared 
in 1517 ; and was translated into English in 1761.* 

MADAGASCAR. One of the largest islands iu the world, discovered by Lo- 
renzo Almeida A. d. 1506. In the centre of the island is said to exist a race 
of dwarfs, with a strange peculiaritj' of form ; but this rests on the unsup- 
ported statement of a French traveller who was in possession of a preserved 
pigmy which he had brought from Madagascar. A paper describing the 
pigmy was presented to the Royal Society by an eminent physician, in 1809. 

MADEIRA. So called on account of its woods ; it was discovered, it is said, 
by Mr. Macham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from England 
for an illicit amor. He was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, a French 
lady, dying, lie made a canoe, and carried the news of his discovery to 
Pedro, king of Arragon, which occasioned the report that the island was 
discovered by a Portuguese, a. d. 1345. But it is maintained that the Por- 
tuguese did not visit this island until 1419, nor did they colonize it until 1431. 
It was taken possession of by the British in July 1801. And again, by admi- 
ral Hood and general (now viscount) Beresford, Dec. 24, 1807, and retained 
in trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had just then emigrated to 
the Brazils. It was subsequently restored to the Portuguese crown. 

MADRAS. Colonized by the English and Fort George built by permission of 
the king of Golconda, 17 James I., 1620. Madras was taken by the French 
in 1746. and was restored in 1749, immediately after the peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

MADRID. Mentioned in history as a castle belonging to the Moors. It was 
sacked a. d. 1109. It was made the seat of the Spanish court in 1516. The 
Escurial was built in 1557, et seq. The old palace was burnt down in 1734. 
The French took possession of this city in March 1808, after the royal family 
had retired into France ; and on May 2, the citizens rose up in arms to 

* Tlie writings of this celebrated politician countenanced (another commentator sa)|s) "the doing 
of any act to compass or bring about those things which are neither honorable nor just, whereby 
ambitious sovereigns or evil "ministers may accomplish what their extravagant desires proiT pt 
ihem t'l, :ii iho expense oftheir subjects' peace, or their rnimti-y's safely."— jF'erg-wsow. 



mag] dictionary of dates. 409 

expel them, when a dreadful conflict and carnage took place. Joseph Bona- 
parte entered Madrid as king of Spain, July 20, 1808; but soon retired. 
Retaken by the French Dec. 2, same year ; and retained till Aug. 12, 1812, 
jvhen Madrid was entered bjs the British army. Ferdinand VII. was restored 
May 14, 1814. Madrid was the scene of various occurrences during the 
late civil war, for which see Spain. 

MAESTRICHT. This city revolted from Spain 1570, and was taken by the 
prince of Parma in 1579. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it after a 
memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648. Lewis XIV. 
took it in 1673 ; Wilham prince of Orange invested it in vain, in 1676 ; but, 
in 1678, it was restored to the Dutch. In 1748, it was besieged by the French, 
who were permitted to take possession of the city on condition of its being 
restored at the peace then negotiating. At the commencement of 1793, Maes- 
tricht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, but they became masters 
of it toward the end of the following year. In 1814, it was delivered up to the 
allied forces. 

MAGDALENS and MAGDALENETI^S. Communities of nuns and women, 
the latter class consisting chiefly ot penitent courtesans. The convent of 
N9,ples was endowed by queen Sancha a. d. 1324. That at Metz was institu- 
ted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by 
pope Leo X., in 1515; and Clement VIII. settled a revenue on the nuns, and 
further ordained that the effects of all public prostitutes who died without 
will should fall to them, and that those who made wills should not have 
their bequests sanctioned by the law unless thej' bequeathed a part of their 
effects to the Magdalen institution, which part was to be at least one-fifth, 
1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded in 1758, principally 
under the direction of Dr. Dodd. In New- York a similar institution called 
"a Home for the friendless," was founded, 1846. 

MAGELLAN, Straits of. 'They were passed by Ferdinand Magellan (Fer- 
nando de Magelhaens) a Portuguese, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by 
the emperor Charles V., in 1519. The first voyage round the world was 
undertaken by this illustrious navigator ; and his vessel performed the en- 
terprise although the commander perished. The Spaniards had a fort here, 
since called cape Famine, because the garrison had all perished for want 
of food. 

MAGI, OR WORSHIPPERS OF FIRE. The prime object of the adoration of 
the Persians was the invisible and incomprehensible God, whom, not know- 
ing, they worshipped as the principle of all good, and they paid particular 
homage to fire, as the emblem of his power and purity. They built no altars 
nor temples, as they deemed it absurd to pretend to confine an omnipresent 
■ God within walls ; accordingly their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and 
their offerings were made upon the earth. The Magi were their priests, and 
their skill in astronomy rendered the secrets of nature familiar to them, so 
that the term Magi was at length applied to all learned men, till they were 
finally confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the 
reformer of the sect of the Magi : he flourished 1080 b. c. — Dio F'resnoij. 

MAGIC LANTERN. This was the invention of the illustrious Roger Bacon. 
England's great philosopher, about a. d. 1260. Bacon first invented the con- 
vex magnifying glasses in 1252 ; and he afterwards, in his many experiments, 
applied them to this use. 

MAGNA CHARTA. The great charter of English liberty may be said to have 
been derived from Edward the Confessor, continued by Henry I. and his 
successors, Stephen, Henry II.. and John. But the Charter more particiilarly 
meant, was a body of laws, the great cliarter of our rights granted by John. 

18 



410 THE world's progress. ■ [maJ 

and signed at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 15, 1215. The barons took 
arms to enforce this sacred possession, which was many times confirmed, 
and as frequently violated, by Henry III. This last king's grand charter 
was granted in the 9th year of his reign, 1224, and was assured by Edward 
I. It is remarked, that when Henry III. granted it, he swore on the word 
and faith of a king, a Christian, and a knight, to observe it. For tliis grant 
a fifteenth of all moveable goods were given to the king, whether they were 
temporals or spirituals ; yet sir Edward Coke says tliat even in his days it 
liad been confirmed above thirty times. 

MAGNET. Sturmius, in his Epistola, dated at Altorf, 1682, observes that the 
attractive qiiality of the magnet has been taken notice of from time im- 
memorial ; but, that it was our coimtrjonan, Roger Bacon, of Ilchester, in 
Somersetsliire (he died the 17th June, 1294), who first discovered its pro- 
perty of pointing to the north pole. The Italians discovered that it could 
communicate its virtue to steel or iron. The variation not being always the 
same was taken notice of by Hevelius, Petil, and others. Flavio Gioja, of 
Naples, invented or improved the mariner's compass, in 1302. The impor- 
tant discovery of the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle was made 
about 1576 (published 1580) by Robert Norman, of London. Dr. Gilbert's 
experiment was made in 1600. Artificial magnets were invented, or rather 
improved, in 1751. A magnetic clock, invented by Dr. Locke, of Ohio, an- 
nounced at Washington, Jan. 5, 1849. 

MAHOMETISM. See Alcoran and Koran. The creed of Mahomet was pro- 
mulgated A. D. 604, by Mahomet, styled by some writers as a renowned 
general and politician ; and by others as a successful impostor and tyrant. 
Mahomet asserted that the Koran was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel 
during a period of twenty-three years. It was Avritten in the Koreish Ara- 
bic, which he asserted was the language of Paradise, and it is considered 
as possessing every fine qualitj'' of a language. It has 1000 terms for sword, 
500 for lion, 200 for serpent, and 80 for honey. It is spoken and wi'itten in 
various parts of Asia and Africa. Mahomet died in 631, of the effects, it is 
said, of a slow poison, given to him in a piece of mutton three years before, 
by a Jew, who took this method to discover if he was a true prophet, and 
immortal, as he had declared himself to be. — Prideatix. 

MAIL-COACHES in ENGLAND. Were first set up at Bristol in 1784; and 
were extended to other routes in 1785, at the end of which year they be- 
came general in England. This plan for the conveyance of letters was the 
invention of Mr. Palmer of Bath ; the mails had been previously conveyed 
l)y carts with a single horse, or by boys on horseback. 

MAINE, cue of the United States; first permanent settlement in, at Bu'stol. 
The district was granted in 1635 to sir Ferdinand Gorges, who appointed a 
governor and counciV It was purchased of the heirs of Gorges in 1652 by 
the State of Massachusetts, for $5,334 ; annexed to Massachusetts, under 
charter from William & Mary, in 1691 : became a separate State in 1820. 
Population in 1790 was 96,540 ; in 1810, 228,705 ; in 1840, 501,793. 

MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emjDeror and imperial family were ad- 
dressed by this title, which was previously given to their great officers of 
state. Popes also had the title of majesty. The emperors of Germany 
took the title, and endeavored to keep it and the closed crown to themselves. 
It was first given to Louis XL of France, in 1461. — Voltaire. Upon Charles 
V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the 
style of Majesty. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of 
England on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your 
Majesty, 1520. — See Field of the Cloth of Gold. James I. coupled this titlo 
with the term '' Sacred," and " Most Excellent Majesty." See Titles. 



man] dictionary of dates. 41 'i 

MAJORCA AND MINORCA. For occurrences relating to these islands, see 
Minorca. 

MALPLAQUET, Battle of. The allies under the duke of Marlborough and 
prince Eugene, against the arms of France commanded by marshal Villars. 
The armies consisted on each side of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers, and the 
victory was with the allies ; but this action was attended with great slaugh- 
ter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 men, which loss was but ill repaid 
by the capture of Mons ; fought Sept. 11, 1709. 

MALTA, Knights of. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of 
St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some 
merchants of Melphis, trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph 
of Egypt to build a house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 
and whom they received with zeal and charity, a. d. 1048. They afterwards 
founded a hospital for the sick, from whence they were called Hospitallers. 
This foundation v/as laid in a. d. 1104, in the reign of Baldwin, and they 
now became a military order in 1118, into which many persons of quality 
entered, and changed their name into knights. After the Christians had 
lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired 
to Margett, and then to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290 ; then 
they followed John, king of Cyprus, who gave them Limisson in his domi- 
nions, where they staid till 1310, and that same year they took Rhodes, 
under the grand master Foulques de Vallaret, and next year defended it 
under the duke of Savoy, against an army of Saracens ; since when, his 
successors have used F. E. R. T. for their device, that is, Fortitudo ejus 
Rhodum tenuit, or, he kept Rhodes by his valor ; from this they were called 
knights of Rhodes ; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they re- 
tired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the 
city of Viterbo for their retreat; and in 1530, the emperor Charles V. gave 
them the isle of Malta. The emperor Paul of Russia declared himself 
grand-master of the order in June, 1799. 

MALTA. The memorable siege by the Turks, who were obliged to abandon 
the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men, 1566. The island was taken by 
general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798. 
He found in it 1200 cannons, 200.000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line, 
a frigate, four galleys, and 40.000 muskets : besides an immense treasure 
collected by superstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at li- 
berty. Malta was blockaded by the British from the autumn of 1798, and 
was taken by major-general Pigot, Sept. 5, 1800 ; but, at the peace of 
Amiens, it was stipulated that it should be restored to the knights. The 
British, however, retained possession, and the war recommenced between 
the two nations : but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was gua- 
ranteed to Great Britain. 

MAMELUKES. The name of a dynasty which reigned a considerable time in 
Egypt. They were originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, and were es- 
tablished by the sultan" Saladin as a kind of bodj^-guard, a. d. 1246. They 
advanced one of their own corps to the throne, and continued to do so until 
Egypt became a Turkish province in 1517, when the beys took them into 
pay, and filled up their ranks with renegades from various countries. On 
the conquest of EgJT)t by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia. 
Assisted by the Arnauts, who were introduced into the country in the way, 
the Mamelukes once more wrested Egypt from the Turkish government 
In 1811 they were decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, and slain 

MANNHEIM. First built in a. d. 1606 ; and became the court residence in 
1719; but the extinction of the palatinate family in 1777 causcl the re- 



412 THE WOKLD's PROGRESS. [" MAK 

moval of the court to Municli. Battle of Mannheim, between the armies 
of the allies and the French, fought May 30, 1793. Mannheim surrendered 
to the French, under command of general Pichegru, Sept. 20, 1795. On the 
25th of the same month, the Austrians under general Wurmser, de- 
feated the French near the city. Several battles were fought with va- 
rious success in the neighborhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the 
popular dramatist, was assassinated at Mannheim, by a student of Wurtz- 
burg, named Sandt, April 2, 1819. 

MANICHEANS. An ancient sect, founded by Manes, which began to infest 
the East, about a. d. 277. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and 
particularly into Persia. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been, 
ieft him a store of wealth, after which he assumed the title of apostle, or 
envoy of Jesus Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete or cum- 
forter that Christ had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the 
one good, and the other bad ; the first he called light, which did nothing 
but good, and the second he called darkness, which did nothing but evil. 
Several other sects sprung from the Manicheans. Manes was put to death 
by Sapor, king of Pei\«ia, in 290. His otFence against this prince was, his 
having dismissed tlie physicians of the court, pretending he could cui-e one 
of the royal family by his prayers, instead of which the patient died in his 
arms. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 

MANILLA. Capital of the Philippine Isles ; a great mart of Spanish com- 
merce. 3000 persons perished here by an earthquake in 1645. Manilla was 
taken by the English in 1757 ; and again in Oct. 17G2, by storm. The cap- 
tors humanely suflered the archbishop to ransom it for about a million ster- 
ling ; but gi'eat part of the ransom never was paid. Since the establish- 
ment of a free trade in the Spanish colonies, which took place in 1788, tho 
usual Acapulco ships and other government traders have been discontinued ; 
and the commerce to the Manillas and other j^arts, is carried on in private 
bottoms by free companies of merchants. — Butler. 

MANTINEA, Battle op, between Eparainondas, at the head of the Thebans, 
and the combined forces of Lacedfemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia. 
The Theban general was killed in the engagement, and from that time 
Tliebes lost its power and consequence among the Grecian states, 363 e. c. 
— Sirabo. 

MANTUA. Virgil was born at a village near this city. Mantua surrendered 
to the French, Jan 7, 1797, after a siege of eight months ; and it was at- 
tacked by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, to which it sur- 
rendered after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the 
French again obtained possession of it; but thej' delivered it up to the 
Austrians in 1814. 

MAPS AND CHARTS. They were invented by Anaximander, the Milesian 
philosopher, a disciple of Thales, and the earliest philosophical astronomer 
on record, 5"'0 b. c. He was also the first who constructed spheres. A ce- 
lestial chart was, it is said, constructed in China, in the sixth century. — 
Freret. And sea-charts were first brought to England, by Bartholomew 
Columbus, to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a westei'n continent, 
A. D. 1489. The earliest map of England was drawn by George Lily in 1520. 
Mercator's chart, in which the world was taken as a plane, was invented in 
1556. A map of the moon's surface was first drawn at Dantzic, in 1647. 
See Charts. 

MARATHON, Battle of. One of the most extraordinary in ancient history. 
The Greeks were only 10,000 strong, and the Persians amounted to 500,000. 
The former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles, 
who defeated the Persians, leaving 200,000 dead upon the field. Among the 



MAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 413 

number of the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war ; the remainder 
of the Persian army were forced to re-embark for Asia, Sept. 28, 490 b. c. 

MARBLE. Dipsenus and Scyllis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who 
sculptured marble, and polished their works ; all statues previously to their 
time being of wood, 568 b. c. — Pliny. Marble afterwards came into use for 
statues, and the columns and . ornaments of fine buildings, and the edifices 
and monuments of Rome, Avere constructed of, or ornamented with, fine " 
marble. The ruins of Palmyra prove that its magnificent structures, which 
were chiefly of white marble, were far more extensive and splendid than 
those of even Rome itself. These latter v/ere discovered by some English 
travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. See Palmyra. 

MARCH. This was the first month of the year, imtil Numa added January 
and Februarj", 713 b. c. Romulus, who divided the j'ear into months, gave 
to this month the name of his supposed father Mars ; though Ovid observes, 
that the people of Italy had the month of March before the time of Romu- 
lus, but that they placed it \e.vY diflferently in the calendar. The year for- 
merly commenced on the 25th day of this month. See Year. 

MARENGO, Battle of. In this ever-memorable engagement the French army 
was commanded by Bonaparte, against the Austrians, and after prodigies 
of valbr, his arm}' was retreating, when the timely arrival of general Dessaix 
(who was afterwards mortally Avounded in this battle) turned the fortunes 
of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful: the Austrians lost 
6000 in killed, 12,000 in prisoners, and 45 pieces of cannon; and though the 
French boasted tliat the loss on their side did not much exceed 3000 men, 
it was afterwards known to be vastly more, June 14, 1800. By a treaty be- 
tween the Austrian general Melas and the conqueror, Bonaparte, signed on 
the next day, twelve of the strongest fortresses in Italy were put into pos- 
session of the latter: and he became, in fact, the master of Italy. 

MARESCHAL, or MARSHAL. In France, marshals were the ancient esquires 
of the king ; and by their first institution they had the command of the van- 
guard, to observe the enemy, and to choose proper places for its encamp- 
ment. Till the time of Francis I., in a. d. 1515, there were but two French 
marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in war, but no stipend in time of 
peace. The rank afterwards became of the highest military importance, 
the number was without limit, and the command supreme. During the em- 
pire of Napoleon, the marshals of France filled the world with their renown. 
See Marshal, Field. 

MARIGNAN, Battle of, near Milan, in Italy, one of the most furious engage- 
ments of modern times. In this sanguinary conflict, which happened be- 
tween the heroic Swiss and the French under Francis the First, upwards of 
twenty thousand men were slain ; the former, after losing all their bravest 
troops, were compelled to retire, September 13, 1515. 

MARINER'S COMPASS. The Chinese ascribe the invention of the compass to 
their emperor Hong-Ti, who they say was a grandson of Noah ; and some of . 
their historians refer the invention of it to a later date, 1115 b. c. See Com- 
pass. The honor of its discovery, though much disputed, is generally given 
to Flavio de Gioja, or Giovia, a native of Amalfi, an ancient commercial city 
of Naples, a. d. 1302. The variation of the needle was first discovered by 
Columbus in his voyages of discovery, 1492 ; and it was observed in London 
in 1580. The dipping-needle was invented by Robert Norman, a compass- 
maker of Ratcliffe, in that year. 

MARQUE, Letters of. Instruments authorizing the subjects of one prince to 
make i-eprisals upon, and capture the ships, property, and subjects of another 
prince or country. Some such instruments are said to have been first used 



414 THE world's progress. [ UAh 

by the Venetian government. The first letters of marque granted in Eng- 
land were in the reign of Edward I., against the Portuguese, a. d. 1295. — 
Rymer's Fcedera. 

MARQUESS. This dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, and by the 
Germans Markgrave, took its original from Mark or March, which, in the 
language of the northern nations, is a limit or bound, and their office was 
to guard or govern the frontiers of a province. It has the next place of 
honor to a duke, and was introduced several years after that title had been 
established, in England. The first on whom it was conferred, was the great 
favorite of king Richard II., Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, who was created 
marquess of Dublin, and by him placed in parliament between the dukes and 
earls, a. d. 1385. Alexander Stewart, second son of James HI. of Scotland, 
was made marquess of that kingdom, as marquess of Ormond, in 1480. 

MARRIAGE. The first institution of this union between man and woman for 
life, with certain ceremonies of a binding and solemn nature, is ascribed to 
Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 b. c. — Eusebiiis Pref. to Chron. The prevail- 
ing ceremony in most countries was that of a man leading home his bride, 
after a solemn contract with her friends. To render this contract the more 
sacred, it was made the work of the priest, instead of being that of a civil 
magistrate adopted by several civilized nations. The celebration of mar- 
riage in churches was ordained by pope Innocent III., about a. d. 1199. 
Marriage was forbidden in Lent, a. d. 364. It was forbidden to bishops in 
692, and to priests in 1015; and these latter were obliged to take the vow 
of celibacy in 1073. Marriages were solemnized by justices of the peace 
under an act of the Commons in Oliver Cromwell's administration, 1658. A 
tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the marriage of a duke 50Z., of a com- 
mon person 2s. 6(^., the 8th of William III., 1695. Marriages were again 
taxed in 1784. 

MARRIAGES BY SALE. Among the Babylonians at a cei'tain time every year, 
the marriageable females were assembled, and disposed of to the best bid- 
der, by the public crier. The richest citizens purchased such as pleased 
them at a high price ; and the money thus obtained was used to portion off 
those females to whom nature had been less liberal of personal charms. 
When the beauties were disposed of, the crier put iq) the more ordinary lots, 
beginning with the most ill-favored among those that remained, announcing 
a premium to the purchaser of each : the bidders were to name a sum below 
the given premium, at which they would be willing to take the maid ; and 
he who bid lowest was declared the purchaser. By these means every female 
was provided for. This custom originated with Atossa, daughter of Belo- 
chus, about 1433 b. c. 

MARSEILLES. Is supposed to have been founded by the Phoceans, about 
600 B. c. — Univ. Hist. Cicero styled it the Athens of Gaul. It was taken 
by Julius Caesar after a long and terrible siege ; and it was sacked by the 
Saracens, a. d. 473. Marseilles became a republic in 1214. It was subjected 
to the counts of Provence in 1251 ; and was again united to the crown of 
France in 1482. In 1649 the plague raged with great violence in Marseilles, 
and with still greater in 1720, M'hen it carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. 

MARSHALS, FIELD, in the British army. The rank is of modern date, and 
was preceded by that of cajitain-general, and that also of commander-in- 
chief The duke of Marlborough was captain-general, 1702. The first mil- 
itary chiefs bearing the rank of marshal were those of France. George II. 
first conferred the rank upon John, duke of Argyle, and George, earl of Ork- 
ney in 1736. See Mareschal. 

MARSTON MOOR, Battle of. This battle was the beginning of the misfor- 
tunes and disgrace of the unfortunate Charles I. of England. The Scots and 



mar] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 415 



parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging Yorlc, when prince Ru- 
pert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege. 
Both sides drew up on Marston Moor, to the number of fifty thousand, and 
the victory seemed long undecided between them. Rupert, who command- 
ed the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who 
now first came into notice, at the head of a body of troops whom he had 
taken care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was victorious ; he pushed his 
opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second en- 
gagement and a second victory. The prince's whole train of artillery was 
taken, and the royalists never afterwards recovered the blow; fought July 
3, 1644. 

MARTINIQUE. This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, ami 
the Grenadines, were taken by the British from the French in February 
1762. They were restored to France at the peace of the following year. 
They were again taken March 16, 1794; were restored at the peace of 
Amiens in 1802 ; and were again captured February 23, 1809. A revolution 
took place in this island in favor of Napoleon, but it was finally suppressed 
by the British, June 1, 1815 ; and Martinique reverted to its French masters 
at the late general peace, 1815. 

MARTYRS. The Christian Church, Catholic and Protestant, has abounded in 
martyrs, and history is filled with accounts of their wonderful constancy to 
their faith. The festivals of the martyrs are, many of them, of very ancient 
date, and took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyr- 
dom A. D. 168. England has had its Christian martyrs ; and the accounts of 
those who sufifered for their adherence to the Protestant religion would fill 
volumes. The following documents in connection with the fate of Cranmer, 
Latimer, and Ridley, are of melancholy interest. They are taken from a 
*' Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner, and Sitpper, and the charge thereof, for Cran- 
nv.r, Latimer, and Ridley," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were 
In the custody of those officers, previously to their being burnt alive : — 

1st. octoeek, 1.554— DtKNER. Item, a post - - - - £0 1 4 

Bread and ale - - - .£0 2 Item, 2 chains - - - - 3 4 

Oysters - - - - - 1 Item, 2 staples - - - 6 

Butter - - - - 2 Item, 4 laborers - - - 2 8 

Eggs 2 

Lyng- .,----008 JB I 5 8 

A piece of fresh Saltnon - - 10 [They were burnt on October the 16tli, 1555.] 

Wme - - - - 3 

Cheese ajid pears - - - 2 charge for the burning of the body 

OP CRANMER. 

The three dinners - - j£0 2 6 For 100 of woodfasgotsfor theiire 

For 100 and >^ of furze 
TO BURN LATIMER AND RIDLEY. For the Carriage of them 

For 3 load of wood faggots to burn For two laborers 

Latimer and Ridley - - 12 

Item, 1 load of furze faggots - - 3 4 jBO 12 8 

Item, for the carriage of these 4 He was burnt on March the 21st, in 1556.] 

loads 2 6 

MARTYRS, Era of . This is also called the era of Diocletian, and was used 
by the writers of ecclesiastical history until the Christian era was introduced 
in the sixth century ; and it still continued to be the era of some nations, 
particularly the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences from the day upon 
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, August 29, a. d. 284 ; and the 
persecutions of the Christians in his reign caused it to be so called. 

MARYLAND, one of the middle United States, was originally included in the pa- 
tent of Virginia, granted imder charter to Calvert, lord Baltimore, in 1632 ; 
named in honor of Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. ; first colony were 
Catholics who settled at St. Mary's, on the Potomac, 1634 ; free toleration 
of all religions and creeds granted b^'' lord Baltimore ; Constitution settled 



416 TJ!E world's PROGREbS. [MAS 

in 1650, and again in 1776 ; the State bore an active part in the revolution ; 
adopted the Federal Constitution April 28, 1788, by 63 to 12. Population 
in 1790 was 819,728 ; in 1810, 380,546; in 1840, 469,232, including 89,485 
slaves. Maryland resumed the payment of interest on her debt, March, 
1847. 

MASKS. Poppsea, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to 
guard her complexion from the sun. But theatrical masks were in use 
among the Greeks and Romans, Horace attributes them to ^schylus ; yet 
Aristotle says the real inventor and time of their introduction were un- 
known. Modern masks and muffs, fans, and false hair for the women, were 
devised by the harlots of Italy, and brought to England from France in 
1572. — Stowe's Chron. 

MASQUERADES. They were in fashion in the court of Edward III. 1340; 
and in the reign of Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the 
citizens. The bishops preached against them, and made such representa- 
tions as occasioned their suppression, 9 George I. 1723. [No less than six 
masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] They were re- 
vived, and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government, 
and in direct violation of the laws, and tickets of admission to a masque- 
rade at Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at twenty-tive 
guineas each, 1776. — Mortimer. 

MASS. In the Romish church, mass is the ofSce or prayers used at the cele- 
bration of the eucharist, and is in general believed to be a representation of 
the passion of our Saviour. Hence every part of the service is supposed to 
allude to the particular circumstances of his passion and death. The ge- 
neral division of masses consists in high and low : tlie first is that sung by 
the choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub- 
deacon ; low masses are those in which the prayers are barely rehearsed 
without singing. Mass was iSrst celebrated in Latin, about a. d. 894. Its 
celebration was lirst introduced into Englaud in the seventh century. Pros- 
tration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 1201. 

MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States. First settled at Plymouth by a 
colony of EngUsh Puritans from Holland, who landed Dec. 22, 1620. This 
Avas called the Plymouth colony. The Massachusetts colony at Salem and 
Charlestown, in 1628, and Boston, 1630. These colonies united in 1692. 
The American revolution originated here, at Boston and vicinity, and this 
State bore an important and honorable part in the contest. See Boston, 
Bunker Hill, Lexington, tf-c. Present State Constitution formed in 1780 ; 
revised and altered in 1820 ; slavery abolished in 1783 ; Shay's rebellion in 
this State in 1786 ; Federal Constitution adopted Feb. 6, 1788, by 187 
against 168. Population in 1721, 94,000 ; in 1790, 388,727 ; in 1810, 472,040 ; 
in 1820, 523,287 ; in 1840, 737,699. 

MASSACRES. Ancient and modern history abound with events which class 
under this head ; and perhaps the most frightful and unprovoked enormities 
of this kind have been perpetrated by opposing Christian sects, one upon 
another, in vindication of the Christian religion ! The following are among 
the most remarkable massacres recorded by various authors : — 

BEFORE CHRIST. A dreadful slaughter of the Teutonos and 

Of all the Carthagenians in Sicily, which ; Ambrones, near Aix, by Marius, the Re- 
took place 397 b. o. man general, 200,000 being left dead on 



2000 Tyrians crucified, and 8000 put to the \ the spot, 102, b. c. 



sword for not surrendering Tyre to Alex- 
ander, 331 B. c. 
The Jews of Antioch fall upon the other in- 
habitants, and massacre 1(X),000 of them, 
for refusing to surrender their arms to De- 



The Romans, throughout Asia, women and 
children not excepted, cruelly massacred 
in one day, by order of Mithridates, king 
of Pontus, SSb. c. 

A great number of Roman senators massa- 



metriusNicanor, tyrant of Syria, 1.54 B.C. cred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius. 



MAS ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATEb. 



417 



MASSACRES, conlimicd. 

Many patricians dispatch themselves to 
avoid their horrid butcheries, 86 b. c. 

Again, under Sylla, and Catiline, his minis- 
ter of vengeance, 82 and 79 b. c. 

At Prseneste, Octavianus Ccesar ordered 300 
Roman senators and other persons of dis- 
tinction, to he sacrificed to the manes of 
Julius Caesar, 41 b. c. 

AFTER CHRIST. 

At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 of 
Jews were put to the sword, A. d. 70. 

The Jews, headed by one Andrae, put to 
death 100,000 Greeks and Romans, m and 
near Cyrene, a.d. 11.5. 

Cassius, a Roman general under the empe- 
ror M. Aurelius, put to death 400,000 of 
the inhabitants of Seleucia, a. d. 167. 

At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens 
are massacred, by an order of Antoninus, 
A. D. 213. 

The emperor Probus put to death 700,000 
of the inhabitants upon his reduction of 
Gaul, A. D. 277. 

Of eighty Christian fathers, by order of the 
emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia ; they 
were put into a ship which was set on 
fire, and then driven out to sea, a. d. 370. 

Of Tliessalonica, when 7000 persons, invited 
into the circus, were put to the sword, by 
order of Theodosius, a. d. 390. 

Belisarius put to death above 30,000 citizens 
of Constantinople for a revolt, to which 
they were impelled by the tyranny and ex- 
actions of two rapacious ministers set over 
them, A.D. 552. 

Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by 
order of Andronicus, a. d. 1184. 

Of the Albigenses and VValdenses, com- 
menced of ^\ailoui5e, A. D. 1209. Tens of 
thousands perished by means of the 
sword and gibbet. 

The Sicilians massacre the French through- 
out the whole island of Sicily, without 
distinction of sex or age, on Easter-day, 
the first bell for vespers being the signal. 
This horrid affair is known in history by 
the name of the Sicilian vespers, a. d. 
1282. — Du Fresnoy. 

A general massacre of the Jews at Verdun, 
iy the peasants, who, from a pretended 
prophecy, conceived the Holy Land was 
to be recovered from the infidels by them. 
500 of these Jews took shelter in a castle, 
and defended themselves to the last ex- 
tremity, when, for want of weapons, they 
threw their cliillren at the enemy,-and 
then killed each oiher, a. d. 1317. 

At Paris, of several thousand persons, at the 
instance of John, duke of Burgundy, a. d. 
1418. 

Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order 
of Christian IL, a. d. 1520. 

Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants 
throughout the kingdom of France, attend- 
ed with circumstances of the most horrid 
treachery and cruelty. It began at Paris, 
m the night of the festival of St. Bartholo- 
mew, Aug 24, 1572, by secret orders from 
Charles IX., king of France, at the insti- 
gation of tlie queen dowager, Catherine de 

18* 



Medicis, his mother. It is styled in his- 
tory, the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 

Of the Christians in Croatia, by the Turks, 
when 65,000 were slain, a. d. 1592. 

Of Protestants, at Thorn, put to death under 
a pretended legal sentence of the chancel- 
lor of Poland, for being concerned in a 
tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic 
procession, a. d. 1724. All the Protestant 
powers in Europe interceded to have this 
unjust sentence revoked, but una^'ailingly. 

At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred 
by the natives, October 1740, under the 
pretext of an intended irsurrection. 

At the taking of Ismael "ly the Russians, 
30,000 old and young were slain, Decem- 
ber, 1790. — See Ismael. 

In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made 
proclamation for the massacre of all the 
whites, March 29, 1804, and many thou- 
sands perished. 

Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the 
French, May 2, 1808. 

Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel 
of Cairo, March 1, 1811. 

Massacre at Nismes, perpetrated by the 
Catholics, May 1815. 

Massacre of vast numbers of the inhabitants 
of Cadiz, by the soldiery, whose ferocious 
disorders continue for some days, March 
6, 1820. 

MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain. 
May 1, A. D. 474. 

Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 
1200, by Ethelfrid, king of Northumber- 
land, A. D. 580. 

Of the Danes in the southern counties of 
England, in the night of November 13, 
1002, and the 23d Etlielred II. At London 
it was most bloody, the churches being nc 
sanctuary. Amongst the rest was Gunildc., 
sister of Swein, king of Denmark, left in 
hostage for the performance of a treaty but 
newly concluded. — Baker's Chronicle. 

Of the Jews in England. Some few press- 
ing into Westminster Hall at Richard I.'s 
coronation, were put to death by the peo- 
ple ; and a false alarm being given that 
the king had ordered a general massacre 
of them, the people in many parts of Eng- 
land, from an aversion to them, slew all 
they met. In York, 500, who had taken 
shelter in the castle, killed themselves, 
rather than tall into the hands of the mul- 
titude, A. D. 1189. 

Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's Wood, 
Ireland (see Cullen's Wood), A. D. 1209. 

Of the English factory at Amboyna, in order 
to dispossess its members of the Spice Is- 
lands, A. D. 1623. 

Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in 
O'Neill's rebellion, Oct. 23, l(i41. Up- 
wards of 30,000 British were killed in the 
commencement of t/iis rebellion. — Sir 
William Petty. In the first two or three 
days of it, forty or fifty thousand of the 
Protestants were destroyed. — Lord Clar- 
endon. Before the rebellion was enl ifely 



418 THE world's progress. [mai 



death by pikes, perpetrated by the iiisur- 
gent Irish, at the barn of Scullabogue, Ire- 
land, in 1798. — Sir Richard Musgrave. 
Massacre of 64 American prisoners at Dart- 
moor, England, (disowned by British Gov- 
ernment.) April 6, 1815. 



MASSACRES, coniiimea. 

suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were mas- 
sacred. — Sir W. Temple. 

Of the unoflending ftlacdonalds of Glencoe, 
May 9, 1691.— See Gle?icoe. 

Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly 
Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to 

MASTER OP THE CEREMONIES. An ofHcer in several of the principal 
courts of Europe. Following the usage in other countries, a master of 
the ceremonies was instituted in England for the more honorable reception 
of the ambassadors and persons of qualitj^ at court, 1 James I. 1603.— 
JBakej-. 

MASTER IN CHANCERY. Owing to the extreme ignorance of Sir Christo- 
pher Hatton, lord Chancellor of England, the first reference in i. cause was 
made to a master, a. d. 1588 ; and the masters have been since chosen from 
among the most learned equity members of the bar. 

!y[ASTER OP THE ROLLS in ENGLAND. An equity judge, so called from 
his having the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and 
recognizances, ^vhich being made into rolls of parchment, gave occasion for 
that name. 

.MATHEMATICS. With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning and 
discipline ; but even then, as now, in a more particular manner, mathema- 
tics were restrained to those arts that more immediately related to num- 
bers and quantity. They were first taught to the Jews, and by them to ths 
Egyptians, so early as 1950 b. c. — Josephus de Antiq. Jwd. 

MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning 
of the day in the Catholic church. Emphatically, the French Matins im- 
ply the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. The Matins of 
Moscoiv, the massacre of prince Demetrius, and all the Poles his adherents, 
at sis o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600. 

MAURITIUS. The Isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, a. d. 
1500 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after 
prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of 
Good Hope they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled until the French 
landed, and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in France. This 
island was taken by the British in 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty 
of Paris in 1814. 

MAUSOLEUJM. Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own bro- 
ther, famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that 
at his death she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, 
and erected to his memory a monument, which, for its grandeur and mag- 
nificence, was called one of the seven wonders of the world. This monu- 
ment she called Mausoleum, a name which has been given to all monuments 
of unusual splendor. She invited all the literary men of her age, and pro- 
posed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her 
husband. The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 b, c. 

MAY. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spring and summer, 
received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in 
respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated ma- 
jores; though others supposed ii, was so called from Maia, the mother of 
Mercury, to whom they offered sacrifices on the first day of it. Numa 
Pompili'us, by adding January and February to the year, made this month 
the fifth, wliich before was the third, 713 b. c. 

MAY-DAY. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of 
Egeria on May-day. May-day has also been inimemorially observed in 



MEC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 419 

England as a rural festival ; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in 
many places i^rofusely decorated with garlands wreathed in honor of the 
day. The late benevolent Mrs. Montague gave, for many years, on May- 
day, an entertainment at her house in Portman-square, to that unfortunate 
class the chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with the good 
English fare of roast-beef and jjlum-pudding, and a dance succeeded. 
Upon their departure, each guest received the donation of a shilling from 
the mistress of the feast. 

MAYNOOTH COLLEGE, Ireland. Founded by act of parliament, and en- 
dowed by a yearly grant voted for its support, and the education of stu- 
dents who are designed for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church 
in Ireland, 35 Geo. III., 1795. It contains 500 students. Permanent endow- 
ment of this college, at the instance of government, to which 30,000^. for 
the enlargement of the buildings, and 26,000Z. annually, were granted by 
parliament, June, 1845. This endowment occasioned much excitement and 
controversy in England. 

MAYOR. The office of mayor arose out of the immunities granted to free 
cities by the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power. 
Maj'or of the palace was a high office in France. In this quality Charles 
Martel ruled with despotic sway, a. d. 735, et seq., imder the last kings of 
the Merovingian dynasty ; his father had previously held this office, and 
had it made hereditary in his family. Mayors are the chief magistrates of 
corporate towns, before whose institution in England, towns were generally 
governed by portreeves. The office of mayor may be properlj^ said to date 
from the reign of Richard I. 

MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 869 
B. c. — Arund. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon after- 
wards ; and were very early known in England. Standards of weights and 
measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London, 
8 Richard L, a. d. 1197. Standards were again fixed in England, 1257. 
They were equalized for the United Kingdom in 1825. 

MECCA. This city is famous as being the birthplace of Mahomet, a. d. 571. 
The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one 
of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually 
retired to perform his devotions ; and where the greatest part of the Koran 
was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, a. d. 604. Two miles from 
the town is the hill where they say Abraham went to offer up Isaac, 
1871 B. c. 

MECHANICS. The time when the simple mechanical powers were first in- 
troduced is so uncertain, and perhaps so little known, that they have been 
ascribed to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology — for 
instance, the axe, the wedge, wimble, &c., are said to be the invention of 
Daedalus. We know nothing of the machinery by which the immense 
masses of stone which are found in some of the ancient edifices were moved 
and elevated. 



The first writing on mechanics, was by 
Aristotle, about - - b. c. 

The Statera Romana invented 

The fundamental property of the lever 
and other inptvuments was demon- 
strated by Archimedes 

The iiand-mill, or quern, was very early 
in use ; the Romans Ibuiid one in 
Yorkshire . . . . 

Cattle mills, inolcz jumentaricB, were 
also ill use by the Romans, and in 
parts of Europe 



The water-mill was probably invented 
in Asia ; the first that was described 
was near one of the dwellings of 
Mithridates - - b. c. 70 

A water-mill is said to have been erect- 
ed on the river Tiber, at Rome - 50 

Floating mills on the Tiber - a. d. 536 

Tide-mills were, many of them, in use 
in Venice about - - - 1078 

Wind-mills were in very general use in 
the twelfth century - - • * * 



420 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[men 



Application of mechani cs to astronomy, . 
parallelogism of forces, laws of mo- 
tion, &c., Newton - - - 1679 

Problem of the catenary with tlie ana- 
lysis, Dr. Gregory - - - 1697 

Spirit level (and many other inven- 
tions), by Dr. Hooke, from 1660 to - 1702 

The Mechanics' Institute in London was 
formed in - - - - 1823 

Mechanics' Institute in New York 
formed - - - - - 1833 



MECHANICS, contimted. 

Saw-mills are said to have been in use 
at Augsburg - - - A. D. 1332 

Theory of the inclined plane investi- 
gated by Cardan, about - - 1540 

Work on statics, by Stevinus - - 1586 

Theory of falling bodies, Galileo - 1638 

Theory of oscillation, Huygens • 1647 

Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren - 1662 

Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, 
Roemer .... 1675 

Percussion and animal mechanics, Bo- 
relli ; he died - - - - 1679 

Mechanics' institutions are now very numerous in the United States and in 
England. 
MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. It 
revolted from Arbaces 820 b. c, and afterwards became an independent 
kingdom, and conquered Persia ; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius the 
Mede, 536 b. c, Media was from that time united to the Persian empire, 
and shared its fate. — Blair; Priestley. 

Revolt of the Medes—B/air - B.C. 820 Cyrus made king of Persia - B.C. 559 
The country was subjected to the As- Astyages deposed by Cyrus - - 550 

- - - 766 



647 
625 



585 
585 



Cyrus made king of Persia - B.C. 

Astyages deposed by Cyrus 

Croisus king of Lydia defeated, and his 
throne seized by Cyrus 

Cyrus takes Babylon ; puts Belshazzar 
to death; and makes Astyages (or 
Darius, the Mede) viceroy 

By the death of Astyages, Cj'rus be- 
comes master of all Persia ; and this 
era is properly the commencement 
of the Persian empire. — Lenglet 



48 



533 



357 



Syrians. — Idem 

Phraortes reigns ; he conquers Persia, 
Armenia, and other countries 

Battle of Rages ; the Assyrians defeat 
the Medes. — Blair 

War with the Lydians ; the hostile ar- 
mies meet; but an eclipse of the sun 
so alarms them, they conclude peace 
without striking a blow - 

The reign of Astyages. — Blair- 

The Medes were a brave people, but they degenerated, and introduced lux- 
ury into Persia. They admitted polygamy, and a man was deemed infamous 
who had less than seven wives, as was also a woman who could not boast 
of at least five husbands. — Aspin. 

MEDICAL LITERATURE in the UNITED STATES. The Medical Repo- 
sitory, commenced at New York, 1797, was the first work of the kind. It 
was conducted by Dr. S. L. Mitchill. 

MEDICINE. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from the 
East, about a. d. 1150. In the early stages of the r)ractice, the preparation 
was principally confined to ecclesiastics in Europe generally, until the close of 
the fifteenth century, or the beginning of the sixteenth. The practice of me- 
dicine is now one of the highest sciences, and in most countries is in the 
hands of the most learned and distinguished men ; and various statutes 
have been enacted to discourage pretenders to the healing art. 

MEDINA, IN Arabia Deserta, famous for the tomb of Mahomet, contained 
in a large mosque, closed with rich curtains and lighted by a vast number 
of rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here 
Mahomet was protected when he fled from Mecca, July 16, a. d. 622. This 
flight gave rise to the remarkable epocha in chronology called the Hegira, 
a word that, in Arabic, denotes, to flee, or quit one's country or friends. 

MEMORY. That faculty of the mind or soul whereby past things are repre- 
sented to us as if they were present. — Pardon. Simonides, grandson of 
Simonides the elder, of Cos, poet and historian, obtained a prize at Olympia, 
for teaching artificial memory, of which he was the inventor, 477 b. c. — 
Arundelian Marbles. The science of mnemonics was made known in Ger- 
many in 1.807. Sec Mnemonics. 

MENDICANT FRIARS. The term was applied to several orders of religious 



RIES ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 421. 

who commenced their ahiis-begging in the thirteenth century, in the ponti- 
ficate of Innocent III. They were confined by a general council, held by 
Gregory X. at Lj^ons, in 1272, to the following four orders — Dominicans, 
Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and other orders 
subsequently branched from them. 

MENSURATION. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids is 
of very early date. The various properties of conic sections were dis- 
covered by Archimedes, to whom the chief advancement in mensuration 
may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c., 
about 218 B. c. 

MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have 
been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; and in his absence Merca- 
tor j)ublished the charts in his own name, 1556. — Pardon. They are, how- 
ever, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these 
charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right an- 
gles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging the degrees of 
latitude as they recede from the equator. 

MERCHANT — from mercans. The name given to high commercial citizens who 
trade abroad. The merchants of London and Amsterdam were accounted 
the most enterprising and richest in the Avorld. An attempt was made by 
queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the House of 
Commons, in 1711 ; but it failed. The Merchant Adventurer's society (see 
Adventurers. Merchant) was established by the duke of Brabant, in 1296 ; it 
extended to England in Edward III.'s reign ; and was formed into an En- 
glish corporation in 1564. — Haydn. 

MERCURY. This substance was known to the ancients, and has been found 
in vast qantities in various countries. The mines in Carniola in Germany 
are the most productive in Europe, and have yielded in some years 1200 
tons ; they were discovered by accident in 1497. The anti-venereal virtues 
of mercury were found by James Carpus, an Italian surgeon, a. d. 1512. — 
Noiov. Diet. The compound termed calomel was first mentioned by Crol- 
lius early in the seventeenth century; the first directions for its preparation 
were given by Beguin, 1608. It was given to patients under inoculation 
for the small-pox in 1745. Pallas congealed mercury by artificial cold in 
1762. Its malleable qualities were discovered by M. Orbelin, of Vienna, 1785, 

MERRY ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric phy- 
sician, wlrose name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry 
VIIL, and who, on some occasions, on account of his facetious manners and 
good humor, appeared at court, 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs, 
and harangue the people, by whom he was called Merry Andrew. The 
name is now given to a buffoon, a zany, or jack-pudding. — L' Estrange. 
Johnson. 

MESSALTANS. A sect whose religious error consisted in adhering to the letter 
of the gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst pro- 
pensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities they refused to work, quoting 
this passage, "Labor not ibr the food that perisheth;" about a. d. 310.— 
Baronius, Annal. 

MESSENIA, now Maura-Matra, a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom 
was commenced by Pohcaon, 1499 b. c. It is celebrated for its long and san- 
guinary wars against Sparta {sqq next article), and once contained a hundred 
cities, most of whose names even are now unlmown. Messenia joined the 
Achaean league 216 b. c. 

MESSENIAN WARS, The celebrated wars between Lacedemon and Messenia. 
The first began 748 b. c, and was occasioned by violence having been offered 



422 THE world's progress. [ MET 

to some Spartan women who had assembled in a temple of deTotion common 
to both nations; the king of Sparta being killed in his efforts to defend the 
females. This dreadful war raged for nineteen years, and at one period made 
so great a carnage, that the Spartan army sent orders home for all the un- 
married women to prostitute themselves to recruit the population. In the 
end Ithome was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to the conquerors. 
The second war was commenced 685 b. c. to throw off the galling Spartan 
yoke, and lasted fourteen years, ending in the defeat of the Messenians Avho 
fled to Sicily. The third took place 465 e. c, it endured ten years, when 
the whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus. 

MESSINA, IN Sicily. So named by the Messinese, who seized this city, then 
called Zancle, 671 b. c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, 
but fell to the Saracens a. d. 829. — Priestley. In the eleventh century Roger 
the Norman took it by surprise, and delivered it from the Mahometan op- 
pression. Great Messinian conspiracy, 1282. The memorable revolt took 
place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake 1693; and nearly depopulated 
by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much by an earthquake ; and 
in Feb. and March, 1783, Avas half destroyed by the same calamity; since 
which it has been handsomely rebuilt. 

METALLURGY. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal Cain is mentioned 
as " an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." The seven metals 
are mentioned by Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel 
in furnaces. The Phoenicians had an extraordinary skill in working me- 
tals. 

METAPHYSICS. This term, literally denoting "after physics," originated 
with Aristotle. What may be denoted the modern metaphysics, cannot be 
traced farther back tJian the fifteenth century — the iieriod when an extraor- 
dinary impulse was- given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly 
called the revival of learning. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from 
one body to another. The first belief in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who 
would eat no animal food, lest they should devour the body into which 
the soul of a deceased friend had passed. They had also an idea, that so 
long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul would not trans- 
migrate ; which accounts for the extraordinary pains they were at in em- 
balming the dead ; a doctrine of Pythagoras, 528 b. c. 

METHODISTS. A large and increasing body of religionists, whose tenets, dis- 
cipline, and designs, are often misunderstood, and of course misrepresented. 
"Our end," says Mr. Benson, in his Apology, " is not to form a sect, or to 
bring people to this or the other speculative opinion, mode of worship, or 
form of church-government, but simply to make them Christians — Christians 
in heart and life, in temper, word, and Avork — such as lived in the early days 
of Christianity, and such as we conceive may still live." The methodists 
may be said to have appeared formally, if not originally at Oxford a. d. 
1729 ; the reverend John Wesley being the first who there introduced me- 
thodism. John and Charles Wesley, and Mr. Whitfield, commenced their 
career by teaching in 1734. The term appears to have been brought forward 
in the days of Puritanism, being suggested by the Latin appellative Metho- 
dist(E, given to a college of physicians in ancient Rome, in consequence ot 
the strict regimen under which they placed their patients. The methodist 
missions were commenced and superintended by Mr. Wesley and Dr. Coke 
in 1769, when two missionaries were sent out to North America. But these 
missions were not reduced to a sj'stem, nor were societies regularly organiz- 
ed for their support, until 1817. 



MID ] ' DICTIONARY OF DaTES. 423 

MEXICO. Discov<;red in a. d. 1518. It was conquered by the Spaniards under 
Cortes, M'hose name is infamous on account of his cruelties to the vanquished, 
A. D. 1521. The mint of Mexico, tlie richest in the* world, was begun in 
1535. This country, like other states in the new world, has recovered its in- 
dependence. Iturbide made emperor. May, 1822. Mexican constitution 
proclaimed by the president Vittoria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot July 19, 
1824. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ratified, April 1825. Titles 
suppressed. May 1826. The expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March, 
1829. Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year. 
Mexican revolution ; the president Guerrero deposed Dec. 23, same year. 
The independence of Mexico, previously recognized by the great European 
powers, also recognized by the emperor of Brazil, June 1830. Civil war 
between Bustamente and Santa Anna, 1832. Santa Anna elected president, 
March 1834. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. Castle of 
San Juan de Ulloa taken by the French, Nov. 27, 1838. This war terminated, 
March 9, 1839. Civil war with change of leaders at various times. Santa 
Anna displaced Bustamente again, Oct. 6, 1841. Insurrection of general Pa- 
redes against Santa Anna, Nov. 5, 1844, succeeds without bloodshed, and 
Herrera made president, Dec, 1844. Paredes overturns Herrera, Dec. 1845. 
War with the United States, 1846 : Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, 
May 8, 1846 ; and subsequently at Matamoras. Santa Fe captured, Aug. 23, 
and Monterey, Sept. 24, 1846. Mexican congress authorized their govern- 
ment to raise $15,000,000 for the war against the United States, upon the 
mortgage or sale of church property, Jan. 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, 
Feb. 22, 1847. Vera Cruz surrendered to general Scott, March 29, 1847. 
Battle of Cerro Gordo, Api'il 18. General Paredes landed at Vera Cruz in 
disguise, Aug. 14, 1847. Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20, 
1847 ; of Chepultepec, Sept. 12. Surrender of city of Mexico to American 
general Scott, Sept. 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the United States, rati- 
fied at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. Paredes excites a revolt at Guanaxuato, 
June 15. Mexico evacuated by the American troops. June 12. Herrera be- 
comes president, July 6. Bustamente defeats Paredes, July 18. Vera Cruz 
surrendered by the United States, Aug. 1. See War of the United States and 
Mexico. Signor de la Rosa first Mexican minister to the United States after 
the war, presented his credentials, Dec. 2, 1848. 

MEZZOTINTO. A peculiar manner of engraving representing figures on cop- 
per, received its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of it 
is generally ascribed to prince Rupert, a. d. 1648; but baron Heinikin states 
that colonel de Siegen engraved a large and admirable print of Amelia Eliza- 
beth of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643. See Engraving. 

MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit 
in 1647. Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, were converted 
to the Catholic faith by the Jesuits. The territorry ceded to England by 
the peace of 1763; made a separate territory of the United States, in 1805; 
admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. During the war of 1812-13 the 
territory was gained for a time bv the British, but it was recovered by gen- 
eral Harrison. Population in 1810', was 4.528 ; in 1820, 9,048 ; in 1830, 81,639; 
in 1840, 212,267. 

MICROSCOPES. Invented neai-ly at the same time in Italy and Holland, a. d 
1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of re- 
fraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded 
to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In 
Eng;lajid, great improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker, 
F. R. S.. who wrote two treatises upon it, about 1763. — fiiog. Diet. 

MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the He- 



424 THE would's progress. " [Mil 

brews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460 
B. c. is styled by some the father of midwifery, as well as of physic* ]t ad- 
vanced under Celsus, who flourished a. d. 37, and of Galen, who lived a. d, 
131. In England midwifery became a science about the period of the insti- 
tution of the College of Physicians, K) Henry VII., 1518. The celebrated 
Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; and after 
his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc 
affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-midwives goes no farther 
back than the first lying-in of Madame de la Vallifere, mistress of Louis XIV., 
1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted 
with great secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the 
subsequent labors of this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwives 
after came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them. 

MILAN. The capital of this celebrated dukedom, the ancient Liguria, is re- 
puted to have been built by the Gauls about 408 b. c. It submitted to the 
Romans 222 b. c. ; was formed into a republic a. d. 1221 ; and lastly was 
governed by dukes from a. d. 1395, imtil 1505, when it was conquered by 
Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the first who took the title of duke of Milan, 
about 1390. The French were expelled from Milan, by Charles V. of Ger- 
many, about 1525 ; and this emperor gave it to his son, Philip II. Milan 
was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748. 
Seized by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799 ; 
but regained by the French Maj^ 31^ the next year. This city was made the 
capital of the late kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned 
with the Iron cro^\m at Milan, May 26, 1805. The celebrated Milan decree 
of Napoleon against all Continental intercourse with England, declaring 
England in a state of blockade, was issued from this city, Dec. 17, 1807. 
Put under military occupation in consequence of disturbances, Sept. 8, 1847. 
Collision of the Milanese with the Austrian soldiers, Jan. 1, 1848 ; followed 
by conciliations. Martial law i^roclaimed in Lombardy, Feb. 1848 ; the gov- 
ernment threatens the jDcople with the fate of the Poles. The people revolt- 
ed and expelled the Austrians, and Charles Albert of Sardinia entered 
Milan in the popular cause, March 23, 1848. A vote taken in Lombardy on 
proposed union with Piedmont: — 561,002 in favor of it; 681 for postponing 
it till the end of the war, June 9, 1848. Vicenza surrenders to the Austri- 
ans under Radetsky, June 10. The duke of Genoa repulses the Austrians 
at Rivoli, July 1. Milan capitulates to the Austrians, Aug. 4, 1848. 

MILITARY OR MARTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle, 
but entirely arbitrarj'. and in truth, no law; but sometimes indulged, rather 
than allowed, as law. — Su- MaU/iew Hale. Martial law was several times 
proclaimed in Great Britain during rebellions. It was almost general through- 
out Ireland in 1798. The last proclamation of martial law was in that coun- 
try, July 26, 1803. Paris was under martial law for several weeks after the 
insurrection of June, 1848. 

MILITIA. The standing national militia of Great Britain is traced by most 
historians to king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his sub- 
jects soldiers, a. d. 872 to 901. The feudal niilitary tenures became involved 
in this force. The first commission of arraj'' to raise a militia in England 
was in 1422. In the United States the laws relating to the militia and the 



* Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by HierO' 
pholus, her lather, the art of Midwifery, and when employed, always discovered her sex to hei 
patients. This brought her into so much practice, that the males of her profession, who were now 
out of employment, accused her, before tlie Areopagu.?, of corruption. She confessed her se.-c to the 
judges, and a law was made to empower all free-born women to leam midwifery. — Hyg.fa. 274. 



MIN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 425 

appointment of officers are different in the different States. See Encyclo- 
pedia Americana. Tlie aggregate militia force of the United States, as re- 
ported in 1848, was 1,888.538, but as the returns in some instances were 
for former years, the number jirobably reached, in 1850, at least to 
2,100,000. As the regular army has always been small (in time of peace 
about 8000) the republic has relied chiefly on the militia in time of war. 

MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as the 
road by which heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed that Juno ac- 
cidentally gave suck to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules, 
who, while she slept, was laid by her side ; but perceiving who he was, she 
threw him from her, and the heavens were thus marked by the wasted milk. 
Democritus was the first who taught that the via lactea was occasioned by a 
confused multitude of stars, about 428 b. c. 

MILLENNIUM. This doctrine supposed that the' world would end at the ex- 
piration of the seven thousandth year from the creation ; and that during 
the last thousand years Christ and the saints would reign upon earth. It 
was generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries. It was 
propagated by Papias, Justin-Martyr, and many others. The Millennium 
was grounded upon a doubtful text in the Apocalypse, to the effect that our 
blessed Saviour should reign with the faithful upon earth after the resurrec- 
tion, before the final completion of beatitude. — Burnet. 

MILLINER. Defined bj' Shakspeare and Johnson as a seller of ribands and 
dresses for women, a very ancient occupation ; the term is supposed to be 
derived from Milan. There are men-milliners in England, and the adoption 
of such a trade by the male sex has been strongly and justlj" censured. In 
1810, men-milliners and other classes of an epicene character were very 
strongly censured in the Society of Arts. Young females are employed at 
all seasons, and in all weathers, to carry bandboxes through the streets, ex- 
posed to the insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious example, while 
the perfumed coxcomb [" He was perfumed like a milliner." — Shakspeare.'] 
measures ribands safely at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in lady 
phrases to females of distinction.* — Butler. 

MILLS. The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn, was the mortar. 
Moses forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, would be 
like taking a man's life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the 
Britons previously to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced 
the water-mill. See article Mechanics. 

MINES. Those of Great Britain are very numerous, rich, and of various kinds. 
Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of Eng- 
land. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced, 
occurs 4*7 Henry III., 1262. — Ending. It related to mines containing gold, 
together with copper, in Devonshire. In the United States, iron, coal, lime, 
and salt exist in great abundance, in various States : lead mines in Mis- 
souri are very productive. Gold mines have been found in Virginia, North 
Carolina, and Georgia, but their supply is but moderate. See Coal, Cop- 
per, Tin, Gold, c^c. 

MINNESOTA. A territory of the United States lying between 40° 80' north 
lat.. and between 91° 10' and 102° west long., inhabited chiefly by the Sioux. 
Indians. First explored by the French ; began to be settled by emigrants 
from the United States about 1845-6. 

* I look upon a man-milliner not only as one of the most unworthy members of society, but as 
one of the most injurious. When I hear one of these persons haransumg upon the merits of muslin, 
or the becoming color of a riband, anger will mingle itself with tlie leeUng of contempt ; for the 
employment that degrades this man might have preserved a woman from prostitution. — Dr. 
SoiUhey. 



426 THE world's progress. [ MIS 

MINORCA. This island and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearides. 
Minorca was captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in 
August 1708, and was confirmed to the British bj- the treaty of Utrecht in 
1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in June 1756. Admiral 
Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of the public mind, and to the safety 
of ministers, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the 
enemy. See Byng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763. 
Besieged by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured 
by the British, without the loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798 ; but was given up 
at the peace of 1802. 

MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to 
divert their copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the glee- 
men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about a. d. 1560. John of 
Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign 
of Henry VIII. they intruded Avithout ceremony into all companies, even at 
the houses of the nobilit}^ In Elizabeth's reign they had, however, sunk 
into neglect. 

MINT OF THE UNITED STATES established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at 
New Orleans, 1838 ; at Charlotte, N.C., 1837; atDahlonega, 1838. SeeCoining. 

MIRRORS, In ancient times mirrors were made of metal ; and from a passage 
in the Mosaic writings we learn tliat the mirrors used by the Jewish women 
were made of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced bj^ Praxiteles, 328 
B. c. See Looking Glasses. 

MISS. In the seventeenth century, the epithet Miss applied to females was 
considered a term of reproach. Miss Cross who is i^articularly noticed in 
Hayne's epilogue to Farquhar's Love in a Bottle, about 1782, was the first 
actress announced as Miss. — GaWs Lives of the Players. 

MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St. 
Francis, St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America. 
The Jesuits had missions to China {ivhich see), and to most other parts of 
the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was 
a Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV., in 1706. But the Moravian 
Brethren may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions, 
about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov. 
4, 1794 ; and it has since been the parent of many benevolent institutions. 
The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, formed 1810 ; 
first mission at Bombay, 1813 ; at Ceylon, 1816 ; to Choctaws, 1817 ; Che- 
rokees, 1820. The Board has an annual income from voluntary contribu- 
tions of about S200,000. The statistics of its operations in various parts 
of the world are given in its annual reports. The contributions of this 
Board and its missionaries to the fund of geographical and ethnographical 
science, to say nothing of religion and civilization, have been very important. 
The missions of the Baptists. Episcopalians, Methodists, &c., are also nu- 
merous. American Baptist Board of Missions, founded 1814. Board of 
Missions of General Assembly (Presbyterian), 1818. Methodist Mission- 
ary Society, 1819. American Home Missionary Society, 1826. See Benevo- 
lent Societies. 

MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Nat- 
chez, and claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony destroyed by the 
Indians. The country ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Part 
of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern part to Florida. The territory, 
together with Alabama, constituted the ■■ Mississippi Territory" until 1817, 
when it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 45,929 : 
in 1830, 136,806; in 1840, 375.651, including 195,211 slaves. 



MOG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 427 

MISSOURI, one of the United States. Was included wdth Louisiana in the 
purchase from the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the French 
in 1764:, but was little more than a trading post until 1804, when the terri- 
torial government was formed. Missouri admitted into the Union as a State 
in 1821, after a long debate on slavery, ending in the Missouri Compromise, 
which prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Mis- 
souri. Population in 1810, 19,833 ; in 1830, 140,074 ; in 1840, 383,702, includ- 
ing 58,240 slaves. 

MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in November, 1716. The cele- 
brated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced 
about that period, exploded in 1720 ; at which time, the nominal capital is 
said to have amounted to 100,000,000^. See Law's Bubble. 

MITHRIDATE. A physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed 
to be the oldest compound kno^vn to us at the present day. It was invented 
by Mithridates II. the king of Pontus, about 70 b. c. It was formerly 
thought to be a great antidote against poison ; but though it is now out 
of date for that purpose, it is still used as an opiate, and is one of the 
capital medicines of our shops. 

MITHRIDATIC WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100.000 Romans, 86 b. c. 
and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the devastation of human 
life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having 
taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of 
Asia, crying out as he rode, " I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He 
ultimately dispatched him, by ordering melted gold to be poured down his 
throat, which was done in derision of his avarice, 85 b. c. — Lenglet. 

MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been worn by 
the high-priest among the Jews. Among the primitive Christians, young 
women who professed a state of virginity, and solemnly consecrated thereto, 
wore a purple or golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, which according 
to the solemnity to be performed, or festival day it is worn on, is more or less 
magnificent. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the council of 
Lyons, in 1245, they were appointed to Avear hats, which remains to this day. 

MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world. 
The art of assisting memory, by getting by heart, was introduced by Simon- 
ides the younger, 477 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics 
have been elaborately treated ; and the Memoria Teclmica of Dr. Grey is an 
esteemed work on the subject. The science of mnemonics, as we now have 
it, was announced in Germany, in 1806-7 ; but it had been previously no- 
ticed in the London monthly periodicals. 

MODENA. Erected into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the 
French, 1796. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions 
were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Fran- 
cis of Este was restored in 1814. Insurrection here, Feb. 5, 1831. The 
archduke escaped ; but the Austrian troops soon afterwards entered and 
restored the deposed authorities. The people revolt and imprison the duke, 
March 20, 1848. The troops of Tuscany occupy Modena, March 24 ; Provi- 
sional government appointed, April 9, 1848. 

MOGULS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah. His son, 
Turk, they say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards 
known as Turks, Tartars, and Moguls. The first conqueror of the Mogul 
empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died a. d. 1236. Timour 
Beg became Great Mogul by conquest, 1399. Khouli Khan, the famous 
sophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the moguls, carried 
away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event many of the 
nabobs have made themselves independent. See India. 



428 THE world's PROGilESS. [ MO^ 

MONARCHY. The most ancient was that of the Assj-rians, founded soon 
after the Deluge. See Assyria. Historians reckon four grand, or ahnost 
universal raonarchies, — the Assj^rian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman. Set 

them respectively. 

MONASTERIES. The first founded was, according to some authorities, in a. 
D. 270 ; and according to others, in a. d. 305. The suppression of monastic 
houses has been frequent, even in Catholic countries ; and many religious 
communities have bowed to the variable notions of mankind regarding re- 
ligion, and to the altered state of the world. Constantine IV., among 
other persecutors, commanded a vast number of friars and nuns to appear 
at Ephesus : he there ordered them to change their black habits for white, 
and to destroy their images. They explained that this, on account of the 
vows they had taken, was impossible ; whereupon he directed that their 
eyes should be put out, and that they should be banished, forfeiting their 
various monasteries, which he sold for the uses of the state. When St. 
Austin arrived in England a. d. 596, Ethelbert of Kent pave him an idol 
temple without the walls of his capital, as a burial-place for him and his 
successors, which Avas converted into the first monastery. Various monastic 
houses were suppressed in England in various reigns ; and a vast number in 
1515. But the general dissolution took place in the reign of Henry VHI. 
1534-9. The abbey lands were afterwards granted to numerous courtiers, 
whose descendants enjoy them to this day. 

MONEY. It is mentioned as a medium of commerce in the 23d chapter of Ge- 
nesis, when Abraljam purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year 
of the world 2139. In profane historJ^ the coinage of money is ascribed to 
the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it 
having been coined in the temple of Juno-Moneta, 269 b. c. Money was 
made of diflerent ores, and even of leather and other articles, both in an- 
cient and modern times. It was made of pasteboard, by the Hollanders so 
late as 1574. Silver has increased more than thirty times its value since 
the Norman conquest, viz. a pound in that age was three times the quantity" 
that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any commo- 
dity. See articles, Coin ; Gold ; Silver ; Copper ; Mint, (^c. 

MONK. The first is^aid to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the de- 
serts to avoid the Decian persecution about a. d. 250. St. Anthony is sup- 
posed by other authorities to have been the first example of a regular 
luonastic life, a. d. 305, soon after which time monks began to associate. 
St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome in 341. See Abbeys. 

MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son 
of Charles II. was banished England for a conspiracy in 1683. He invaded 
England at Lyme, June 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on 
the 20th of the same month. Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5 ; and 
was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. The county of Monmouth, 
from which he was named, was made an English county by Henry VIII. 
about 1535. 

MONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England, 
that parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence 
mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were 
further suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I.;^ 1622 ; and were 
totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future created, 
as was previously the custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles I., 1G40. — Ander- 
son's History of Commerce. 

MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, an extra- 



MOR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 429 

ordinary enthusiast, about a. d. 171. He was reputed to have the gift of 
prophecy, and proclaimed himself the comforter promised by Christ, con- 
demned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of mar- 
riage, forbade to avoid martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three 
lents ; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, be- 
fore the close of the second century. — Cave's Hist. Lit. 

MONTREAL. Surrendered to the English by the French in 1760. It was 
taken by the Provincials in the American war of Independence, November 
12, 1775, and was retaken by the British, June 15, 1776. The church, Je- 
suits' college, prison, and many buildings burnt down, June 6, 1803. Great 
military aftray, Sept. 29, 1833. Riot about the " Rebellion Losses " Act ; 
the parliament house burnt by the mob, 1819. 

MOON. The full moon was held favorable .for any undertaking by the Spar- 
tans, and the Greeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of 
conjunction of the sun or moon, as seasons most favorable to marriage. 
Opacity of the moon, and true causes of lunar eclipses, was taught by 
Thales, 640 b. c. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the 
moon, 79 b. c. — Diog. Laert. A map of the moon was first taken at Dant- 
zic, A. D. 1647. The strength of moon-light at the full moon is 90,000 times 
less than the light of the sun. — Dr. Smith. It is 300,000 times less. — 
Bouguer. 

MOORS. They first invaded Spain, a.d. 173. — Univ. Hist. The Saracens in 
Spain beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who 
seized the dominions they came to protect, and subdued the Saracens, a. d. 
1091. Alphonsus I. of Nav.srre, defeated them in many battles, 1118, et seq. 
The Moors began the kingdom of Granada, being their last refuge from the 
power of the Christians, 1238. Alphonsus XI. of Leon and Castile, slew 
200,000 Moors in one battle ; three leagues roimd the country was covered 
with the dead, 1327. The power of this people was overthrown by Ferdi- 
nand v., who conquered Granada, 1492. Philip III. banished them to the 
number of 900,000, confiscating their property, 1610. — Priestleij. 

MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of our duty and felicity, the science 
of ethics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally re- 
gai'ded as the fother of moral philosophy, about 430 b. c. And Grotius is 
esteemed by many writers as the father of moral philosophy in modern 
times, about a. d. 1023. — Bate, i^c. 

MORAVIANS. United Brethren. A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in, 
it is said, the fifteenth centur}^, which some doubt ; while the Brethren say 
that their sect is derived from the Greek church in the ninth century. They 
appeared in England about 1737, introduced by count Zinzendorf, "who died 
at Chelsea, in June 1760. They settled at Bethlehem, Penn., 1741. In order 
to the conversion of the heathen world, these persevering brethren formed 
settlements also in Greenland, the Cape, East and West Indies, and 
other climes. The Moravians led the way to the Scriptural missions now 
so general. 

MORGARTEN, Battle or, the most memorable, as well as extraordinary and 
glorious in the annals of Switzerland; 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrian.-f. 
commanded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated. They 
seized upon the heights of Morgarten, Avhich overlooked the defile througli 
which the enemy Vv'as to enter their territory from Zug, and thus achie\-e(l 
their victory, Nov. 15, 1315. 

MORMONS. Tlie pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to ",Ioe 
Smith " is said to have been made in the state of New York, about 1835. 
Surrender of :i body of 700 Mormons xmder arms, with their leaders Joe 



430 THE world's PROGRES-S. [ Mxn» 

Smith, Rigdon, &c., to the Missouri miUtia, under Gen. Atchinson, Oct. 28, 
1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail by a mob, June 27, 1844. 
The Mormon temple at Nauvoo, Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Socialists, 
and the Mormons emigrated to Desseret and California, 1348-9. 

AIOROCCO. Anciently Mauritania. From its early possession by the RomaniJ 
it underwent various revolutions. About a. d. 1116, AbdalJah, a leader 
of a sect of Mahometans, founded a dynasty which ended in the last 
sovereign's defeat in Spain. About this pei'iod, 1202, Fez and other provinces 
shook off their dependence; but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1650, 
subdaed them, and formed the empire of Morocco. Hostilities with France 
provoked by Abdel-Kader, the heroic and indomitable ameer of Algiers, 
commence May, 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; peace concluded, 
and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 16, 1844. Abdel-Kader taken 
prisoner by the French and carried to France, 1846. 

MORTARS, A short gun with an extraordinary large bore, and close chamber, 
used for throwing bombs, first made in England in 1543. The celebrated 
mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August, 1816. 

MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156 ; was 
taken by Tamerlane 1382 ; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the 
Tartars, whose last attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This 
city was entered by the French, Sept, 14, 1812, and the Russian governor, 
Rostochin, ordered that it should be set on fire in five hundred places at 
once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses wei-e biirnt to the 
ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus deprived of quar- 
ters, evacuated Moscow Oct 19, and it was re-entered by the Russians Oct. 
22, following. This city has been since rebuilt. 

MOSKWA, Battle op, between the French and Russians. See Borodino. 

MOSS-TROOPERS. These \vere a desperate sort of plunderers, secreting 
themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland, defiling women, and 
perpetrating the most savage euormities, as well as minor mischiefs, extirpa- 
ted A. D. 1609. 

MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XI. by pope Paul II., 
1469. It has been justlj' remarked, that never was the title or name of 
Christian given to a prince more unworthily bestowed, or less deserved. 

MOTTOES, ROYAL. Dicu ct man Droit was first used by Richard I., a. d. 1193. 
The Bohemian crest, viz. three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich Men, "I 
serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, 
the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 1346. Honi soit qui mat y 
jiense, was made the motto of the Garter. 1349-50. Je mainticndrai, "I will 
maintain,'" was adopted by William III., 1688. And Semper cadcm was or- 
dered by queen Anne to be used as her motto. 

MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to 
wash nor anoint themselves during the time of mourning. The exhibition 
of grief for a friend lasted for seven days ; and upon extraordinary occasion? 
it lasted a month. The Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief for 
the dead by many public abstinences. The ordinary color for mourning in 
Europe is black ; in China it is white ; in Turkey, violet ; in Ethiopia, brown ; 
and it was white in Spain, until a. d. 1498. — Herrera. 

MUNSTER, Treaty op, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden; Spstin 
continuing the w^ar against the former kingdom. By this peace, the principle 
of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized. Signed at Munster. 
Oct. 24, 1648. 



Mas J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 43'I 

MURDER. The highest offence against the law of nature. A court of Ephetse 
was estabHshed by Demophoon for the trial of murder, 1179 b. c. The Per- 
sians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the 
Heptarchy, murder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VIH.'s 
time, the crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers were allowed 
benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, or petit treason, vaay happen 
in three ways ; by a servant killing his master ; a wife her husband ; and 
an ecclesiastical person his superior, statute 25 Edward 111., 1350. The 
enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful com- 
mission has been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instance 
The act whereby the murderer should be executed on the day next but one 
after his conviction, was repealed 7 William IV., July 1836. — Haydn. 

MUSEUM. Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexandria, like the Pryta- 
neum of Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained 
by the public, because of their considerable services to the commonwealth. 
The foundation of this establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
who here placed his library, about 284 b. c. See British Museum, ^c. 

MUSIC. Luci'etius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds, in 
hollow reeds. Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers 
of Tubal Cain. Cameleon Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And 
Zarlino to the sound of water. It is, however, agreed .that music was first 
reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 b. c. The flute, and harmony or concord in 
music was invented by Hyagnis, 1506. — Arnold. Marbles, Vocal choruses of 
men are first mentioned 556 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. Pythagoras maintained that 
the motions of tlie twelve spheres miist produce delightful sounds inaudible 
to mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a 
Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel 
was enticed from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of her 
melody : and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed suflicient author- 
ity to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the third 
century. 

F.USIC AL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Guide Aretin, 
a Benedictine monk of Arezzo. a. d. 1025. — Blair. The notes at present 
used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by 
Palestrina about 1515. Gaffurius of Lodi read lectures on musical composi- 
tion in the sixteenth century, and they effected great improvement in the 
science. The Itahan style of composition was introduced into these countries 
about 1616. 

MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS, England. The Ancient Academy of Music was in- 
stituted in 1710. It originated with numerous eminent performers and gen- 
tlemen to promote the study of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was 
established in 1741. and o|her musical societies followed. The Royal Society 
of Music arose from the principal nobility and gentry uniting to promote the 
performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. Royal Academy of Mu- 
sic established 1822. 

MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish 
historians state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot-soldier 
with these weapons. They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1521. In- 
troduced generally into the English army, and bows and arrows laid aside, 
12 Henry VIII. 1521.— C«rfc. It was the duke of Alva Avho first brought the 
musket into use in the Low countries, 1569. — Branstone. 

MUSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so 
called as not being bare but having a downy nap on its surface resembling 
moss, which the French call mous.se. According to others, it was first brought 



432 THE world's progress. [myt 

from Mousol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn in Eng- 
land in 1670. — Anderson. They were manufactured in great perfection in 
England in 1778. 

MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason or 
felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. An- 
ciently, a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked, 
on his back, on the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upon 
his body ; in this situation he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one 
day, and three draughts of stagnant water the next, and so on alternately 
until he died. For a very memorable instance of this punishment in a. d. 
1605, see article Pressing to Death. By statute 12 George III. judgment is 
awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if they were convicted or 
confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the 
Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778. Another on a charge of burglary, 
at Wells, 1792. At Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding, 
Aug. 21, 1^0\.— Phillips. 

MUTINY ON BOARD U. S. Brig SOMERS, commander A. S. Mackenzie: mid- 
shipman Spencer and two seamen hung, Dec. 1. 1842. 

MUTINY or the BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. For particulars see Bounty. 

MYCALE, Battle op, fought September 22, 479 b. c, between the Greeks and 
Persians ; being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and 
slain at Platea. The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just 
returned from an unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were 
completely defeated, some thousands of them slaughtered, their camp burnt, 
and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops and sailed back to Sa- 
mos with an immense bootJ^ 

MYCENAE. A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty 
stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidse. Perseus 
removes from Argos to Mycenas, and reigns, 1313 b. c. Mycense destroyed 
by the Argives, 568 b. c. 

MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an in- 
stitution of the priesthood to extend their own influence ; so that all max- 
ims in morality, tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt 
up in a veil of allegory and mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis 
and Osiris sprung those of Bacchus and Ceres among the Greeks. The 
Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 b. c. 
The laws were — 1. To honor parents ; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits 
of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civil- 
ization of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries. 
They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius, a. d. 389. 

MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the 
authentic tradition concerning the Creation had been lost or adulterated ; 
and persons who had rendered themselves renowned as kings or leaders in 
this life, and whose achievements had dazzled the benighted understanding 
of men living in a state of nature, were sxipposed to be more than mortal, 
and therefore after death the multitude were easily taught to reverence them 
with divine honors. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after forgetting the in- 
visible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and moon ; and 
then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the passions 
of their own minds, which they embodied under s.ymbolical representations, 
and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed to 
have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 b. c. ; and Cadmus, 
the worship of tlie Egyptian and Phosnician deities, among the Greeks, 1493 



nap] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



433 



N. 



NAEONASSER, Era of. This era received its name from the celebrated prince 
of Babylon, and began Feb. 26, 747 b. c. To find the Julian year on which 
the year of Nabonasser begins, subtract the year, if before Christ, from 747; 
if after Christ, add to it 748. 

NAMES. Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it 
to parents to give happy names to their children ; and the Pythagoreans 
taught that the minds, actions, and successes of men were according to their 
names, genius, and fate. The popes changed their names at their exalta- 
tion to the pontificate, ," a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose name 
till then was Swine-snout, a. d. 687." — Platina. Onuphrius refers it to John 
Xn., 956 ; and gives as a reason, that it was done in imitation of Sts. Peter 
and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to 
change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons of 
Henry II. of France. The}'^ were christened Alexander and Hercules ; but 
at their confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It 
is usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new 
names, to show they are about to lead a new life, and have renounced the 
world, their family, and themselves. See Surnames. 

NAJVIUR. Ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht. It was 
garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town to the United Provinces in 1715. 
Namur M'as taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781, 
the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again taken 
by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year ; but 
they regained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered it 
up to the Allies, in 1814. 

NANTES, Edict of. See Edict. 

NAPLES The continental division of the kingdom of the two Sicilies. Naples 
was a part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth cen- 
tury it became a prey to the Goths, and afterwards to the Lombards ; and 
the Saracens, Normans, and French, also successively had possession of this 
country. 



The Goths having become masters of I 
Naples and of Sicily, are expelled by 
Belisarius, general of the Eastern 
empire - - - a. d. 537 ; 

The Lombards next get possession of 
Naples, and are dispossessed by Char- 
lemagne .... 800 

Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, 
king of France, obtains the crown 
from the pope, to the exclusion of the 
rightful heir, Conradin, who is be- 
headed, aged sixteen years - - 1266 

The French becoming hated by the Si- 
cilians, a general massacre of the in- 
vaders takes place, one Frenchman 
only escaping. See Sicilian Vespers 

March 30, 1282 

Peter of Arragon reigns - - - 1282 

The two crowns disjoined - - 1303 

Charles Durazzo, becoming king of 
Hungary, is murdered there by order 
of the queen regent, in her presence - 1386 

For this murder she is taken out of her 
carriage, and drowned in the river 
Boseth - - - - . 1386 

Sicily again unhed to Naples, and the i 

kings ever sinro called kins of the I 

Two Sicilies . . ~: - U42 ' 

19 



Taken from the French and annexed to 
SiJain 1504 

The tyranny of the Spaniards leads to 
an insurrection, excited by Masaniello, 
a fisherman, who in fifteen days raises 
an army of 200,000 men - -1647 

This insurrection subsides, and Masa- 
niello is murdered - - - 1647 

Attempt of the duke of Guise to possess 
the crown - - - 1647 

The kingdom completely conquered by 
prince Eugene - - - 1707 

Discovery of the ruins of Herculaneum. 
See Hercidcmewn - - - 1711 

Naples ceded to the emperor by the 
treat); of Radstadt, 1714 ; Sicily - 1720 

Both kingdoms are recovered by the 
crown of Spain - - - 1734 

And Charles, the son of Philip of Spain, 
reigns - - - - - 1735 

Reign of Ferdinand IV. - - - 1759 

His flight on the approach of the French 
republicans - - Jan. 14, 1799 

Nelson appears, Naples is retaken, and 
the king restored - - July 13, 1799 

It is again taken by the French, April 7, 1801 

Dreadful earthquake felt throughout 



434 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[NAT 



NAPLES, continued. 

the kingdom, and thousands perish 

July 26, 1805 
Treaty oifensive and defensive between 

France and Naples - Oct. 8, 1805 

Ferdinand is again driven from Naples, 

and Joseph Bonaparte is crowned 

king - - - Feb. 6, 1806 

Jcseph abdicates for the crown of Spain 

June 1, 1808 
The crown is transferred to Joachim 

Murat - - - July 1, iSOS 

Naples is surrendered to a British fleet, 

and Ferdinand re-enters - June 17, 1815 
Execution of Joachim Murat - Oct. 15, 1815 
Revolutionary movement, headed by 

general Pepe - - July 15, 1820 

Suppression of the Carbonari Sept 16, 1820 
Reign of Francis I. - - -1826 

And of Ferdinand 11. - Nov. 8, 1830 

Commencement of the dispute relative 

to the sulphur monopoly (which is 

afterwards amicably adjusted) 

March 15, 1S40 



Demonstration in favor of Pius IX. and 
reform, iired upon at Naples, and ar- 
rests made - - Dec. 15, 1847 

Sanguinary disorders at Messina Jan. 4, 1848 

Rebellion at Palermo, &c. - Jan. 12, 1848 

Palermo bombarded - Jan. 13-19, 1848 

The king signed a constiti.i:ion Jan. 28, 1848 

Rlessina expelled the Neapohtan gar- 
rison - - - -Feb. 22, 1&18 

The parliament of Sicily declares that 
island independent ; Messina bom- 
barded by the Neapolitan fleet Ap. 3, 1848 

The national guard raises barricades at 
Naples - - - May 14, 1848 

The people put down by the king's 
troops ; 144(3 killed - May 15, 1845 

The Sicilian parliament elects the duke 
of Genoa as king of Sicily - July 10, 1848 

Messina bombarded and taken by the 
Neapolitan troops - Sept. 2, 1848 

New constitution conceded to Sicily 

March 6, 1849 

Cataniabombarded and reduced Apr. 5, 1849 



iVARVA, Battle of, in which Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated 
by the renowned Charles XII. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. The 
army of Peter is said to have amounted to 100,000 men, while the Swedish 
army did not much exceed 20,000 : fought Nov. 30, 1700. 
NASEBY, Battle op, between Charles I. and the parliament army under Fair- 
fax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by 
lord Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale 
the left, and the king himself headed the body of reserve. The victory 
was with the parliament forces, and was decisive of the fate of the unfortu- 
nate Charles, who was obliged to abandon the field to his enemies, losing all 
his cannon and baggage, and 5000 of his army were made prisoners, June 
14, 1645. 
NATIONAL DEBT op ENGLAND. The first mention of parliamentary secu- 
rity for a debt of the nation, occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present 
national debt commenced in the reign of William III. It had amounted, in 
the year 1697, to about five millions sterling, and the debt was then thought 
to be of alarming magnitude. 
In 1702, On the accession of queen 
Anne, the debt amounted 
to - - - - ^14,000,000 
In 1714, On the accession of Geo. 

I. it amounted to - 54,000,000 
In 1749, Geo. II. ; after the Spa- 

nist war, it amounted to 78,000,000 
In 1763, George HI. : end of the 7 
years' war, it amounted 
to . . - - 139,000,000 
In 1786, Three years after the Ame- 
rican war, it amounted to 268,000,000 
In 1798, The civil and foreign war, 

it amounted to - ■ 462,000,000 

NATIONAL DEBT op the UNITED STATES, at different times. 

In 1791 the debt was - - - $75,463,476 In 1830 the debt was - - S4S,565'406 
In 1800 " " - ■ - - 82,976,294 In 1835 " " - - - .37,733 
In 1810 " " - . - 53,173,217 In 1839 » « . . 11,983,733 
In 1815 " " - - - • 99.833,660 In 1845 " ■' - - - 16.801,647 
In 1816 " " - - - 127,334,934 In 1848 " " ,- - 65,804,450 
In 1820 " " - - - - 91,015,566 

NATURALIZATION. It is defined to be " the making a foreigner or alien a 
denizen or freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were, 



In 1802, Close of the French Re- 
volutionary wax-, it a- 
mounted to - .£571,000,000 

In 1814, Close of the war against 

Bonaparte - - - 865,000,000 

In 1817, When the Irish and Eng- 
lish exchequers were 
consolidated - - 848 282,477 

In 1830, Total amount of the 
funded and unfunded 
debt - . - - 840,184,022 

Li 1840. Total amount of ditto - 789,578,000 

In 1845; Funded debt - - - 768,789,241 



NAV j 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 43i 



both a subject and a native of a king or countrj'^, that by nature he did not 
belong to." The first act of naturalization in England passed in 1437 ; and 
various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns from that time, 
several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the natural- 
ization of the Jews passed in 1753, but it was repealed in the following year, 
on the petition of all the cities in England. See United States. 

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY of FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abbe 
Si^yes, the states of France constituted themselves into the National Assem- 
bly, June 16, 1789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by 
order of the king ; upon which the deputies of the Tiers Etat repaired to 
the Jeit de Paume, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had 
digested a constitution for France. On the 2d they met at the church of 
St. Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 1792. See next article. 

NATIONAL CONVENTION of FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of the 
Tuileries, Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gr^oire, 
at the head of the National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that 
that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then decreed, "That the 
citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being 
met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare, that 
the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a 
a new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed 
at the Little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directory. 

NATIONAL GALLERY, London. The foundation of this great institution 
was the purchase, by the British government, for the public service; of the 
Angerstein collection of pictures, whose number did not much exceed forty. 
They were purchased of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822 ; and the 
first exhibition of them took place in Pall Mall, in May 1824. Sir G. Beau- 
mont, Mr. Howell Carr, and many other gentlemen, as well as the British 
Institution, contributed many fine pictures ; and the collection has been 
augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The present edi- 
fice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkins, and was completed 
and opened in 1837. 

NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the 
first upon record, 1263 b. c. — Dio Frcsnoy. The first sea-fight on record is 
that between the Corinthians and Corcyreans, 664 b. c. — Blair. The fol- 
lowing are among the most celebrated naval engagements to be found on the 
page of history. 

at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian 
admiral, is killed ; and the maritime 
power of the Lacedemonians de- 
stroyed. — Tliucydides - - 394 
The Roman fleet employed in the siege 
of Lilybasum, burned by the Cartha- 
ginians ----- 249 
The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by tlie 

consul Lutatius - - - 2-12 

The Roman fleets vanciuished by Han- 
nibal, the Carthasinian general ; 800 
galleys taken, an9 16,00U prisoners; 
second Punic war - - - 209 

At Actium, between the fleets of Octa- 
viantis Cassar and Marc Antony. This 
battle decides the fate of the latter, 
300 of his galleys going over to Caasar, 
by which he is totally defeated - 31 



BEFORE CHRIST. 

First sea-fight on record, in which the 
Corinthians conquer the Corcyreans 064 

The Athenian fleet under Themistocles, 
with 380 sail, defeat the Persian, con- 
sisting of 2000, at the straits of Sa- 
lamis 480 

Again, at the mouth of the river Eury- 
medon ; Cymon, the Athenian admi- 
ral, vanquishes the Persian fleet and 
army, in one day. — Ilerodolus - 470 

The Lacedemonian fleet taken by Alci- 
biades, the Athenian - - - 410 

The Spartan general, Lysander, totally 
defeats the Athenian fleet under Co- 
non ; by this victoiy he puts an end 
to the maritime power of Athens - 407 

The Persians engage Conon to com- 
mand their fleet, with which he en- 
tirely vanquishes the Lacedemonian 
fleet, and takes fifty sail out of ninety 400 

The Persian fleet conquer the Spartan 



ANNO DOMINI. 

The emperor, Claudius II. defeats the 
Goths, and sinks 2000 of their ships. — 
Da Fresnoij ... - IJfiS 



436 



THE world's progress 



[nav 



NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 

The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice, 
and Pius V. defeat the Turkish fleet 
in the Gulf of Lepanto. The Chris- 
tian fleet consisted of 206 galleys, and 
30,000 men. The Turks, out of 250 

§ alleys, saved only 100; and lost 
0,000 men in killed and prisoners. — 
Voltaire . . . . 157 x 

Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spani- 
ards. This was a bloody conflict and 
decisive victory, and settled for a time 
the superiority of the Dutch, Apr. 25, 1607 

NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail 
of Danish pirates on the Dorset and 
Hampsliire coast. — Asset's Life of 
Alfred - - ■ - '- 897 

Near Sluys ; Edward III. defeated the 
French fleet of 400 sail, which were 
all sunk. 30,000 French were killed 
in this engagement - - - 1340 

The English and Flemings ; the latter 
signally defeated - - - 1371 

English and French, in which the latter 
power loses 80 ships - - - 1389 

Near Milford Haven ; the English take 
14, and destroy 15 French ships - 1405 

Off Barfleur ; the duke of Bedford takes 
500 French ships - - - 1416 

In the Downs ; the French fleet caj)- 
tured by the earl of Warwick - 1459 

Bay of Biscay ; Enfrlish and French, 
the latter defeated' - - - 1512 

Sir Edward Howard defeats the French 
under Prejeant - - - 1513 

In the Channel ; the British defeat the 
French fleet with great loss - - 1545 

The Spanish Armada driven from the 
English Channel to the road of Calais, 
by a running fight, the Spaniards los- 
mg 15 ships and 5000 men ; they are 
again defeated, and obliged to bear 
away for Scotland and Ireland, when 
their fleet is dispersed in a storm, and 
they lose 17 more ships, and 5000 
more men. See Armada - July 19, 1588 

Dover Straits; between the Dutch ad- 
miral, Van Tromp, and admiral 
Blake. The Dutch surprise the Eng- 
lish in the Downs, SO sail engaging 
40 English, six of which are taTvenor 
destroyed ; and the Dutch admiral 
'sails in triumph through the channel, 
with a broom at his mast-head, to de- 
note that he had swept the English 
from the seas - - June 29, 1652 

In the Downs; same admirals, and 
nearly same loss 

Sept. 23, Oct. 28, and Nov. 29, 1652 

The English gain a victory over the 
Dutch fleet off Portsmouth, taking 
and destroying 11 men of war and 30 
merchantmen. Van Tromp was the 
Dutch, and Blake the Enslish admiral 

Feb. 10, 1653 

Again, near Portland, between the Eng- 
lish and Dutch ; the latter defeated 

Feb. 18, 1653 

Again, off the North Foreland. The 
Dutch and English fleets consisted of 
near 100 men-of-war each. Van 



Tromp commanded the Dutch: Blake, 
Monk, and Deane, the English Six ' 
Dutch ships were taken ; 11 were 
sunk, and the rest ran into Calais 
road - - - June 2, 1653 

Again, on the coast of Holland; the 
Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, and ad- 
miral Tromp was killed - July 31, 1653 

At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 
2,000,000 pieces of eight, were taken 
by the English - - Sept. 1656 

The Spanish fleet vanquished, and then 
burnt in the harbor of Santa Cruz, by 
Blake - - - April, 1657 

English and French ; 130 of the Bor- 
deaux fleet destroyed by the duke of 
York - - - r>ec. 4, 1664 

The duke of York, (afterwards James 
II.) defeats the Dutch fleet off Har- 
wich ; the Dutch admiral blown up 
with all his crew : 18 capital ships 
taken, 14 destroyed - June 3, 1665 

The earl of Sandwich took 12 men of 
war and 2 India ships Sept. 4, 1665 

A contest between the Dutch and En- 
glish fleets lor victory, maintained 
lor lour days. The English lose 9, 
and the Dutch 15 ships, June I to 4, 166G 

Decisive engagement at the mouth of 
the Thames, when the English gain 
a glorious victory, the Dutch lose 24 
men-of-war, 4 admirals killed, and 
4000 officers and seamen. Fought 

July 26, 1666 

The English fleet of 16 sail, defeat the 
French of 30, near Martinico - - 1667 

Coast of Holland ; by Prince Rupert, 
May 28, June 4, and Aug. 11, D'Etrees 
and Ruyter defeated - - - 1673 

Several actions to the disadvantage of 
the Dutch. They agree lo strike to 
the English colors in the British seas, 
25 Charles 11. - - - - 1673 

Off Tangiers, battle between the En- 
glish and Moors, which lasted 11 
days 1679 

Off Beachy-head ; the English and 
Dutch are defeated by the French, 

June 30, 1690 

The English and Dutch combined fleets 
gain a signal victory over the French 
fleet, near Cape La Hogue ; 21 of their 
largest men-of-war were destroyed. — 
See La Hogue - May 19, 1692 

Off St. Vincent ; the English and Dutch 
squadrons, under admiral Rooke, de- 
feated by the French - June 16, 1693 

Off Carthagena, between admiral Ben- 
bow and the French fleet, command- 
ed by admiral Du Casse, fought 

Aug. 19, 1702 

The English and Dutch fleets, under 
sir George Rooke, defeat the French 
fleet (having the Spanish galleons in 
convoy) in the port of Vigo. They 
take 9 out of 13 galleons, laden chief- 
ly with silver, and six men-of-war ; 
the other 4 galleons, and 14 men-of- 
war, destroyed, fought Oct. 12, 1702 

Off the Lizard, when the English fleet 
was defeated - - Oct. 9, 1707 



NAV] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



437 



NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 

In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake 
took sixty French vessels laden with 
provisions - - May 2i, IT^OS 

The Spanish fleet of 27 sail totally de- 
feated by sir George Byng, in the Faro 
of Messina - - Aug. II, 1718 

Bloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews 
and Lestock against the fleets of 
France and Spain. Here the brave 
captain Cornwall fell ; and the vic- 
tory was lost by a misunderstanding 
between the English admirals. — Na- 
val Hist. .... 1744 

Off Cape Finistere, the French fleet 
taken by admiral Anson May 3, 1747 

Li the East Indies ; the French retired 
to Pondicherry - - - 1747 

Off Ushant, when admiral Hawke took 
seven men-of-war of the French 

Oct. 14, 1747 

Admiral Hawke defeats the French 
fleet commanded by Conflans, in 
Uuiberon Bay ; and thus prevents a 
projected invasion of England, fought 

Nov. 20, 1759 

Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a 
fleet of merchantmen - - Oct. 9, 1762 

Near Cape St. Vincent, between admi- 
ral Rodney and admiral Don Lan- 
gara, the latter defeated and taken 
prisoner, losing 8 ships Jan. 8, 1780 

At St. Jago ; Mons. Suflrein defeated by 
commodore Johnston April lb, 1781 

Admiral Rodney defeated the French 

■ going to attack Jamaica, took 10 ships 
of the line, (1 sunk, and 3 blown up) 
and sent the French admiral, count 
de Grasse, prisoner to England 

April 12, 1782 

The British totally defeated the fleets 
of France and Spain, in the bay of 
Gibraltar.— See Gibraltar Sept. 13, 1782 

Cape St. Vincent ; the Spanish fleet de- 
feated by Sir J. Jervis, and 4 line of 
battle ships taken - Feb. 14, 1797 

Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; 
admiral Nelson loses his right arm ; 

July 24, 1797 

Camperdown; the Dutch signally de- 
feated by admiral Duncan, and 15 
ships of war, with the admiral (De 
Wmter), taken - Oct. 1 1, 1797 

Nile ; Toulon fleet defeated by sir Ho- 
ratio Nelson, at Aboukir ; 9 ships of 

NAVAL BATTLES of the UNITED STATES. 



the line taken , 2 burnt, 2 escaped, 

Aug. 1, 1798 

Gibraltar bay ; engagement between 
the French and British fleets ; the 
Hannibal of 7i guns \ost July 6, 1801 

Ofl'Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains 
a victory over the French and Span- 
ish fleets; 1 ship captuied, fought 

July 12, 1801 

Sir Robert Calder with 15 sail, takes 2 
ships (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of 
the French and Spanish combined 
fleets, off FeiTol - July 22, 1805 

Off Trafalgar; memorable battle, in 
which lord Nelson defeated the fleets 
of France and Spain, and in which 
lie received his mortal wound. — (See 
Trafalgar) - • Oct. 21, 1805 

Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, 
captures 4 French ships of the line, 
off Cape Ortegal - Nov. 4, 1805 

In the West Indies ; the French defeat- 
ed by sir T. Duckworth ; 3 sail of 
the Ime taken, 2 driven on shore 

Feb. 6, 1806 

Sir John Borlase Warren captures the 
French fleet under command of ad- 
miral Linois - - March 13, 1806 

Admiral Duckworth effects the passage 
of the Dardanelles. See Dardanelles., 

Feb. 19, 1807 

Copenhagen fleet of 18 ships of the line, 
15 frigates, and 31 other vessels, sur- 
renders to lord Cathcart and admiral 
Gambler. (See Copenhagen) Sept 7, 1807 

The Russian fleet of several sail, in the 
Tagus, surrenders to the British, 

Sept. 3, 180S 

Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth. 
See Algiers - - Aug. 27, 1816 

Navarino ; the British, French, and 
Russian squadrons, defeat and anni- 
hilate the Turkish navy. See Nava- 
rino - - - Oct. 20, 1827 

Action between the British ships Vol- 
age and Hyacinth, and 29 (Jhinese 
war junks, wltich were defeated 

Nov. 3, 1839 

Bombardment and fall of Acre. The 
British stjuadron under admiral Stop- 
ford achieved this triumph with tri- 
fling loss, while the Egyptians lost 
2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 
prisoners. See Syria • Nov. 3, 1810 



Paul Jones, in the Providence priva- 
teer, takes 16 prizes - - - 1776 

His descent on Whitehaven - April 1778 

He captures the British frigate Serapis 

Sept. 23, 1779 

Frigate Philadelphia taken by the Tri- 
politans .... ]803 

— recaptured by Decatur - - Feb. 1, 1804 

Tripoli bombarded by commodore Pre- 
ble - - - - Aug. 1804 

Frigate Chesapeake fired upon by the 
British ship Leopard, for refusing to 
be searched .... lg07 

Frigate President, vs. British sloop 
IJttle Belt - - May 16, 1811 I 



Constitution captures British frigate 
Guerrriere - ■ Aug. 13, 18i2 

Captain Elliott captures two British 
frigates on lake Erie - - Oct. 8, 1812 

Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Fro- 
lic, Oct. 18 ; both vessels captured by 
British 74, Poictiers - Oct. 20, 1812 

Frigate United States, captain Decatur, 
captures British frigate Macedonian 1312 

Constitution, captain Bainbridge, cap- 
tures British frigate Java Oct. 29, 1812 

Hornet, captain Lawrence, captures 
British ship Peacock, captain Peake, 

Feb. 23, 1813 



438 



THE world's progress. 



[nav 



NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. continued. 

[Delaware and Cliesapeake bays block- 
aded by British.] 

Frigate Chesapeake surrendered to the 
Britifh frigate Shannon June 1, 1813 

Sloop Argus, captured by British sloop 
Pelican - - - Aug. 14, 1813 

Bng E.';terprise captures the British 
brig Boxer - - - Aug. 1813 

Fleet on lake Erie, commodore Perry, 
captures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813 

jjiOtiUa, commodore Chauncey, cap- 
tuies British flotilla on lake Ontario, 

Oct. 5, 1813 

Frigate Essex, commodore Porter, cap- 
tured by frigate Phrebe and sloop 
Cherub - - • March 28, 1S14 

Sloop Frolic, commodore Bainbridge, 
surrendered to British frigate Or- 
pheus - - - April 21, 1814 



Sloop Peacock, captain Warrington, 
captures British brig Epervier 

April 29, 1§14 

Sloop Wasp, captain Blakeley, cap- 
tures British brig Reindeer, June 28, 1814 

Flotilla, commodore Macdonough, vic- 
torious over the British on lake Cham- 
plain - - - Sept. 11, 1814 

Frigate President, surrendered to the 
British frigate Endymion Jan. 15, 1815 

Frigate Constitution captures British 
brigs Cyane and Levant, ofl" Maderia 

Feb. 1815 

Sloop Hornet, commodore Biddle, cap- 
tures British brig Penguin, off Brazil, 

Feb. 23, 18 .5 

U. S. naval force under commodore 
Conner bombards Vera Cruz (jointly 
with the land force under general 
Scott) 1847 



NAVARINO, Battle op, between the combined fleets of England, France, and 
Russia, under command of admiral Codrington, and the Turkish navy, in 
which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships, 
many of them four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks 
themselves, to prevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20, 
1827. The species of policy which led to this attack upon Turkey, was that 
of Mr. Canning's administration. This destruction of the Turkish naval 
power was characterized, bj^ the illustrious duke of Wellington, as being an 
"untoward event," a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day. 

NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phoenicians, about 1500 b. c. The 
first laws of navigation originated with the Rhodians, 916 b. c. The first 
account we have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing 
round Africa, 604 b. c. — Blair. On the destruction of Thebes by Alexander 
the Great, 335 b. c, its commerce passed to Alexandria, and subsequently 
the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It passed successively 
from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, to the Portuguese and Span- 
iards ; and from these to the English and Dutch. 



Plane charts and mariner's compass 

used about - - - a. d. 1420 

Variation of the compass discovered 

by Columbus - - - - 1492 

That the oblique rhumb lines are spi- 
rals, discovered by Nonius - - 1537 
First treatise on navigation - - - 1545 
The log first mentioned by Bourne - 1577 
Mercator's chart - - - - 1599 
Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for 
measuring angles, about - - 1600 



Logarithmic tables applied to naviga- 
tion by Gunter - - a. d. 1620 
Middle latitude sailing introduced - - 1623 
Mensuration of a degree, Norwood - 1631 
Hadley's quadrant - - - 1731 
Harrison's time-keeper used - - 1764 
Nautical almanac first published - 1767 
Barlow's theory of the deviation of the 
compass - - - - - 1820 
See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, S^c. 



NAVIGATION, INLAND, of the United States. An oflacial report of TJ. S. 
Engineers in 1842 states the number of miles of the rivers west of the Alle- 
ghanies, navigable for steamboats, 16,674 miles ; entire length of lake coast, 
of which 2000 belong to British possessions, 5000 miles. The steamboat 
tonnage of the western rivers in 1846 was 249.055 tons. Aggregate value of 
commerce on the western rivers, $183,609,725. Estimated amount of lake 
tonnage, ^61,914,910. [For tonnage of ocean shipping at diifFerent periods, 
see Shipping.'] 

NAVIGATION, INLAND, op Great Britain. Mr. Nimmo. in his evidence be- 
fore the Committee on the state of Ireland, in 1824, said, "we have more 
inland navigation in Britain than in all the rest of the world put together." 
The total length of the inland navigation of England, including as well tho 



NAV] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



439 



navigable rivers as canals, is 5300 miles. See Canals. — Haydn. This state- 
ment scarcely agrees with the preceding. 

NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed, 6 Richard I., 1194. 
See Oleron. The first navigation act was passed in 1381. Another and more 
extensive act was passed in 1541. Act relatmg to the trade of the colonies 
passed in 1646 ; and several acts followed relating to navigation. The act 
regulating the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 1786. Naviga- 
tion Act, for the encouragement of British ships and seamen, passed 4 Wil- 
liam IV., August 1833. British and American navigation laws repealed, 1849. 

NAVY OP THE UNITED STATES. The first ship of war of the United States 
was huilt under the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jones, at 
Portsmouth, N. H., 1781; but the regular navy was commenced by Act of 
Congress, authorizing the building of six frigates, March 30, 1794. The 
Constitution launched at Boston, Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. [See 
Naval Battles.} 

NAVIES OF EUROPE and AMERICA. 



COMPARATIVE 


VIEW OP THE NAVAL FORCES OP THE POWERS OP EUROPE 








AND 


AMERICA, 1846. 










Relative naval 
power of each nation. 


In commission. 


Building, ordina- 
ry, &c. 


Total. 


1 
o 

d 


6 S 
















Vessels. 


Guns. 


Vessels. 


Guns. 


Vessels. 


Guns. 


:2; 


grtC 


Great Britain, 


332 


4,583 


304 


13,098 


§636 


17,681 


40,000 


141 


France, 


215 


4,293 


131 


4,635 


346 


8,928 


27,554 


68 


Russia, - 


179 


5,896 






179 


5,896 


59,000 


;•« 


Turkey, - 


62 


2,636 


4 


24 


66 


2,660 


26,820 


9 


United States, 


47 


1,155 


30 


1,190 


77 


2,345 


8,724 


5 


Egypt, 


35 


1,148 


3 


312 


38 


1,760 




1 


Holland, 


48 


302 


86 


1,344 


134 


1,646 




4 


Sweden, - 


330 


660 


50 


1,196 


380 


1,856 




2 


Denmark, 


95 


344 


12 


732 


108 


1,076 






Austria, - 


74 


686 






74 


686 






Brazil, - 


31 


450 


11 


325 


42 


775 




8 


Sardinia, - 


11 


226 


4 


220 


15 


■ 446 




2 


Spain, - 


21 


348 






21 


348 




4 


Two Sicilies, 


17 


338 






17 


338 




. 


Portugal, 


59 
















Mexico 


23 


42 


-- 1 


23 


42 


■■ 





COMPARATIVE VIEW OP THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OP DIFFERENT NATIONS. 



Nations, in the order of their commercial 
importance. 



United Kingdom of Great Britain, 
United States .... 

France, 

Norway and Sweden - 

Holland, 

Russia, 

Two Sicilies, .... 

Austria, 

Turkey, 

Sardinia. 

Denmark, .... 

Portugal, 

Spain, 

Brazil, 

Mexico, 



No. of vessels 
in commerce 
and fisheries. 



23,898 

19,666 

13,782 

5,450 

1,528 

Not known. 

9,174 

6,199 

2,220 

3,502 

3,036 

798 

2,700 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 



Tonnage. 



3,007,581 

2,416,999 

839,608 

471,772 

241,676 

239,000 

213,198 

208,551 

182,000 

167,360 

153,408 

80,525 

80,000 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 



No. of guns to 
each 100,000 
tons of com- 
merce. 



97 

1.063 

'224 

6a3 

2,466 

158 

321 

1,461 

265 

709 



440 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



r NEM 



NAVY OF ENGLAND. Tlie first fleet of galleys, like those of the Danes, 
was built by Alfred, a. d. 897. The number of galleys had increased under 
Edgar to 350, about a. d. 965. A formidable fleet was equipped by the pub- 
lic contribution of every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred II., 1007, 
et seq., Avhen it rendezvoused at Sandwich to be ready to oppose the Danes. 
From this period fleets were occasionally furnished by the maritime towns, 
and the Cinque ports, and were usually commanded by the king, or an ad- 
miral under him : such was the fleet of Edward III. at the siege of Calais in 
1347 ; it consisted of 40 ships, badly equipped, under no public fixed regu- 
lations. The date of the commencement of the Royal or British navy, may 
therefore be placed 4 Henry VIII. 1512, when the first Navy-oflQce was ap- 
pointed, with commissioners to manage naval afiairs, and a number of stout 
ships of war began to be permanently kept on foot by the crown. — Gibson'' s 
Camden. In the time of Henry VIII. the navy consisted of 1 ship of 1200 
tons, 2 of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller ; the largest was called the 
Great Harry. Elizabeth's fleet at the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, 
consisted of only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. added «lO 
ships of 1400 tons each, and 64 guns, the largest then ever buii.*;. — Gibson's 
Continuation of Camden. 

ACCOUNT OP THE PROGRESSIVE INCREASE OP THE ROYAL NAVY OP ENGLAND, PROM HENRY 
VIU'S REIGN TO THE CLOSE OP THE LAST WAR, 1814. 



Yr. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men voted 


Navy estim. 


Yr. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men voted 


Navy estim. 


1521 


16 


7,260 




no account. 


1760 


412 


321,134 


70,000 


.£3,227,143 


1578 


21 


10,506 


6,700 


no account. 


1793 


498 


433,226 


45,000 


5,525,331 


1603 


42 


17,055 


8,346 


no account. 


1800 


767 


668,744 


135,000 


12,422,837 


1658 


157 


57,000 


21,910 


no account. 


1808 


869 


892,800 


143,800 


17,496,047 


1638 


173 


101,892 


42,000 


no account. 


1814 


901 


966,000 


146,000 


18,786,509 


[1702 


272 


159,020 


40,000 


il, 056,9 15 













In 1814, Great Britairi had 901 ships, of which 177 were of the line ; and in 
1830, she had 621 ships, some of 140 guns each, and down to surveying ves- 
sels of 2 guns only. Of these 148 sail were employed on foreign and home 
service. On Jan. 1, 1841, the total number of ships of all sizes in commis- 
sion was 183. 

NAVY OF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in history a. d. 728, when, like that 
of England at an early period, it consisted of Galleys ; in this year the 
French defeated the Frison fleet. It was considerably improved under 
Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 1697. The French 
navy was in perhaps its highest splendor about 1781 ; but it became gr&atly 
reduced in the late wars against England. 

NEBRASKA. A territory of the United States as yet (1850) unorganized, oc- 
cupying 400,000 square miles, the entire space between the Missouri and 
White Earth Rivers on the east, the Rocky Mountains on the west, the 49th 
parallel lat. on the north, and the Kansas and Arkansas rivers on the south. 
First traversed by Lewis and Clarke's expedition, in 1805, and partly ex- 
plored by Fremont, on his way to Oregon, in 1842. 

NEEDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as weU as of home 
trade in England, German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for nee- 
dles. The first that were made in England were fabricated in Cheapside, 
London, in the time of the sanguinary Mary, by a negro from Spain ; but, 
as he would not impart the secret, it was lost at his death, and not recovered 
again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German, 
taught the art to the English, who have since brought it to the highest 
degree of perfection. — Stoioe. The family of the Greenings, ancestors of 
lord Dorchester, established a needle manufactory in Bucks, about this 
time. — Anderson. 

NEMEAN GAMES. So called from Nemsea, where they were celebrated. 



new] dictionary of dates. 441 

They were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of Archemorus, 
who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some time after renewed 
them. They were one of the four great and solemn games which were 
obsei-yed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, and the inhabitants of Cle- 
onaa, generally presided by turns at the celebration, in which were exhibited 
foot and horse-races, chariot-races, boxing, -svi-estling, and contests of every 
kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded with a 
crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure 
of Archemorus. whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They 
were celebrated every third, or according to others, every fifth year, or 
more properly on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 b. c- 
He?-odotus. 
NEPTUNE. The new planet predicted by Le Verrier ; discovered by Dr. Galle 

of Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846. 
NESTORIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some time 
^ bishop of Constantinople, who, by the general strain of church historians, 
* is represented as a heretic, for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary was 
-the mother of Jesus Christ as man, yet she was not the mother of God, for 
that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had not 
herself; that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as 
distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all ; 
that such union made no alteration in the human nature, but that he was 
subject to the same passions of love and hatred, pleasure and pain, &c., as 
other men have, only that they were better regulated, and more properly 
applied than in ordinary men. The generality of Christians in the Levant 
go under this name ; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread, 
and in both kinds, permit their priests to marry, and iise neither confirma- 
tion nor auricular confession, &c. Nestorius died a. d. 439. — Du Pin. 

NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name 
of Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this coun- 
try formed part of the kingdom of Austrasia. In the twelfth century it was 
governed by its own counts and earls ; and afterwards fell to the dukes of 
Burgundy, and next to the house of Austria. The seventeen provinces were 
united into one state, in 1549. For the late history of the Netherlands see 
Holland and Belgium. 

NEVIS. An English colony, first planted by the English in 1628. This island 
was taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782, but was restored to the Enghsh at 
the general "peace in the next year. The capital of this island (one of the 
Caribbees) is Charleston. See Colonies. 

NEW ENGLAND. The confederation of the northeastern colonies of America 
under this name, for mutual defence, 1643. Sir E. Andros, the tyrannical go- 
vernor of New England, 1686. The New England States are Maine, New 
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. See 
these resj^ectively. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. One of the United States ; was first granted to Ferdi- 
nando Gorges in 1662 ; first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. It 
came voluntarily under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641 ; but was 
made a separate province by an act of Charles I. in 1679. It was several 
times afterwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since which it 
has remained a separate State. Constitution formed in 1784, and amended, 
1792. Population in 1790 was 141,885 ; in 1800, 138,858 ; in 1830, 269,328 ; 
in 1840, 284,574. 

NEW HOLLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a 
continent. When this vast island was first discovered is uncertain. In the 
beginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts were tracer^ 

19* 



442 THE world's progress. [ kew 

by the Dutcli ; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, waa 
discovered by Tasman, in 1642. Captain Cook, in 1770, explored the east 
and north-east from 38° south, and ascertained its separation from New 
Guinea ; and, in 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's discove- 
ries with Cook's, completed the circuit. But the supposed south extremity, 
which Tasman distinguished by the name of Van Diemen's Land, was found, 
in 1798, to be an island, separated from New Holland by a channel forty 
leagues wide, named from the discoverer, Bass Strait. Diflerent parts of 
the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, &c. The east- 
ern coast, called New South Wales, Avas taken possession of in the name of 
George III. of England, by captain Cook, and now forms a part of the Bri- 
tish dominions. See Neio South Wales. 

sJ'EW JERSEY. One of the United States ; first settled by the Dutch from 
New York, at Bergen, 1614-20. A colony of Swedes and Finns, on the De- 
laware, 1627. The province included with New York in the grant by 
Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664; granted by the duke to lord Berkley 
and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. Subdued 
by the Dutch in 1672, but surrendered bj^ them, 1674 ; purchased by a 
company of English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at 
Salem, 1674 ; government surrendered to the crown (in consequence of difli- 
culty about titles, &c.) and accepted by queen Anne, 1702 ; continued under 
royal instead of proprietary government iintil 1776. This State sufifered 
much in the revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal 
Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Population in 1732, 47,000; in 
1790, 184,189 ; in 1830, 320,779 ; in 1840, 373,306. 

NEW MEXICO, according to Spanish and Mexican authorities, extends from 
about 32° to 42°, N. latitude, and from 23° to about 33° long. W. of Wash- 
ington— an area of about 200,000 squai'e miles. The country taken posses- 
sion of for Spain, by Juan de Onate, sent by count de Monterey, viceroy of 
Mexico, in 1594. A great massacre of the Spaniards in their pueblos or 
fort, by the Indians, 1680, when the governor retreated from Santa F6, and 
founded Paso del Norte. The whole country reconqxiered by the Spaniards 
after a war of ten years ; but a deadly hatred has since continued between 
the races. New Mexico ceded to the United States by the treaty with 
Mexico, 1848. A large part of it is claimed by Texas, and the boundary is 
yet (July 1850) undecided. 

NEW SOUTH WALES. See New Holland. The eastern coast of New Hol- 
land was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook, for England, 
in 1770. It was at the recommendation of this illustrious navigator that 
the design of a convict colony here was first formed. Governor Phillips, the 
first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts, January 20, 1788 : 
but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the 
head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the capital. 

NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751 ; and the next year 
eleven days were left out of the calendar — the third of September, 1752, 
being reckoned as the fourteenth — so as to make it agree with the Grego- 
rian Calendar, ■whick see, and also article Calendar. In the year a. d. 200, 
there was no difference of styles ; but there had arisen a difference of ele- 
ven days between the old and the new style, the latter being so much be- 
forehand with the former ; so that when a person using the old style dates 
the 1st of May, those who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From this 
variation in the computation of time, we may easily account for the differ- 
ence of many dates concerning historical fiicts and biographical notices. 

NEW YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is the 
oldest on authentic record transmitted doAvn to our times, and still observed. 



NEW 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 443 



The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to Janus (who pre- 
sided over the new year), January 1, 713 b. c. On this day, the Romans 
sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ; 
and all the mechanics began something of their art or trade ; the men of 
letters did the same as to books, poems, &c. ; and the consuls, though cho- 
sen before, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. After the 
government was in the hands of the emperors, the consuls marched on 
New-year's day to the capitol, attended by a crowd, all in new clothes, when 
two white bulls never yoked were sacrificed to Jupiter Capitolinus. A great 
deal of incense and other perfumes were spent in the temple ; the flamens, 
together with the consuls, during this religious solemnity (offered their vows 
for the prosperity of the empire and the emperor, after having taken an 
oath of allegiance, and confirmed all public acts done by him the preceding 
year. On this day the Romans laid aside all old grudges and ill humor, 
and took care not to speak so much as one ominous or untoward word. 
The first of January is more observed as a feast-day in Scotland than it is 
in England. In many parts of the United States, but chiefly in New York, 
this is observed as a holiday, the ladies receiving complimentary visits from 
the other sex. This custom is derived from the Dutch ; but is also observed 
in Paris. 

NEW-YEAR'S GIFTS. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New- Year's gifts 
among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, who having consi- 
dered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated 
to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of 
the new year, authorized the custom afterwards, and gave these gifts the 
name of Strense, 747 b. c. In the reign of Augustus, the populace, gentry, 
and senators used to send him new-year's gifts, and if he was not in town, 
they carried them to the capitol. From the Romans this custom went to 
the Greeks, and from the heathens to the Christians, who very early came 
into the practice of making presents to the magistrates. Some of the fa- 
thers wrote verj' strenuously against the practice, upon accoimt of the immo- 
ralities committed under that cover and ijrotection ; but since the govern- 
ments of the several nations in Europe became Christian, the ciistom is 
still retained as a token of friendship, love, and respect. It is well observed 
in the United States. 

NEW YORK. One of the United States. The river Hudson and the island of 
Manhattan, Avliere New York city now stands, were discovered by Henry 
Hudson, an Englishman, in the service of the Dutch, 1609. First permanently 
settled on Manhattan island by the Dutch in 1621 ; surrendered to the En- 
glish, under Ricliavd Nichols, for the duke of York, in 1664 ; confirmed to 
England bj'' the peace of Breda, 1667 ; retaken by a Dutch expedition in 
1673 ; restored to the duke of York with a new patent, 1674 ; fii'st legisla- 
tive assembly, 1683 ; Jacob Leisler's revolution, 1689 ; episcopacy esta- 
blished by law, 1693 ; negro conspiracy, 1741 ; colony took an active part in 
French war, 1756, and the Avar of Independence ; city captured by English, 
1776 ; who evacuated it Nov. 25, 1783 ; State adopted the Federal Constitution 
by 80 to 35, 1788; adopted new State Constitution, 1846. Population in 
1732, 65,000 ; in 1790, 340,820 ; in 1810, 959,049 ; in 1820, 1,372.812 ; in 1840, 
2,428,921. 

F'EW YORK. City op. Founded by the Dutch, 1614 ; fort built by them at 
S. point of the island, 1623 ; surrendered to the English, 1664 ; assessed 
value of all the property in the town in 1668, Avas i;78,231 ; city taken by 
the British, 1776 ; eA'acuated, Nov. 25, 1783 ; meeting of first United States 
Congress here, 1785; Washington inaugurated President of the United 
States, at the City Hall in Wall-street. April 30, 1789 ; yellow fever pre- 
vailed here in 1795 and 1805 ; cholera in 1832, 1834, and 1849. Great fire in 



444 THE world's progress. [ NEW 

the business part of the city, swept over 40 acres, and destroyed property 
valued at about $20,000,000, Dec. 16, 1835 ; another in same neighborhood, 
1845 ; the wliole district rebuilt and improved shortly after ; celebration 
of the completion of Croton Aqueduct, Oct. 14, 1842. Population in 1790, 
83,131 ; in 1810, 96,373 ; in 1830, 202,589 ; in 1840, 312,710. 

NEW ORLEANS, City op. Founded by the French in 1717 ; conveyed to 
the Spanish, 1762 ; recovered by the French, 1800 ; purchased by the 
United States in the purchase of Louisiana, 1803. The battle of, between 
the Americans under Gen. Jackson, and the British under Packenham, in 
which the latter were defeated with loss of 3,000 killed and wounded, the 
Americans losing only 7 killed and 6 wounded, Jan. 8, 1815. Population 
in 1810, was 17,242; in 1830, 46,310; in 1840, 102,193, including 23,448 
slaves. 

NEWCASTLE, ENGLAND. The first coal port in the world. The coal-mines 
were discovered here about a. d. 1234. The first charter which was granted 
to the townsmen for digging coal was by Henry III. in 1289 ; but in 1306, 
the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation, 
chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which 
were then growing about that city ; but this interdiction did not long conti- 
nue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this 
place for more than 500 years. 

NEWFOUNDLAND, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Privia Vista. 
June 24, a. d. 1494. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 
1583. In the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the 
English in the fishery. There were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from 
Portugal, 150 fi'om France, and only 15, but of larger size, from England, in 
1577. — Hackluyt. But the English fishery in some years afterwards had in- 
creased so much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 150 ships, and 
sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 1625. Nearly 1000 English fa- 
milies reside here all the year ; and in the iishing season, beginning in May 
and ending in September, more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland, 
which may be esteemed as one of our finest nurseries for seamen. New- 
foundland has recently obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation. A 
bishopric was established here in 1839. Appalling fire at St. John's ; a great 
portion of the town destroyed; the loss estimated at £1,000.000 sterling, 
June 9, 1846. 

NEWS. The origin of this word has been variously defined. News is a fresh 
accoiint of any thing. — Sidney. It is something not heard before. — L' Es- 
trange. News is an account of the transactions of the present time.s. — Addi- 
son. The word "news" is not, as many imagine, derived from the adjective 
new. In former times (between the years 1595 and 1730) it was a prevalent 
practice to put over the periodical publications of the day the initial letters 
of the cardinal points of the compass, thus ; — 



importing that these papers contained intelligence from the four quarters 
of the globe ; and from this practice is derived the term Newspaper. 
NEWSPAPERS. The first published in England, which might truly be consi- 
dered as a vehicle of general information, was established by sir Roger 
L'Estrange, in 1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and continued 
nearly three years, when it ceased on the appearance of the Gazette. A 
publication, with few claims however to the character of a newspaper, had 



NEW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 445 

previously appeared; it was called the English Mermry* and came out un- 
der the authority of queen Elizabeth, so early as 1588, the period of the 
Spanish armada. An early copy of this paper is dated July 23, in that year. 
In the reign of James I., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Courant, and 
in the year 1643 (the period of the civil war) were printed a variety of pub- 
lications, certainly in no respect entitled to the name of newspapers, of which 
the following were the titles : — 

The Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or 
Certain Information. 

The Mercuriics Civicus, or London's In- 
telligencer. 

The Country's Complaint, ^c. 



England's Memorable Accidents. 
The Kingdom's Intelligencer. 
The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Par- 
liament. 
T)ie Mercurius Aulicus. 
The Scotch Intelligencer. 
The Parliament's Scout. 



The Weekly Account. 
Mercurius Britannicus. 



A paper called the London Gazette was pubUshed August 22, 1642. The 
London Gazette of the existing series, was published first at Oxford, the 
court being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665, and afterwards at 
London, Feb. 5, 1666. See Gazette. The printing of newspapers and 
pamphlets was prohibited 31 Charles I., 1680. — Salmon's Chron. Newspa- 
pers were first stamped in 1713. No. of the stamps issued : — 

In 1753 - - - 7,411,757 1 In 1810 - - - 20,172,837 

In 1760 - - - 9,404,790 In 1820 - - -24,862,186 



In 1774 - - - 12,300,000 In 1825 - - - 26,950,693 
Li 1790 - - - 14,035,639 In 1830 - - - 30,158,741 



InlS35 ■ • -32,874,652 

In 1840 - . - 49,033,384 

In 1843 • - - 56,443,977 

In 1849 - . - 76,569,335 



In 1800 - - - 16,084,905 i 
The total number of newspapers published in the United Kingdom in 1849 
was 603, viz : 160 in London, 232 in the English provinces, 117 in Ireland, 
and 94 in Scotland. The number of advertisements inserted in the London 
newspapers in 1849 was 886,108, paying a gross duty of i;66,458 25. ; in the 
English provincial newspapers, 834,729, yielding to the crown a revenue of 
^62,604 13s. 6rf. ; in the Irish papers, 220,524, paying ^11,026 4s., and in the 
Scotch papers, 2,40911, paying in duty ^18,075 16s. %d. 

NEWSPAPERS, &c. in the United States. The first was the " Boston News 
Letter" in 1704, which was continued till 1774 ; the second was the Boston 
Gazette, 1719; the third the American Weekly Mercury, at Philadelphia, 
started one day after the last. First New York Gazette, in 1725 ; first 
newspaper in the Carolinas at Charle'ston, 1731-2 ; first Rhode Island Ga- 
zette, at Newport, 1732 ; first Virginia Gazette, at Williamsburgh, in 1736. 
In 1775. there were in all the colonies 37 newspapers ; in 1810, in the United 
States, 356 ; in 1828, 802 ; in 1839, 1555. See Periodical Lit. 

NEWSPAPERS IN France. The first was the Gazette de Prance, established 
by Renaudot, in 1631, and continued with few interruptions till 1827-, when 
it ceased and another paper assumed its name. The Moniteur, commenced 
1789, has been since 1800 the ofiicial journal of the Government. The Con- 
stitutionelle and the Journal des Debats have long had the largest circula- 
tion. There were 374 newspapers published in France in 1832. See Peri- 
odical Lit. 

NEWSPAPERS, Irish. The first Irish newspaper was Pue's Occurrences, pub- 
lished in 1700 : Faulknefs Journal was established by George Faulkner, " a 
man celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and the weakness of his head," 
1728. — Supplement to Swift. The oldest of the existing Dublin newspapers, 

, * The full title is, " No. !)0, The English Mercurie, published by authoritie, for the preveu^ica 
of false reports, imprinted by Christopher Barker, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describes 
the armament called the Spanish Armada, giving " A journal! of what passed since the 21st of liua 
month, between her Majestie's fleet and thai of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admirall to 
the Lordes of council." 

I It is said by Mr. Watts of the British Museum (1850), that this paper was a forgery, and trjat 
>s first English paper was the Weekley Newes, published by Nathaniel Butler in 1622.] 



446 THE world's PE.0GRES». [ NIT 

is the Freeman^s Journal, founded by the patriot. Dr. Lucas, about the year 
1755. — Westminster Review, Jan. 1830. The Limerick Chronicle, the oldest 
of the provincial prints, was established in 1768. — Idem. 

NEY, MARSHAL, his Execution. Ney was the duke of Elchingen, and prince 
of the Moskwa, and one of the most valiant and skilful of the marshals of 
France. After the abdication of Napoleon, 5th April, 1814, he took the oath 
of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France 
from Elba, he marched against him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded 
the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris. 
March 13, 1815. Ney led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he 
fought in the midst of the slain, his clothes filled with bullet-holes, and five 
horses having been shot under him, until night and defeat obliged him to 
fly. But though he was included in the decree of July 24, 1816, which guar- 
anteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was afterwards sought out, and taken 
in the castle of a friend at Urillac, where he lay concealed, and brought to 
trial before the Chamber of Peers. The 12th article of the capitulation of 
Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favor, yet he was sentenced 
to death, and met his fate with the fortitude which such a hero could hardly 
fail to evince, Aug. 16, 1815. 

NICENE CREED. A summary of the Christian faith, composed at Nice by 
the first general council held there in the palace of Constantino the Great. 
In this celebrated council, which assembled a. d. 325, the Arians were con- 
demned. It was attended by 318 bishops from divers parts, who both set- 
tled the doctrine of the Trinity, and the time for observing Easter. 

NILE, Battle op the. One of the greatest in British naval history, between 
the Toulon and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord, then sir Hora- 
tio Nelson. This engagement took place near Rosetta, at the mouth of the 
celebrated river Nile ; nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken, 
two were burnt, and two escaped, August 1, 1798. This is sometimes called 
the battle of Aboukir ; it obtained the conqueror a peerage, by the title of 
baron Nelson of the Nile ; his exclamation upon commencing the battle was, 
" Victory or Westminster-abbey !" 

NILE. SOURCE of the. This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon, 
in about ten degrees of N. lat., and in a known course of 1250 miles receives 
no tributary streams. The travels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the 
source of the Nile ; he set out from England in June, 1768 ; on the 14th of 
Nov. 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes, and returned home in 
1773. This river c'erflows regularly every year, from the 15th of June to 
the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to 
the land ; and it must rise 16 cubits to insure that fertility. In 1829, the 
inundation of the Nile rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 80,000 people were 
drowned, and immense property lost. 

NIMEGUEN, Treaty of. This was the celebrated treaty of peace between 
France and the United Provinces, 1678. Nimeguen is distinguished in his- 
tory for other treaties of peace. The French were successful against the 
British under the duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794 : but were 
defeated by the British, with the loss of 500 killed, Nov. 8, following. 

NITRIC ACID, formerly called aquafortis, first obtained in a separate state by 
Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about a. d. 1287 ; but we are indebted to Cav- 
endish, Priestley, and Lavoisier, for our present knowledge of its properties. 
Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid, in 1785. Nitrous acid, 
neai'ly similar to nitric, was discovered by Scheele, in 1771. Nitrous gas 
Avas accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous Oxide Gas was discov- 
ered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776. 



nor] dictionary of dates. 447 

NOBILITY. The origin of nobility is referred to the Goths, who, after they 
had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles of honor, to 
distinguish them from the common people. The right of peerage seems to 
have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estates were first 
granted to Philip the Fair of France, a. d. 1095. George Neville, duke of 
Bedford (son of John, marquess of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was de- 
graded from the peerage by parliament, on account of his irtter want of 
property, 19 Edward IV. 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained in 
June 1773. See the various orders of nobility through the volume; see also 
Peerage. 

NOBILITY OF FRANCE. The French nobility preceded that of England, and 
continued through a long line, and various races of kings, until the period 
of the memorable revolution. The National Assembly decreed that hered- 
itary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that the titles of dukes, counts, 
niarquisses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished ; 
that all citizens take tlieir family names ; liveries, and armorial bearings, 
shall also be abolished, June 18, 1790. The records of the nobility, 600 vol- 
umes, were burned at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV., June 25, 1792. A 
new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon, 1808. The hereditary 
peerage was abolished in that kingdom, December 27, 1831. See Prance 

NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into confon/i- 
ists and non-conformists ; or, as they are commonly denominated, churchmen 
and dissenters. The former are those who conform to that mode of worshij:) 
and form of church-government which are established and supported by the 
state ; the latter are those who meet for divine worship in places of their 
own. The first place of meeting of the latter, in England, was established 
at Wandsworth, near London, November 20, 1572. The name of non-con- 
formists was taken by the Puritans, after the Act of Uniformity had passed, 
August 24, A. D. 1662, when 2000 ministers of the established religion re- 
signed, not choosing to conform to the Thirty-nine Articles. 

NON-JURORS, IN ENGLAND. Persons who suppose that James II. was un- 
justly deposed, and who, upon that account, refused to swear allegiance to 
the familj^ that succeeded him. Among this class of persons were several 
of the bishops, who were deprived in, 1690. Non-jurors were subjected to a 
double taxation, and were obliged to register their estates. May 1723. 

NOOTKA SOUND. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was settled by 
the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed 
a settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards, in 
1789, captured two English vessels, and took possession of the settlement. 
The British ministry made their demand for reparation, and the affair was 
amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce was confirmed to 
England in 1790. 

NORFOLK ISLAND. A penal colony of England. It was discovered in 1774, 
by captain Cook, who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settle- 
ment was made by a detachment from Port Jackson, in 1788, in Sydney bay, 
on the south side of the island. This has latterly been made the severest 
penal colony of Great Britain. 

NORMANDY. Anciently Neustria. From the beginning of the ninth cen- 
tury this countrj' was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, called 
Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles 
the Simple of France -ceded the duchy to their leader Rollo, a. d. 905 to 912, 
and from its conquerors it received its present name. Rollo was the first 
duke, and held it as a fief of the crowm of France, and several of his suc- 
cessors after him, till William, the seventh duke, conquered England, in 



448 



THE world's progress. 



[nob 



1066, from which time it became a province of England, till it was lost in 
the reign of king John, 1204, and reunited to the crown of France. The 
English, however, still keep possession of the islands on the coast, of which 
Jersey and Guernsey are the principal. 

NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a northwest passage was 
made by a Portuguese named Cortereal, about a. d. 1500. It was attempted 
by the English in 1553 ; and the project was greatly encouraged by queen 
Elizabeth, in 1585, in which year a company was associated in London, and 
was called the " Fellowship for the Discovery of the Northwest Passage." 
The following voyages with this design, were undertaken, under British 
navigators, in the years respectively stated : — 



Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to 
find a north- west passage to China, 
sailed from the Thames* May 20, 1553 
Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find 

a north-west passage to China - 1576 

Captain Davis's expedition to find a 

north-west passage - - - 1585 

Barentz's expedition - - - 1594 

Weymouih and Knight's - - 1602 

Hudson's voyages ; the last undertalien 

(See Hudson's Bay.")- - - 1610 

Sir Thomas Button's - - - 1612 

Baffin's. — See Baffin's Bay ■ - 1616 

Foxe's expedition - - - - 1631 

[A number of enterprises undertaken 

by various countries, followed.] 
Middletoii's expedition - - - 1742 

Moore's and Smith's - - - - 1746 

Heame's land expedition - - 1769 

Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mul- 

grave, his expedition - - - 1773 

Captain Cook in the Resolution and 

Discovery - • ■ July 1776 

Mackenzie's expedition - - - 1789 

Captain Duncan's voyage - - 1790 

The Discovery, captain Vancouver, re- 
turned from a voyage of survey and 
discovery on the north-west coast of 
America - - Sept. 24, 1795 

Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition - Oct. 1815 
Captain Buchan's and lieut. Franklin's 

expedition in the Dorothea and Trent 1818 
Captain Ross and lieut. Parry, in the 

Isabella and Alexander - - 1818 

Lieuts. Parry and Liddon in the Hecla 

and Griper - - May 4, 1819 

They return to Leith - Nov. 3, 1820 

Capts. Parry and Lyon, in the Fury 

and Hecla - - - May 8, 1821 

Capt. Parry's third expedition with the 

Hecla - - - May 8, 1824 

Capts. Franklin and Lyon, after having 
attempted a land expedition, again 
sail from Liverpool - Feb. 16, 1825 



Captain Parry, again in the Hecla, 
sails from Deptford - March 25, 1827 

And returns - - - Oct. 6, 1827 

Capt. Ross arrived at Hull, on his re- 
turn from his arctic expediti ""n, after 
an absence of "bur years, arid when 
all hope of las return had been near- 
ly abandoned - - Oct. 18, 1833 

Capt. Back and his companions arrived 
at Liverpool from then- perilous Arc- 
tic Land Expedition, after having 
visited the Great Fish River, and ex- 
amined its course to the Polar Seas 

Sept. 8, 1835 

Captain Back sailed from Chatham in 
command of His Majesty's ship Ter- 
ror, on an exploring adventure to 
Wager River. [Captain Back, in 
the month of Dec. 1835, was award- 
ed, by the Geographical Society, the 
king's annual premium for his polar 
discoveries and enterprise June 21, 1836 

Dease and Simpson traverse the inter- 
vening space between the discover- 
ies of Ross and Parry, and establish 
that there is a north-west passage 

Oct. 1839 

Sir John Franklin and capt. Crozier in 
the Erebus and Terror leave Eng- 
land - - - May 24, 1845 

Capt. Ross returned from an unsuccess- 
ful expedition in search of Franklin 1819 

Another expedition (one sent out by 
lady Franklin) in search of sir John 
Franklin, consisting of two vessels, 
sailed froin England, April-May 185C 

Still another, consisting of two vessels, 
tlie Advance and Rescue, liberally 
purchased for the purpose by Henry 
Grinnell, a New York merchant, and 
manned at Government cost from the 
U. S. navy, under command of lieut. 
de Haven, sailed from New York 

May 1850 



NORTH CAROLINA, one of the UNITED STATES. First permanent settle- 
ment at Albemarle, by emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious per- 



* The gallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure from Radcliife, on his fatal voyage for 
discovering the north-east passage to China. "Re. sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where the 
court then resided. Mutual honors were paid on both sides. The council and courtiers appeared 
at the windows, ana the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alone lost the 
noble and novel sight, for he then lay on his deatli-bed ; so that the principal object of the parade 
was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and frozen to 
death, on the coast oi hwp\a.nA. — Hackluyt. 



nul] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 449: 



secution, about 1660. The district granted to loTd Clarendon, who induced, 
the celebrated John Locke to prepare a constitution for it, 1663. The chief 
magistrate was called the palatine, and there was an hereditary nobility. 
This constitution abolished, as defective, 1693. The two Carolinas purchas- 
ed by the crown for £17,500, and divided into North and South, in 1720. 

NORWAY. Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principali- 
ties, and was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical ex- 
cursions of its natives. It was converted to Christianity in a. d. 1000. The 
city of Bergen was founded in 1069. The kingdom was united to Denmark 
in 1378 ; and the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden -^vere 
united, in 1439. Pomerania and Rugen were annexed to Denmark in ex- 
change for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, Charles XIII. was 
proclaimed king by the National Diet assembled at Christiana. The two 
countries of Sweden and Norway have since then been termed the Scandi- 
navian Peninsula, of which Bernadotte was crowned king by the title of 
Charles XIV., Feb. 5, 1818. See Sweden. 

NOTABLES of FRANCE. An assembly of the notable^ of France was con- 
vened by Calonne, the minister of Louis XVI. , in 1788. The deranged state 
of the king's finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled 
Nov. 6, when Calonne opened his plan, but any reform militated too much 
against private interest to be adopted. Calonne not being able to do any 
good, was dismissed, and soon after retired to England : and Louis, having 
lost his confidential minister, Mons. de Vergennes, by death, called Mons. 
de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the end, the States General 
were called, and from this assembly sprang the National Assembly, which 
see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. The Spanish 
notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by 
him commanding their attendance,) at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Spain. 

NOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the 
Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs, 
in the first century. — Du Fresno)/. This oflice was afterwards changed to a 
commercial employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to establish their 
authenticity in any other country. 

NOVA SCOTIA. Settled in a. d. 1622, by the Scotch, under sir William Alex- 
ander, in the reign of James I. of England, from whom it received the name 
of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed 
rulers and proprietors, nor was it confirmed to England till the peace of 
Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745, and 1758 ; but was again confirmed 
to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces, in 1784 ; 
and was erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baronets. 

NOVEMBER. This was ancienly the ninth month of the year (whence its 
name), but when Numa added the months of January and February, 713 
B. c, the Romans had it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators 
(for whose mean servilities even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished 
to call this month in which he was born, hj his name, in imitation of Julius 
C^sar, and Augustus ; but this the emperor absolutely refused, saying, 
" What will you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen Csesars 1 " 

NOVI, Battle of, in which the French army commanded bj' Joubert was de- 
feated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799. 
Among 10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several 
other distinguished oflScers. A second battle fought here between the Aus- 
trian and French armies, when the latter were signally defeated, January 8, 
1800. 

NULLIFICATION of the LAWS op the UNITED STATES. The right 



450 THK world's progress. [ OAT 

. claimed by South Carolina, and various threats held out by the legislature 
of that State, in 1832. Proclamation of president Jackson against the 
Nullifiers, Dec. 10. A "State Rights" convention at Columbia, S. C, 
same day. Calhoun resigned the office of vice-president of the United 
States, Dec. 28, 1832. Nullification nullified by South Co-rolina convention in 
consequence of Mr. Clay's compromise tariif, March 11, 1834. 

NUMANTINE WAR, and SIEGE. The celebrated war of Numantia with the 
Romans was commenced solely on account of the latter having given refuge 
to the Sigidians, their own allies, who had been defeated by the Romans, 
141 B. c. — Liinj. It continued for fourteen years ; and though Numantia 
was unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely withstood the siege. The 
inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman forces till Scipio Af- 
ricanus was empowered to finish the war, and to see the destruction of Nu- 
mantia. He began the siege with an army of 60,000 men, and was bravely 
opposed by the besieged, who were not more than 4000 men able to bear 
arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, and the courage of the 
Numantines was soon changed into despair and fury. Their provisions be- 
gan to fail, and they fed uj^on the flesh of their horses, and afterwards on 
that of their dead companions, and at last were obliged to draw lots to kill 
and devour one another ; and at length they set fire to their houses, and all 
destroyed themselves, b. c. 133, so that not even one remained to adorn the 
triumph of the conqueror. 

NUNCIO. A spiritual envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In 
early times they and legates ruled the courts of several of the sovereigns of 
Germany, France, and even England. The pope deputed a nuncio to the 
Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission 
to an audience by James IL, 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolu- 
tion. 

NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of 
St. Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in 
France, near Poitiers, by St. Marcellina, sister to St. Martin, a. d. 360. — Du 
Fresnoy. The first in England was at Folkstoue, in Kent, by Eardbald, 
king of Kent, 630. — Dugdale's Monasticon Anglicanum. See articles Abbeys 
and Monasteries. The liuns were expelled from their convents in Germany, 
in Julv, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan., 
1790. " 

0. 

GATES TITUS, his PLOT. This Oates was a wicked man, at one time chap- 
lain of a ship of war. Being dismissed the service for his immoral conduct, 
he became a lecturer in London ; and, in conjunction with Dr. Tongue, in- 
vented a pretended plot to assassinate Charles II., of which several persons, 
Catholics, were accused, and upon false testimony, convicted and executed, 
A. D. 1678. Oates was afterwards tried for perjury, (in the reign of James 
II.) and being found guilty, he was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whip- 
ped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1685 ; 
but was pardoned, and a pension granted him, 1689. 

OATHS. The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced 
by the Saxons into England, a. d. 600. — Rapin. That administered to a 
judge was settled 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British sub- 
jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Heniy VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first 
framed and administered 3 James I., 1605. — Stowe's Chron. Of abjuration, 
being an obligation to maintain the government of king, lords, and com- 
mons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, and 



OGY ] DICTIONAKY OF DATES. 4S1 

abjuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 William III. 1701. 
Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as a. d. 528 ; and the words " So 
help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until 1550. 
OATHS, Ancient. The Greeks and Romans looked upon the infringement of 
an oath with still greater abhorrence than Christians ; they permitted oaths 
to be taken upon every object in which the person who swore had a 
decided and sincere belief, upon all kinds of animals, fruits, and vegetables, 
the stars, the sun, the moon, and other things, without rendering the oaths 
less binding than if they had been sworn by Jupiter. Jaques Lydius has 
left us a long catalogue of the numerous objects by which the ancients 
swore. It was usual with them to swear by what they held most dear ; as, 
for instance, by their own heads, by that of their friend, or by those per- 
sons whom they loved most tenderly. The most sacred oath far above 
any other was by the eyes of their mistress, by her kisses, by her hair. — 
Ovid, (^'C. 
OBELISK. The first mentioned in history Avas that of Rameses, king of 
Egypt, about 1485 b. c. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and 
the Egyptian priests the lingers of the sun ; they differed very much as to 
their costliness, magnitude and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ; 
one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martins, on the 
pavement of which was a horizontal dial, that marked the hour, about 
14 B. c. 
OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the 
temple of Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was 
another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: that at 
Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was 
at Alexandria, about 300 b. c. The first in modei-n times was at Cassel, 
1561. The Roj'al Observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles 11. a. d. 
1675 ; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers make 
their calculations. 

First modem meridional instrument, 
by Copernicus- - - A. D. 1540 

First observatory at Cassel - - - 1561 

Tycho Brahe's, at Uranibourg - - 1576 

Astronomical tower at Copenhagen - 1657 

Royal (French) ... - 1667 

Royal Observatory at Greenwich - - 1675 

Observatory at Nuremberg - - 1678 

At Uu-echt 1690 

OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, 
and the tentL in the year of Numa, 713 b. c. From this time October has 
still retained its first name, in spite of all the different appellations which 
the senate and Roman emperors would have given it. The senate ordered 
it to be called Fmist'mus, in honor of Faustina, wife of Antoninus the 
emperor ; Commodus would have had it called Jiwicius ; and Domitian 
Do'initianus. October was sacred to Mars. 

ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; they were at first extempore compositions 
accompanying this instrument, and sung in honor of the gods. Perha,ps 
the most beautiful and sublime odes ever written, as well as the oldest, are 
those of the royal prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about 
" 757 B. c. The celebrated odes of Anacreon were composed about 532 b. c. ; 
and from his time this species of writing became usual, Anciently odes 
were divided into Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. This species of writing 
is that of our court poets at this day, 

OGYGES, DELUGE of. The Deluge so called, from which Attica lay waste 
200 years, occurred 1764 b. c. Many authorities suppose this to be no other 



Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direc 




tion .... 


1711 


At Bologna .... 


1714 


At Petersburg 


1725 


Oxford, Dr. Radcliffe 


1772 


Dublin, Dr. Andrews ■ 


1783 


Cambridge, England 


1824 


Cambridge, Mass. 




New Haven . . - - 




Cincinnati 





452 THE wokld's TROGCESS. [ OMU 

than the universal deluge ; but accoi'ding to some writers, if it at aU oc- 
curred, it arose in the overflowing of one of the great rivers of the country. 
See Deluge. 

OHIO. One of the United States. First permanently settled at Marietta, 
April 1788 ; second settlement was Symmes's purchase, 6 miles below Cincin- 
nati, 1789 ; third by French emigrants at GaUipolis, 1791 ; fourth by New 
Englanders, -at Cleveland and Comeant, 1796. First territorial legislature 
met at Cincinnati, 1799. The "Western Reserve, under jurisdiction of Con- 
necticut, was sold by that State for the benefit of her " School fund " in 
1800. Ohio formed her State Constitution and was admitted into the Union, 
1802. Population in 1790, was 3,000; in 1800, 45,365; in 1810, 230,760; in 
1830, 937,637; in 1840, 1,519,467- 

OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, 
about 1921 B. c. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and a jar full was 
the prize at the Panathenaean games. It was the custom of the Jews to 
anoint with oil persons appointed to high oflSces, as the priests and kings, 
Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid 
seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingredient in a festival dress. 
Ruth iii. 3. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be 
resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; and after the 
process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Mar- 
tineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale. 

OLBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802. 

OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olym- 
piads, which date from the year 776 b. c, being the year in which Coroebus 
was successful at the Olympic games. This era differed from all others in 
being reckoned by periods of four years instead of single years. Each pe- 
riod of four years was called an Olympiad, and in marking a date, the year 
and Olympiad were both mentioned. The second Olympiad began in 
772 ; the third, in 768 ; the fourth, in 764 ; the fifth, in 760 ; the 10th in 
740, &c. 

OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were insti- 
tuted in honor of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every 
fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, 
now the Morea, to exercise their youth in five kinds of combats. Those 
who were conquerors in these games were highly honored by their coun- 
trymen. The prize contended for was a crown made of a peculiar kind of 
wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were instituted by Pelops, 
1307 B. c. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules; and were revived 
by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 b. g. — Dufresnoy. 

OMENS. See Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having 
drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 b. c. Alexander the Great is said 
to have had these superstitions ; and also Mithridates the Great, cele- 
brated for his wars with the Romans, his victories, his conquest of twenty- 
four nations, and his misfortunes. At the birth of this latter there were 
seen, for seventy days together, two large comets, whose splendor eclipsed 
that of the noonday sun, occupying so vast a space as the fourth pait of 
the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithri- 
dates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with nature 
to render him great, 135 b. c. — Justin. 

OMNIBUSES. These vehicles, of which there are nearly 4000 in the Londou 
circuit, were introduced there by an enterprising coach proprietor named 
Shillibeer, and first licensed at Somerset house in July, 1829. They pro- 
bably originated in Paris, where they are now also very numerous. In New 



OPT ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



45S 



York, Boston, &c., they were common as early as 1830. There were 465 
licensed in New York in 1849. 

OPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, Avas the inventor of operas, or of 
the custom of giving musical representations of coriiedy, tragedy, and other 
dramatic pieces. Emelio de Cavalero, however, disputed this honor with 
him, A. D. 1590. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. Among the Venetians, opera was the 
chief glory of their carnival. About the year 1669, the abbot Perrin ob- 
tained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672, 
was acted Pomona. Sir William Davenant introduced a species of opera in 
London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera Avas at York-build- 
ings, in 1692. The first at Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel 
were performed in 1735, and they became general in several of the theatres 
a few years after. Among the favorite performances of this kind was Gay's 
Beggar's Opera, first performed in 1727. It ran for sixty-three successive 
nights, but so often offended the persons in power, that the lord-chamberlain 
refused to license for performance a second part of it, entitled "Polly." 
This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its publication 
' with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200Z., 
whereas the Beggar's Opera had gained him only 400Z. — Life of Gaij. 

OPORTO. By nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe ; the great 
mart of Portuguese wine known as "Port." A chartered company for the 
regulation of the Port-wine trade was established here in a. d. 1756. See 
article Wines. The French under marshal Soult were surprised here by 
lord WelHngton. and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. The Mi- 
guelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with conside- 
rable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. See Portugal. 

OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of 
Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth cen- 
tury. It has advanced rapidly since the time of Halley, and is now one of 
our most flourishing as well as useful sciences. 

lenses known at Athens at 

- B. c. 424 



Burnin 
least - - - - B. c. 

Two of the leading principles known 
to the Platonists - - - - 300 

First treatise on, by Euclid, ahout - 280 

The magnifying power of convex glass- 
es and concave mirrors, and thepris- 
matic colors produced by angular 
glass, mentioned bySeneca, aboutA.D. 50 

Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy • - 120 

Greatly improved by Alhazen - - 1108 

Hints lor spectacles and telescopes giv- 
en by Roger Bacon about - - 1280 

Spectacles (said to have been) invented 
by Salvinus Armatus, of Pisa, before 1300 

Camera obscw'a said to have been in- 
vented by Baptista Porta - - 1560 

Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges, 
about - - - • - 1571 

Telescope made by Jansen (who is said 
also to have invented the micro- 
scope), about ... - 1609 

[The same instrument constructed by 
Galileo, without using the produc- 
tion of .lansen] 

Astronomical telescope suggested by 
Kepler 1611 

Microscope, according to Huygens, in- 
vented by Drebbel, about - - 1621 



[.Tansen and Galileo have also been 

stated to be the inventors.] 
Cassegrainian reflector - - - 1621 

Law of refraction discovered by Snell- 

ius, about - - - a. d. 1624 

Reflecting telescope, .lames Gregory - 1663 

■ Newton - - 1666 

Motion and velocity of light discovered 

by Roemer, and after him by Cassini 1667 
[Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 

millions of miles in sixteen minutes.] 
Double refraction explained by Bartho- 

linus - • - ■ ■ 1669 

Newton's discoveries - - - 1674 

Telescopes with a single lens, by 

Tschirnhausen, about - - - 1690 

Polarization of light, Huygens, about - 1692 
Structure ol'the eye explained by Petit, 

about 1700 

Achromatic telescope constructed by 

Mr. Hall (but not made public) in - 1733 
Constructed by Dollond, most likely 

without any knowledge of Hall's - l/"";? 
Herschel's great reflecting telescope. 

erected at Slough - - - - 17S0 

Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) - 1807 

Ramage's reflecting telescope erected 

at Greenwich - - • - 1820 



i.PTlC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have been 
N. Varole, a sureeon and physician of Bologna, about a. d. 1588.— A'^okj; 
Did. 



454 THE world's progress. [ ORD 

ORACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona ; but the most fa- 
mous was the oracle of Delphi, 1263 b. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracles 
were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terms, that let what 
would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained to 
mean the event that came to pass. Among the Jews there were several 
sorts of oracles ; as firs*, those that were delivered viva voce, as when God 
spoke to Moses ; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph ; thirdly, 
visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being properly neither asleep nor 
awake, had supernatural revelations ; fourthly, when they were accompanied 
with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued 
with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions ; 
fifthly, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the be- 
ginning of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common ; but 
it immediately afterwards ceased. — Lempriere; Pardon. 

ORANGE, House of. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe, 
and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nas- 
sau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives, 
and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of 
Nassau Dilembourg, who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories 
in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais, daughter and heiress of Godfrey 
count of Vianden ; and his grandson Gilbert, having married Jane, daughter 
and heiress of Philip, baron of Leek and Breda, added these to his other 
domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau 
family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of Nassau 
in 1530. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, 
landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his 
queen, the princess Mary, daughter of James II., April 11, 1689. 

ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio 
in London was performed in Lincoln's-Inn theatre, in Portugal-street, in 
1732. 

ORCHARDS. As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear 
to have been adopted until about the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
although they had doubtlessly existed in Great Britain for many ages pre- 
viously, as appendages to wealthy religious- establishments. — Loudo7i. 

ORDEAL. The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term 
signifying the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences 
by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstitions 
taken from the codes of the Germans. That by fire was confined to the 
upper classes of the people, that of Water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence 
the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women 
accused of incontinency formerlj' rmderwent the ordeal, to prove their in- 
nocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would 
put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this 
day, or upon God only ; and then it was called the judgment of God, pre- 
suming he would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass bare- 
footed and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carry 
burning-irons in their hands ; and accordingly as they escaped, they were 
judged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal was used 
from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henry III. It was abol- 



' Tlie water ordeal was performetl in either hot or cold : in cold water, the parties suspected 
were adjudged innocent, if their bodies were home up by the water, contrary to the course of 
nature ; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or less into scalding water, whicb if they 
brought out without hurt," they were taken to be innocent of the crii .e. 



ORR. ] DICTlOiMARY OF DATES. 45S 

ished by a royal proclamation, 46 Henry III., 1261. — Laiv Diet. Rymefs 
Fmdera. 

ORDINATION. In the ancient churcli there was no such thing as a vague and 
absolute ordination ; but every one ordained had a church whereof he was 
to be clerk or priest. In the twelfth century, thej'' grew more remiss, and 
ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal ; 
and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordina- 
tion of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjui-e its pe- 
culiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination. 

OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America. 
First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca, 1592 ; by sir Francis 
Drake, 1578 ; by Vancouver, 1792. The Columbia river discovered and en- 
tered hy Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia, of Boston, United States, 
May 7, 1792 ; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson, 
1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis, 1808 ; Pacific Fur 
Company (J. J. Astor) at New York. 1810 ; Astoria founded it the mouth of 
the Columbia, by Aster's colony, 1811 : sold to the N. W. Company, 1813 : 
occupied by the British imtil restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; operations of 
the Hudson's Bay Company (English) commenced 1821 ; the territory divi- 
ded at the 49th parrallel of lat., leaving all north of that line, with the whole 
of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr. 
McLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18, 
1846. Population at that time about 20,000. Territorial government esta- 
blished by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848. 

ORGANS. The invention of the organ is attributed to Archimedes, about 
220 B. c. ; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authority. It is also at- 
tributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 b. c. The 
organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was first applied 
to religious devotions, in churches, in a. d. 658. — Bcllannine. Organs were 
used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. — Ammcmius. It 
is affirmed tliat the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815, 
when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jerome mentions an 
organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile 
ofl"; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount 
of Olives. The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 
stops, and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 100 stops, and 5-300 pipes. 
The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human 
voices. 

ORGANS IN England. That at York-minster is the largest ; and the organ in the 
Music-hall, Bu-mingham, the next; both equal, perhaps, to that atHarlaem. 

ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES. These islands were ceded by Denmark 
to Scotland in a. d. 889, and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of 
money, in 1468. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades ; and united with 
Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. The bishoj^ric of 
Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm 
by St. Colm. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 
1689. 

ORLEANS, Siege of, by the English, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury, 
Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravelj' defended by Gaucour, the more so as 
its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI., king of France ; and it 
was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepidity and heroism of Joan 
of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429. Siege 
of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563. 

ORRERY. The employment of jilanetary machines to illustrate and explain 



456 THE world's progress. [ov> 

the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the 
construction of the clepsydrEe and other horological automata. Ptolemy 
devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about a. d. 130. 
The planetary clock of Finee, was begun a. d. 1553. The planetarium of 
De Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called, Avas invented by 
Charles, earl of Orrery; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr. 
Rowley of Lichfield, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery has 
been greatly improved of late years. 

OSTEND. This town is famous for the Icng siege it sustained against the Spa- 
niards, from July 1601 to September 1601, when it surrendered by an honor- 
able capitulation. On the death of Charles 11. of Spain the French .seized 
Ostend ; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it ivas retaken by the 
allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 
the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen 
Maria Theresa. In, 1792, the French once more took Ostend, which they 
evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. 

OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Ostracon, an oyster ; a mode of proscrip- 
tion at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years' 
banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for 
fear they might set up for tyrants over their native country, but without 
any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been 
first introduced by the tyrant Hippias ; by others it is ascribed to Clys- 
thenes, about 510 b. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they 
most suspected upon small shells ; these they put into an urn or box, and 
presented it to the senate. ■ Upon a scrutinj'', he whose name was oftenest 
written was sentenced by the council to be banished, ab aris etfocis. But 
this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the common- 
wealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice, 
"Miltiades for his victories, &c. It was abolished by ironically i^roscribing 
Hyperbolas, a mean person. 

OTAHEITE, OR Tahiti. Discovered in 1767, by Wallis, who called it George the 
Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit of 
Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months : it 
was visited twice afterward by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Omai, 
a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and 
carried back bj' him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the 
district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare com- 
pelled to place herself imder the protection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She 
retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of by 
admiral Dupetit-Thonars in the name of the French king, Nov. 1843. Sei- 
zure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, March 5, 1844. 

OTTERBURN, Battle op, fought in 1388, between the EngHsh under the earl 
of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir William Dou- 
glas, who was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur ; but the Scots ob- 
tained the victory, and the two Percies were made prisoners. On this battle 
the ballad of Chevy Chase is founded. — Wahiiighmn. 

O'lTOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othman L 
on the ruin of the empii-e of the eastern Greeks, a. d. 1293. See Turkey. 

OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed the generals of 
their army whose victories were not considerable. He who was thus re- 
warded, entered the city with a myrtle crown upon his head, that tree being 
consecrated to Venus ; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the 
honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of iha senate to be 
allowed a laiirel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph was called 
ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came ta the capitol, 



PAI ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



4S7 



whereas in the great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumius 
Tubertus was the first who was decreed an ovation, 503 b. c. 

OWHYHEE OR HAWAII, one of the Sandwich Islands. Discovered by 
captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden 
resentment of the natives. A boat having been stolen by one of the island- 
ers, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage 
till the boat was restored. The people, however, were not disposed to sub- 
mit to this insult ; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook 
and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779. 

OXFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to have been 
a seminary for learning before the time of Alfred, and that it owed its re- ■ 
vival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though 
the university is ascribed to Alfred, yet that no regular institution deserving 
the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest. 

COLLEGES. bishop of Winchester ; first called St. 

All Souls' College, founded by Henry Mary of Winchester - - - 1375 

Chichely, abp. of Canterbury A. D. 1437 Oriel College. King Edward II. 
BJiol. John Baliol, km., and Deborah 



his wife ; he was father to Baliol kin^ 

of the Scots ... - 1263 

Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop 

of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton - 1509 
Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; 

and afterwards by Henry VIII. . - 1532 
Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop 

of Winchester .... 1516 
Exeter. Walter Stapleton, earl of Ex. 

eter 1314 

Hertford College .... 1312 
Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen 

Elizabeth 1571 

Lincoln College. Kichard Fleming, 

1427 ; finished by Rotheram, bishop 

of Lincoln .... 1475 
Magdalen. Way nflete, bishop of Win. 

Chester - - . . . 1458 

Merton College. Walter de Merton, 

bishop of Rochester - . - 1274 

New College. William of Wykeham, 



Adam de Brom, archdeacon of Stow 1334 
Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale, and R. 

Whitwick, clerk - - . 1620 

Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield, 

clerk, confessor to queen Philippa, 

consort of Edward III. . . . 1340 

St. John's. Sir Thomas White . 1557 

Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope . . 1554 

University. Said to have been founded 

by king Alfred, 872; founded by Wil. 

liam of Durham - - .1172 

Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and 

Dorothy his wife . - . . 1612 

Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bent. 

ley in Worcestershire ; it was orig- . 

inally called Gloucester College . 1714 

HALLS. 

St. Albans .... 1547 

St. Edmund's - - - . 1269 

St. MaiT's .... 1616 

St. Mary Magdalen - - - - 1602 

New Inn Hall .... 1392 



OXYGEN AIR or GAS. One of the most important agents in the chemical 
phenomena of nature, and the processes of art, discovered by Dr. Priestley, 
Aug. 1774. 



PADLOCKS. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in 
A. D. 1540. 

PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gen- 
tiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of be- 
lief, except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure 
us they concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that be- 
lief Constantino ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout 
the Roman empire, a. d. 331 ; and Paganism was finally overthrown in tlie 
reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 890. — Tillemont. 

PAINTING. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt. 
Oaymandyas (See Egypt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting 
2100 B. c. — Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a 
method of burning the colors into wood or ivory, 335 b. g. The ancients 
considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said 
to have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 b. c. — Pliny. The art was 

20 



458 THE world's progress. [ PAl 

introduced at Rome from Etruria. by Quintus Fabius, who on that accomit 
was styled Pldor, 291 b. c. — Livy* The first excellent pictures were 
brought from Corinth by Mummius, 146 b. c. After the death of Augustus, 
not a single painter of eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who 
was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about a. d. 14. Paint, 
ing on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in a. d. 66. Bede, the 
Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew something of the art. It revived 
about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabuc, of Florence, is 
awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and gen- 
erously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother 
Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Fkmisii school of painting in 
oil, 1415. — Du Fresnoy. Paulo Uccello was the lirst who studied perspec- 
tive. The earliest mention of the art in England, is a. d. 1523, about which 
time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court. 

PAINTING IN THE UNITED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity 
was John Watson (born in Scotland, 1685), who commenced painting por- 
traits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Smybert, of Edinburgh, began in 
Boston, 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist ; born in 
Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708 : painted his first portrait in Lancaster, 
Pa., 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738 ; first painted in 
1760; he wastlie father of lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor of Great Britain. 
Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode 
Island, 1754), John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756), William Dunlap (New 
Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists 
in succession in the United States. See Dimlap's Arts of Design, &c. 

PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew, 
Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 1070. 
Edward III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lancaster, Duchy 
of. The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines. 

PALATINES AND SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, from 
the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrived 
in England, and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common ; a 
brief was granted to collect alms for them. 500 families went under the 
protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick, 
where parliament granted them 24,000.^. for their support. 3000 were sent 
to New York and Hudson's Baj^, but not having been received kindly by the 
inhabitants, they went to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged 
bj^ the' Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swiss 
Prote«?tants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other, 7 
Anne, 1709. — Ariderson. 

PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors disa- 
gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus, as he was build- 
ing Ilium ; but on its preservation depended the safety of Troy ; which the 
oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladium 
was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks, 
they contrived to steal it away during the Trojan war, 1184 b. c, though 
some maintain, that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, and that 
the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by .^Eneas, il83 b.c, 



' Parrhasius of Ephesus and Zeuxis were cotemporary painters. These artists once contended 
for pre-eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces, the birds 
came to peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Pari-has.ius then produced his piece, and 
Zeuxis said, "Remove the curtain, that we may see the painting." Tire curtain itself was tln! 
jiainting, and Zeuxis acknowledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, '• Zeuxis has deceived 
ihe birds; but Parrhasius has deceived Zeuxis!" Pari-hasius dressed in a purple robe, and woru 
a crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 415 e. c. — Phiinrrh. 



PAP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 45t 

and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecj'^ in the temple ol 
Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of Rome. 
PALM SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jurusalem, 
multitudes of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took 
branches of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, with acclamations 
and hosannas, a. d. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish 
countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter ; hence called Palm 
Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in their 
hands ; but the Romans, moreover, in their triumphs, sometimes wore toga 
■palmata, in which the figures of the palm-trees were interwoven. 

PALMYRA, Ruins op, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English 
travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. The ruins of Palmyra, which are chiefly 
of white marble, prove it to have been more extensive and splendid than 
even Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder- 
ness built by Solomon. Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman 
power in the time of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the 
place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the 
city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, in 
1751, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mr. Bruce, 
on ascending a neighboring mount, was struck with the most magnificent 
sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw : the immense plains below were 
so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces and temj)les), they seemed 
to touch one another. 

PALO-ALTO, Battle op. See Battles. 

PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about a. d. 
504. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amalfi, a. d. 1137 ; 
they were removed from Pisa in 1416 ; and are now preserved in the library 
of Medici at Florence, as the Pandectcz Florentine. 

PANORAMA. This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention 
of Robert Barker. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper 
roimd the wall of a circular building, with a striking resemblance to reality. 
In 1788, Mr. Barker exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the 
flrst picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in Lon- 
don, having adopted the name of ' Panorama,'' to attract notice, and was 
ultimately enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for 
that purpose. He died 1806. The panorama of the Mississippi, by Banvard, 
a self-taught American artist, was a gigantic undertaking, without precedent 
in dimensions, completed about 1846 ; since which numerous similar works 
have been achieved. 

PANTHEON AT ROME. A temple built by Augustus Caesar, some say by 
Agrippa, his son-in-law, 25 b. c. It was in a round form, having niches in 
the wall, waere the particular image or representation of a particular god 
was set up ; the gates were of brass, and beams covered with gilt brass, and 
the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the 
Virgin Marj^, and all the saints, by the name of St. Maiy de la Rotunda. 

PANTOMIMES. They were representations by gestures and attitudes among 
the ancients. They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and 
Bathyllus, 22 b. c. ; and were then considered as the most expressive part of 
stage performances. — Usher. Pantomime dances were introduced about the 
same time. — Idem. Representation by gesture and action only, is contem- 
poraneous Avith our stage. 

PAPER. See Papyrus. Pa[)er is said to have been invented in China, 170 
B.C. It was first made of cotton, about a. d. 1000; and of rags in 1319. 
White coarse paper was made by sir John Si^eilman, a German, at Dartford, 



460 THE world's progress. [iab 

in England, 33 Eliz., 1590; and here the first paper-mills were erected.— 
Stowe. Paper for writing and printing, manufactured in England, and an 
act passed to encourage it, 2 William III., 1690 ; before this time we paid 
for these articles to France and Holland 100,000^. annually. The French 
refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper almost ex- 
clusively, until they came among us. White paper was first made by us in 
1690. — Anderson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louis 
Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. 
The latter brought it to England, and here, conjointly with M. Fourdrinier, 
he perfected the machinery. M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for manufac- 
turing paper of an indefinite length, in 1807 ; it had previously been made 
tediously by the hand. A sheet of paper was made 13,800 feet long, and 
four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830. 

PAPER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this piirpose was first made in Spain 
and Holland, about a. d. 1555. Made of Velvet and floss for hanging apart- 
ments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved 
in this coimtry from early in the eighteenth century ; and it has now been . 
brought to such perfection that rich stained paper is made at twelve shil- 
lings for one yard, and the common kinds a dozen yards for one shilling. 

PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and 
India, used for writings until the discoveiy of parchment about 190 e. c. 
Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Per- 
gamus should make a library equal to that of Alexandria. A manuscript 
of the Antiquities of Joscphus on papyrus of inestimable value was among 
the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Library 
at Paris ; but it was restored in 1815. 

PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attains), 
of Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on 
the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 b. c. Parchment-books from this 
time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the 
world are written on the skins of goats. It should be mentioned that the 
Persians, and others, are said to have written all their records on skins long 
before Eumenes's time. 

PARDONS. General pardons were in-oclaimed at coronations ; first by Edward 
in., in 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege 
suce dignitatis ; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies, 
stat. 27 Henry VIII., 1535. In democracies there is no power of pardoning ; 
hence Blackstone mentions this prerogative to be one of the greatest advan- 
tages of a monarchy above any other form of government. But the king 
cannot pardon a nuisance to prevent its being abated ; or pardon where pri- 
vate justice is concerned. — Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an impeach- 
ment ef the House of Commons. — Haydn. In the United States, the par- 
doning power is vested in the governors of the several states — a fractice 
which upsets Blackstone's tlieory. 

PARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composed 
264 B. c. The Parian Marbles were discovered in the Isle of Paros, a. d. 
1610. They were brought to England, and were presented to the university 
of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the 
Arundelian Marbles, which see. 

PARIS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable town- 
ship. It began to be called the city of the Parisii, a. d. 380. Clovis fixed 
upon it as the capital of his states in 507. This city was several times ra- 
vaged by the Normans ; and in 1420 was taken by the English, who held it 
fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons died of famine and plague in 1438, 
when the hungry wolves entered the city and committed, we are told, great 



fAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 461 

devastation. The events in connection witli this great city will be found 
under their respective heads. 



The Luxembourg, by Mary of Medicis - 1594 

Hospital of Invalids - • - 1595 

The Hotel Dieu founded - - - 1606 

The Palais-Royal built - - - 1610 

The Val-de-Grace - - - - 1645 

Arch of St. Denis erected - -1672 

The Palace of the Deputies - - 1722 

The Militaiy School - - - 1751 

The Pantheon ; St. Genevieve - - 1764 



St. Denis founded - - a. d. 613 

Rebuilt 1231 

Church of Notre Dame built - - 1270 

The Louvre built (see Louvre) - ■ 1522 
Hotel de Ville .... 1.533 
The Boulevards commenced - . 1536 

Fountain of the Innocents - -1551 

The Tuileries built (s&e Tuileries) ■ 1564 
The Pont Neuf begun - ,- -1578 

Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine, 
and detached forts, with an enceinte of 15 J leagues, were commenced in Dec. 
1840. and completed March. 1846, at an expense exceeding £5,000,000 ster- 
ling. See France. 

PARK, MUNGO, his Travels. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first 
voyage to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the 
source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795 ; and retiirned Dec. 22, 1797, after 
having encountered great dangers, without his journey through intertropi- 
cal regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition. 
He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, ap- 
pointed to a new expedition by government; but never returned. The ac- 
counts of his murder on th« Niger were a long time discredited ; unhappily 
however, thej^ were at length too well authenticated by later intelligence. 
It appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at Boussa, 
■ and all killed, with the exception of one slave. 

PARKS. The Romans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pom- 
pey, and Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first 
great park of Avhich particular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, 
formed by Henry I., 1125. The parks of London ai-e in a high degree essen- 
tial to the health of its immense population, St. James's Park was drained 
by Henry VIII., 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a thoroughfare 
for public, use 1668. The Green Park forms a part of the ground inclosed by 
Henry VIII. In Hyde Park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine River, 
although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1738, 
by order of queen Caroline, consort of George II. This queen once inquired 
of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards the earl of Chatham), how much it would 
cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, ' ' Three crowns, 
your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards enter- 
tained. 

PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, of GREAT BRITAIN. It derives its origin 
from the Saxon general assemblies, called Wittenagemots ; but their constitu- 
tion totally differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken 
from parler la ment, which in the Norman law-style signifies to speak one's 
mind. This at once denotes the essence of British parliaments. The name 
was applied to the general assemblies of the state under Louis VII. of France, 
about the middle of the twelfth century, but it is said not to have appeared 
in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edward I., a. d. 
1272; and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect, 
when speaker (a. d. 1592), that this name was used even in the time of 
Edward the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record was di- 
rected to the bishop of Salisbury, 7 John, 1205. The first clear account we 
have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, was 
in the 43rd Henry III., 1258, when it was settled, by the statutes at Oxford, 
that twelve persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three 
parliaments, which by the sixth statute, were to be held yearly. — Burton's 
Annals. The general representation by knights, citizens, and burgesses, took 



462 THE WORLD'S PROGilESS. [ PAS 

place 49 Henry III., 1265. — Dugdale^s Summonses to Parliament, edit. 1685. 
The power and jurisdiction of parliament are so transcendent and absolute, 
that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds. 
It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing 
laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, as was done 
in the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the 
religion of the country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIH., Edward 
VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. — Sir Edivard Coke. 
PARMA. Formed by the ancient Etrurians. It was made a duchy (with Pla- 
centia) a. d. 1545. It fell to Spain by Phillip V.'s marriage with Elizabeth 
Farnese, 1714. The duke of Parma Avas raised to the throne of Tuscany, 
with the title of king of Etruria, in Feb. 1801. Parma was afterwards uni- 
ted to France (with Placentia and Guastalla), and on the fall of Napoleon 
was conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontaine- 
bleau, April 5, 1814. Battle of Parma: the confederates, England, France, 
and Spain, agamst the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the victory, 
June 29, 1734. Great battle of Parma, in which the French, tinder Macdon- 
ald, were defeated by Suwarrow, M'ith the loss of 10,000 men, and four 
generals, July 12, 1799. Maria Louisa died Dec. 17, 1847, and the duke of 
Lucca succeeds by previous compact. The new duke refuses petitions for 
reforms; Parma occupied by Austrian soldiers, Dec. 21, 1847. The people 
revolt; barricades, and slaughter, March 20. The duke appoints a regency; 
flees; is brought back; the duchy proclaimed to be annexed to Piedmont, 
March 20, 1848. The duke promises to join the league against Austria and 
is then liberated, April 1, 1848, but is deposed, April 9. 

PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crime not 
being supposed possible. About 500 j'ears after Numa's reign, L. Ostius 
having killed his father, the Romans first scourged the parricide ; then sewed 
him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and 
an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. The old Egyptians used to run sharp 
reeds into every part of the bodies of parricides ; and after having thus 
wounded them, threw them upon a heap of thorns, and set fire to them. In 
France, before the execution of the criminal, the hand was cut off. 

PARTHIA. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being 
exiled, as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania. 
Arsases laid the foundation of an empire which ultimately extended over 
all Asia, 250 b. c; and at one time the Parthians disputed the empire of the 
■ivorld with the Romans, and could never be wholly subdued by that nation, 
who had seen no other people upon earth unconquered by their arms. The 
last king was Artabanus V., who being killed a. d. 229, his tei-ritories were 
annexed to the new kingdom of Persia, under Artaxerxes. 

PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland, 
for regulating the Spanish succession, was signed Oct. 11, 1698 ; and the 
second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the archduke 
Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph Ferdinand hav- 
ing died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland : the 
first was a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, Feb, 17, 1772 ; the 
second, between the same powers and Austria, Arig. 5, same year; the third 
was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. There were other 
similar treaties relating to Poland, but not under this name. 

PASQUINADES. This name, which is given to humorous libels, originated in 
this way: — At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, a number of 
idle persons used to assemble to listen to the pleasant sallies of Pasquin, and 
to relate little anecdotes in their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery at 
the expense of the passers-by. After the cobbler's death in the sixteenth 



PAV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 463 

century, the statue of a gladiator was found near his stall, to which the peo- 
ple gave his name, and on which the wits of the time affixed their lampoons 
upon the state, and their satirical effusions on their neighbors, secretly at 
night. Small poems, and writings of a similar kind, from this obtained the 
name of Pasquinades, about a. d. 1633. 

PASSOVER. A solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 b. c, in commem- 
oration of their coming out of Egypt ; because the night before their de- 
parture, the destroying angel, who put to death the flrst-born of the Egyp- 
tians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews without entering them : they 
being marked with the blood of the lamb that was killed the evening before. 
and Avhich for this reason is called the Paschal Lamb. It was celebrated in 
the new Temple, April 18, 515 b. c. — Usher. 

PATAY, Battle op, in which the renowned and ill-fated Joan of Arc (the 
Maid of Orleans) signally defeated the English, June 10, 1429. Talbot was 
taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In consequence 
of this victorj'', Charles of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was 
crowned July 17, same year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full 
armor, and holding the sword of state. See Joan of Arc. 

PATENTS. Licenses and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted 
for titles of nobility, were first made a. d. 1344, by Edward III. They were 
first granted for the exclusive privilege of printing books, in 1591, about 
which time the property and right of inventors in arts and manufactures 
were secured by letters patent. 

PATRIARCHS. Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of dioceses. The dignity 
among the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, a. d. 97. In the Christian 
church it was first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constanti- 
nople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin church had no pa- 
triarchs till the 7th century. 

PAUL'S, ST., CATHEDRAL, London. The noblest Protestant church in the 
world. The best authority that exists illustrative of the origin of this church 
is its great restorer, sir Christopher Wren. His opinion, that there had been 
a church on this spot, built by the Christians in the time of the Romans, 
was confirmed when he searched for the foundations for his own design. He 
explodes the notion of there having been a temple of Diana. The first church 
is supposed to ha«ye been destroyed during the Dioclesian persecution, and 
to have been rebuilt in the reign of Constantine. This was demolished by 
the pagan Saxons, and restored by Sebert in 603. It was destroyed by the 
great conflagration in 1086, after Avhich Mauritius, then bishop of London, 
commenced the magnificent edifice which immediately preceded the present 
cathedral. St. Paul's was totally destroyed by the memorable fire of 1666 ; 
and the first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 1675, and the 
whole was completed in 1710-11, under the illustrious architect sir Christo- 
pher Wren. 

Length of St. Paul's, ■within - 500 feet. [ Length of St. Peter's, Kome - 669 feet. 
Its greatest breadth - - 22-3 Its greatest breadth within - - 442 

Height from the ground - - 340 | Heiglit from tlie ground - - 432 

PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved 
their towns with stones. The Romans in the time of Augustus had pave- 
ment in many of their streets ; but the Appian Way was a paved road, and 
was constructed 312 b. c. In England there were few paved streets before 
Henry VII. 's reign. London was first paved about the year 1533. Wood 
pavement commenced in 1839; but was generally disused in 1847. 

PAVIA, Battle of, between the French and Imperialists, when the former 
were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after fighting with heroic valor, 



464 THE world's PROGRESS. f PET, 

and killing seven men with his own hand, vfas at last obliged to surrender 
himself prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of 
the kingdom in his absence, the melancholy news of his captivity, conceived 
in these dignified and expressive terms: — Tojit est perdu, madame, fors 
Vhonneur ; Feb. 24, 1525. Collision between the students and the Austrian 
soldiers, 10 killed and 40 wounded, Jan. 8, 1848. 

PAWNBROKERS. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges de- 
posited with lenders is referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about 
A. D. 1458 ; and soon afterwards in England. The business of pawnbrokers 
was regulated 30 George II., 1756. Licenses were issued 24 George III., 
1783. In London there are 334 pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively 
of London, 1127. 

PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and mo- 
dern naturalists to explain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and 
absurd hypotheses. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed 
like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 
80,000Z. sterling. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II. of the size 
of a pigeon's &gg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13,996Z. A pearl 
spoken of by Boetius, named the Incomparable, weighed thirty carats, equal 
to five pennjnveights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The 
pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in possession of the emperor of 
Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1638, and is valued at a sum equal to 
110,400Z. 

PEERS. The first of the present order created in England was "William Fitz 
Osborn, as earl of Hereford, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. The first 
peer who was created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by 
Richard H.. in 1887. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of Angus by 
Malcolm III., 1087. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of 
Kinsale, &c., in 1181 ; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by 
Henry II. The house of lords consisted of, viz : — 

At the death of Charless 11. - 176 peers. I At the death of George III. - 339 peers. 

At the death of William III. - 192 | At the death of George IV. - 396 

At the death of Anne - - 209 I At the death of William IV. - 456 

At the death of George I. - 216 In 10th Victoria, 1847 - - 454 

At the death of George II. - 229 | 

PELAGIANS. A sect founded by Pelagius, a native of Britain. The sect 
maintained, 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had 
sinned or not, would certainly have died. 2. That the consequences of 
Adam's sin were confined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants are 
in the same condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the law qualified 
men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with 
the gospel. 5. That the general resurrection of the dead does not follow in 
virtue of our Saviour's resurrection, &c. This sect appeared a. d. 400 at 
Rome, and in Carthage about 412. 

PELEW ISLANDS. Discovered by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century. 
The wreck here of the East India Company's packet Antelope, captain Wil- 
son, 1783. The king, Abba Thule, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince 
Lee Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after 
of the small-pox ; and the East India Company erected a monument over 
his grave in the Rotherhithe churchyard. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The celebrated war which continued for twenty- . 
seven years between the Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus, 
with their respective allies. It is the most famous and the most interesting 
of all the wars which happened between the inhabitants of Greece. It 
began 431 b. c, and ended 404 b. c. 



PER ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 465 

PENAL LAWS, affecting ROMAN CATHOLICS. The laws eaacted against 
Roman Catholics in Great Britain were very severe ; and even up to the 
period of passing the Emancii^ation Bill many of them remained unre- 
pealed. All the laws there against Roman Catholics were repealed by the 
Relief Bill, passed April 13, 1829. 

PENANCE. Called by the Jews Thejouvtha. Penance, they said, consisted 
in the love of God attended with good works. They made a confession 
upon the day of expiation, or some time before ; and had stated degrees of 
penance in proportion to the crimes committed. Penance was introduced 
into the Romish church a. d. 157. In our canon law, penance is chiefly ad- 
judged to the sin of fornication. 

PENDULUMS FOR Clocks. Affirmed to have been adapted by Galileo the 
younger, about a. d. 1641. Christian Huygens contested the priority of this 
discovery : the latter brought clocks with pendulums to perfection, 1656. — 
Dufresnoy. 

PENITENTS. There are various orders of penitents, Magdalens, Magdalen- 
ettes, &c. The order of Penitents of St. Magdalen "was founded at Mar- 
seilles, about A. D. 1272. The Penitents of the Name of Jesus was a con- 
gregation of religious in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about 
1550. The Penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about 
1662. 

PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James II. to William 
Penn, of the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Swedes 
and Fins, and conquered by the Dutch in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acres 
sold by Penn for .£400 to a colony which formed a settlement at Philadelphia. 
The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 1776, when the 
legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors £130,000 in lieu of quit- 
rents. Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and other important ac- 
tions in this State in the war of independence. See Piiiladelplda. Federal 
Constitution adopted in convention, Dec. 13, 1787, by 46 to 28. Continental 
Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. United States Congress, 1790 to 1800, 
when it was removed to Washington. Population of State in 1732, 30,000 ; 
1790, 434,373 ; in 1800, 602,545 ; in 1820, 1,049,13 ; in 1840, 1,724,033. 

PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, up- 
holsterer, A. D. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the 
undertaking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the King's 
Bench^bar in the reign of Charles II., was adjudged to belong to the duke 
of York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to 
the revenue of the crown. — DcLaune, 1690. This institution was considera- 
bly improved in and round London, July 1794, et seq., and was made a two- 
penny-post. A penny post was first set up in Dublin in 1774. See Post- 
office. 

PENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth ; and 
in the solemn festival of the Jews, so called because it was celebrated fifty 
days after the feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii. 15, It is called the feast 
of ^^eeks, E.vod. xxxiv. 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the 
Pasaover. 

PERFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known to 
the ancients, and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses 
and perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763. 
— Creech. A stamp tax was laid on various articles of perfumery in Eng- 
gland and the vendor was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the cor- 
ner of Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, men- 
tioned in the Spectator. — Leigh. 

20* 



466 THE world's progress. [per 

PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Reviews and Magazines. 

PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. The philosophy taught by Aristotle, about 
342 B. c. Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aris- 
totle chose a spot of a similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same 
river, where there were trees and shades : this spot was denominated the 
Lyceum ; and as he usually walked while he instructed his pupils, his philo- 
sophy was called Peripatetic. 

PERJURY. In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early 
Romans at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the 
Tarpeian precipice ; but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a suppo- 
sition that the gods would vindicate their own honor by some remarkable 
judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark of infamy upon 
them. After the empire became Christian, and if any one swore falsely 
upon the gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the 
primitive church enjoined eleven years' penance ; and in some states the 
false-swearer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent. 
In England, perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563. 

^ERONNE, Treaty op. Louis XI. of France having jjlaced himself in the 
power of the duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne, con- 
firming those of Arras and Conflans, with some other stipulations of a re- 
strictive and humiliating character, a. d. 1468. 

.'ERSECUTIONS, General, op the Christians. Historians usually reckon 
ten. The first under Nero, who having set fire to Rome, threw the odium 
of the act upon the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence, 
massacred. Some were wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn 
and devoured by dogs ; others were crucified, and numbers burned alive, 
A. D. 64. The 2nd, under Domitian, a. d. 95. The 3rd, in the reign of Tra- 
jan, A. D. 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, under the emperor 
Severus, 197. The 6th, under Maximinus, 235. The 7th, under Decius, 
more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their 
habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The 
8th, under Valerian, 257. The 9th, under Aurelian, 272. The 10th, under 
Dioclesian. In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with 
Christians were set on fire, and droves of them were bound together with 
ropes and cast into the sea. See Massacres. 

PERSECUTIONS of the JEWS. See articles Jews and Massacres. 

PERSECUTION op the PROTESTANTS. In Franconia, where a^ multitude 
of Luther's followers were massacred by William de Furstemberg, 1525. — 
Du Fresnoy. In England when Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and La- 
timer and Ridley, prelates, and 300 Protestants, were burned alive, and great 
numbers perished in prison, 3 Mary, 1556. — Warner's Eccles. Hist. Of the 
Protestants in France, when niimbers perished ; their assemblies were pro- 
hibited, their places of worship pulled down, and sentence to the galleys 
proclaimed against all who harbored them, 1723. Executions of the Pro- 
testants at Thorn, when great numbers were put to death under pretence of 
their having been concerned in a tumult occasioned by a procession, 1724. 
See Massacres and Bartholomew. 

PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire 
was originalljr called Elam, and received the appellation of Persia from Per- 
seus, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and perhaps 
established a petty sovereignty. But long before his time, it was subject 
to independent princes. Persia was at length included in the first Assyrian 
monarchy ; and when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c., it 
appertained to the kingdom of Media. Persia was partly conquered from 
the Greeks, and was tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 3'ears, when 



PET ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



467 



Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became the founder of the second Persian 
monarchy, a. d. 229. 



The sea-fight near Ciiidus - - 394 

The Sidonians being besieged by the 
Persians, set fire to their city, and perish 
in the flames - - - 351 

Alexander the Great enters Asia ; first 
battle m Phrygia, near the river Gra- 
nicus - - - - - 33i 

[For the exploits of Alexander in Per- 
sia, see the article Mocedon.] 
Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is 

torn in pieces - - - - 331 

Alexander founds the third or Grecian 

monarchy .... 331 
Alexander, in a moment of intoxication, 
at the instance of his mistress Thais, 
sets fire to the palace of Persepolis - 330 
[The riches of this town, whose ruins, 
even as they exist at this day, are of 
indescribable magnificence, were so 
immense that 20,000 mules and 5000 
horses were laden with the spoils.] 
Persia was partly reconquered Ijrom the 
Greeks, and remained tributary to 
Parthia for near five hundred years, 
till about - - - A. D. 250 

Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a 
common soldier, restores to Persia its 
ancient title .... 229 
Reign of Sapor, conqueror and tyrant - 238 
He IS assassinated - - . 273 

Hormisdas reigns - - - - 273 

Reign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel 

and successful tyrant - . ^ . 310 

Persia was conquered by the Saracens 651 
It fell under the dominion of Tamer- 
lane, by the defeat of Bajazet - 1402 
Reign of Thamas Kouli Khan - . 1732 
He carried the Persian arms into India, 
which he ravaged. See India - 1738 

In 1747, Ahmed Abdalla fonnded the kingdom of Candahar. In 1779, com- 
petitors for the throne of Persia sprung up and caused a period of slaughter 
and desolation till 1794, when Mahomed Khan became sole monarch. 

PERU. First visited in a. d. 1513, and soon afterwards conquered by the Spa- 
niards, whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The easy conquest 
of this country has not its parallel in historj^ Pizarro, in 1530, and others, 
with one vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America, 
which, however, not succeeding, he again in 1531, embarked with three 
small vessels, 140 infantry, and thirtj'-sis horses ; with these, and two re- 
inforcements of thirty men each, he conquered the empire of Peru, and laid 
the foundation of that vast power which the Spaniards enjoy in the New 
World. Pizarro's expedition, 1524. Peru remained in subjection to the 
Spaniards (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants) without any 
attempt being made to throw oif the oppressive yoke till 1782 ; but the in- 
dependence of the country was completely achieved in 1826. The new 
Peruvian constitution was signed by the president of the Republic, March 
21, 1828. 

PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina, king of the West Saxons, to the pope at 
Rome, for the endowment of an English college there, a. d. 725. So called, 
because agreed to be paid on the feast of St. JPeter. The tax was levied on 
all families possessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of which they 
paid one penny. It was confirmed by Ofifli, 777, and was afterwards claimed 



Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of 
the Magi. — Justin - b. c. 2115 

Zoroaster 11., Persian philosopher, ge- 
nerally confounded with the king of 
Bactria. — ZarUkus - • - 1082 

Cyrus, king of Persia - - - 560 

Lydia conquered by the Persians - 548 
Cyrus becomes master of all Asia - 536 
Cambyses conquers Egypt (which see) 525 
Darius made king of Persia - - 522 

Revolt of the Babylonians - . . 512 

Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed - 498 
Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with 
an army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade 
the Peloponnesus ... 490 
The troops advance towards Athens, but 
are met in the plains of fliarathon, by 
Miltiades, at the head of 10,000 Athe- 
nians. — See Marathon - - 490 
Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of 
this year, at the head of an immense 
force. The battle of Thermopylas - 480 
Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 
200,000 of his troops, and is defeated 
in a naval engagement off Salamis - 480 
Cymon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 
250 vessels, takes several cities i'rom 
the Persians, and destroys their navy, 
consisting of 340 sail, near the island 
of Cyprus ... - 470 
Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Mith- 

ridates, the eunuch - b. c. 4G5 

The assassin is put to death in a horrible 

manner - ... - 465 

Reign of Artaxerxes - - - 464 

Cyprus taken from the Persians - 449 

Memorable retreat of the Greeks. See 

article lletreat - • - - 401 



468 THE world's progress. [ PHA 

by the popes, as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till sup- 
pressed by Henry VIII. — Camden. ~ 
PETER, THE WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of Herts- 
wold, electorate of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting. 
He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, 
and feeding on grass and moss, November 1725. At this time he was sup- 
posed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the 
dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark 
of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No human efforts of the 
many philosophic persons about the court could entirely vary his savage 
habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb. 1785, 
at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo presented him as an instance of the hy- 
pothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." 

PETER'S CHURCH, ST., AT Rome. Originally erected by Constantine. About 
the middle of the 15tli century, Nicholas VI. commenced the present mag- 
nificent pile, which was not completed under numerous succeeding popes, 
until A. D. 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, 
and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 
324 feet : the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming the most spacious 
hall ever constructed by human hands. See Paul's, SL 

PETERSBURGH. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began 
this city, in 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched 
wooden hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first house of brick ; 
and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the foundation of a 
house of the same materials. From these small beginnings rose the imperial 
city of Petersburgh ; and in less than nine years after the wooden hovels 
were erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place. 
Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses ; and in 1780, another fire con- 
sumed 11,000 houses; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in 
June 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed. 
The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. See Russia. 

PETERSBURGH, Peace op, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoring 
all her conquests to the latter, signed Maj' 5, 1762. Treaty of Petersburgh, 
for the partition of Poland, (see article Partition Treaties,') Aug. 5, 1772. 
Treaty op Petersburgh, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805. 
Treaty of alliance, signed at St. Petersburgh, between Bernadotte, prince 
royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to join 
in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive 
Norway, March 24, 1812. 

PETRARCH AND LAURA. Two of the most eminent persons of the four- 
teenth century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the for- 
mer for the latter, and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subject 
of Petrarch's enchanting sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned 
with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, April 8, 1341 ; and died at 
Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. 

PHALANX A troop of men closely embodied. — Milton. The Greek phalanx 
consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and spears 
crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was called 
the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 860 b. c. 

PHARISEES. They were a famous sect among the Jews ; so called from a He- 
brew word which signifies to separate or set apart, because they pretended 
to a greater degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews. The 
admirable parable of the Pharisee and Publican is levelled against spiri- 
tual pride, and to recommend the virtue of humility. — Luke xviii. 9. 



PHI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 469 

PHAROS AT ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and 
esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white 
marble, and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, fires 
were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building of this 
.ower cost 800 talents, Avhich are equis^alent to above 165,100Z. English, if 
Attic ; or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this inscription upon 
it — " King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors ;" but 
Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own 
name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote 
the above inscription. When the mortar had decayed by time, Ptolemy's 
name disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible; — 
"Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours, for 
the benefit of sailors." About 280 b. c. 

PHARSALIA, Battle of, between Julius Cassar and Pompey, in which the for- 
mer obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Caesar in all its 
consequences. C^sar lost about 200 men, or, according to others, 1200. 
Pompey's loss was 15,000, or 25,000 according to others, and 24,000 of his 
army were made prisoners of war by the conqueror. May 12, 48 b. c. After 
this defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, by or- 
der of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown naked on 
the strand, exposed to the view of all those whose curiosity led them that 
way, till it was burnt by his faithful freedman Philip. 

PHILADELPHIA, City of. First surveyed and regulated by the English colo- 
ny under Penn's grant, in 1682. [The Swedes had settled on Delaware bay 
in 1627.] Named after a city in Asia-Minor and first laid out with a view 
to rival ancient Babylon in extent ; but the plan was restricted to its pre- 
sent limits by the charter of 1701. First or "Continental" Congress at 
Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774, The Declaration of Independence adopted, July 
4, 1776, in the State House, still standing in Chesnut-street. The city taken 
by the British, Sept. 26, 1777; evacuated by them, June 18, 1778. Conven- 
tion met here. May 17, 1787, and on 17th of Sept. following, agreed on a 
constitution for the United States. Yellow fever raged, 1793 and 1798. 
Congress removed to Philadelphia, 1800. United States Bank established 
here, 1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846. 
Population in 1732, 12 000; in 1790, 42,000; in 1810, 96,664; in 1830, 
167,811 ; in 1840, 220,423. 

PHILIPPI, Battle or, between Octavius Csesar and Marc Antony on one side, 
and the republican forces under Brutus and Cassius, in which the former 
obtained the victory. Two battles were fought : in the first, Brutus, who 
commanded the right wing, defeated the enemy ; but Cassius, who had care 
of the left, was overpowered, and he ordered his freedman to run him 
through the body. In the second battle, the wing which Brutus command- 
ed obtained a victory ; but the other was defeated, and he found himself 
surrounded by the soldiers of Antony. He however made his escape, and 
soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 b.c. 
— Bossuet. 

PHILIPPICS. This species of satire derives its name from the orations of De- 
mosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, and from Cicero's Orations (the 
second of which was called divine by Juvenal) against Marc Antony, which 
latter cost Cicero his life, 43 b. c. 

PHILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards a. d. 1519. In this archi- 
pelago the illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like the still more illustri- 
ous Cook in the Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1521. 

PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition to his- 
tory, which is only the Kno^vledge of facts ; or to mathematics, which is the 



470 THE world's PROGE-ESS. [ PHI 

knowledge of the quantity of things ; — the hypothesis or system upon which 
natural effects are explained. — Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of 
philosopher (such men having previously been called sages), about 528 b. c. 
See Moral PhUosophij. Philosophers were expelled from Rome, and their 
schools suppressed, by Domitian, a. d. 83. — Univ. Hist. Philosophy has 
undergone four great changes: — 1. A total subserviency to priestcraft and 
superstition, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. 2. A commixture of reason 
and poetry, by the Greeks. 3. A mechanical system, introduced by Coper- 
nicus and Galileo ; and, 4. A system of poetical, verbal, and imaginary caiisa- 
tion, taught by Newton, Lavoisier, &.c. The world, at present, are divided 
between the two last. 

PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. By this name is usually meant a powder, which 
some wise heads among the chemists imagined had the virtue of turning all 
imperfect metals into silver and gold — all metals but these being so consid- 
ered. Kircher observes, with truth, that the quadrature of the circle, per- 
petual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and the philosopher's stone, have 
cracked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a long time, 
without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition in 
relation to this subject, see Alchemy. 

PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1667, by 13 rant, who procured 
it from urine ; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it from 
bones. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckell, a Saxon chemist, 
1670, and by the hon. Mr. Boyle, about the same time. — Nouv. Diet. Phos- 
phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to have been known ear- 
lier; the distinction was first pointed out by Lavoisier, in 1777. Canton's 
phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Protophosphurated hy- 
drogen was discovered by sir Humphrey Davy in 1812. 

PHRENOLOGY. The science of the mind, and of animal jsropensities, a mod- 
ern doctrine, started by Dr. Gall, in 1803. See Craniology. Dr. Spurzheim 
improved the science in 1815, and it has now many professors ; and a Phre- 
nological Society has been established in London. 

PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of cer- 
tain herbs. The sea-horse drawing blood from his bodj' by means of a reed 
to relieve himself from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood-let- 
ting. — Pliny. In fabulous history it is mentioned thatPolydius having seen 
a serpent approach the wounded body of another with an herb, with which 
he covered it, restored the inanimate body of Glaucus in the same manner. 
— Hyginus. Egypt appears to have been the cradle of the healing art ; " and 
the priests," says Cabanus, "soon seized upon the province of medicine, 
and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands 
of the priests, medicine fell into those of the philosophers, who freed it 
from its superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavored to explain the 
formation of diseases, the order of their symptoms, and the action of medi- 
cine, about 529 b. c. Hippocrates, justly regarded as the father of medicine 
and the founder of the science, flourished about 422 b. c. Galen, born a. d. 
131, Avas the oracle of medical science for nearly 1500 years. The discovery 
of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely new 
system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628. 

PHYSICS. Well described as a science of unbounded extent, and as reaching 
from an atom to God himself. It is made to embrace the entire doctrine of 
the bodies and existences of the universe ; their phenomena, causes, and 
effects. Mr. Locke would include God, angels, and spirits, under this term. 
The origin of physics is referred to the Brachmans, magi, and Hebrew and 
Egyptian priests. From these it was derived to the Greek sages, particu- 
larly Thales, who first professed the study of nature in Greece, about 595 



PIG j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 471 

B. c. Hence, it descended to the Pythagoric, Platonic, and Peripatetic 
schools ; and from these to Italy and the rest of Europe. 

PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of phy- 
sics which teaches the constitiition of the body, so far as it is in its healthy 
or natural state, and to that purpose endeavors to account for the reason of 
the sevei'al functions and operations of the several members. Sometimes it 
is limited to that part of medicine which particularly considers the struc- 
ture and constitution of human bodies, with regard to the cure of diseases. 
Its date is referred to the same time with physics, lohich see. 

PHYSIOGNOMY. This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind arc 
discovered, chiefly from the features of the face. The origin of the term is 
referred to Aristotle ; Cicero was attached to the science. It became a 
fashionable study from the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and in the 
last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system. 
Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been struck 
with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at 
which he and Zimmerman were standing ; published 1776. 

PIANO-FORTE. Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717 ; he present- 
ed a model of his invention to the court of Saxony ; and some time after, 
G. Silverman, a musical-instrument maker, began to manufacture piano-fortes 
with considerable success. The invention has also been ascribed to an in- 
strument-maker of Florence. The square piano-forte was first made by 
Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes were 
made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and have been since 
greatly improved bj^ others here. 

PICHEGRU'S, MOREAU'S, and GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable 
conspiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau 
arrested at Paris, February 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was con- 
fined in the Temple, where he was found strangled on the morning of the 
6th April following. For the particulars relating to this conspiracy, see ar- 
ticle Georges, &c. 

PICQUET, The Game of, the first known game upon the cards, invented by 
Joquemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI. 
of France, who was at the time in feeble health, 1390. — Mczerai. See ar- 
ticle Cards. 

PICTS. a Scythian or German colon}'-, who landed in Scotland much about 
the time that the Scots began to seize upon the Ebudse, or Western Isles. 
They afterwards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands 
and the isles, and the Picts in that now called the lowlands. About a. d 
838 to 843, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized 
all their kingdom, and extended the limits as far as Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

PICTURES. Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among the 
Greeks, the use of many colors in one picture. One of his pictures was 
purchase 1 by the king of Lydia for its weight in gold ; he flourished 740 b. g. 
See PavUing. 

I'IGEON, The Carrier. The courier pigeons are of very ancient use. The 
ancients being destitute of the convenience of posts, were accustomed when 
they took a long journej'-, and were desirous of sending back any news with 
uncommon expedition, to take some pigeons with them. When they thought 
proper to write to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with let- 
ters fastened to its neck : the bird, once released, would never cease its 
flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced to 
his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at Mgina, 3 



472 THE WOULD S PROGRESS. j" PH 

pigeon stained Avith purple. — Ovid. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded b^ 
means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern times, the most noted 
were the pigeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and 
Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons sent from Antwerp were liberated from Lon- 
don at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same day at noon, one of them 
arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived ; the 
remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. — Phillips. 

PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the church, 
but they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Many 
licenses were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad, 
7 Henry VI., 1428. 

PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infa- 
mous, and make them a public spectacle, for every one to see and know, 
that they might avoid and refuse to have any commerce or dealings with 
them for the future. This punishment was awarded against persons con- 
victed of forgery, perjurj^ libelling, &c. In some cases the head was put 
through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the face branded 
with one or more letters, and one or both ears cut off. It was in use in En- 
gland in the reign of Henry IH., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory, 
by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and 
putrid offal. It was abolished as a punishment in all cases except perjury, 
in 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by act 1 Victoria, June 
1837. 

PINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins are first mentioned in the sta- 
tutes A. D. 1483. Those made of brass Avire were brought from France 
in 1540, and were first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, 
queen of Heniy VIII. Before the invention of pins, both sexes used ri- 
bands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and 
skewers of brass, silver, and gold. They were made in England in 1543. — 
SLowe. 

PISA, Leaning Tower of. This celebrated tower, likewise called Campanile, 
on account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells, 
stands in a square close to the cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of 
white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with 
a round of columns, rising one above another. It inclines so far on one side 
from the pei-peudicular, tliat in dropping a plummet from the top, which is 
188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Much pains have 
been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the 
architect ; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another 
cause, namely, from an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that 
side. 

PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the 
saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket, 
&c. — Pardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalry of England, in 
1544. 

PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by 
Cook in 1773, and noted for being colonized by ten mutineers from the 
ship Bo'mity, captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time, till 1814, they (or 
rather their descendants) remained here unluiown. See Mutiny of the 
Bounty. 

PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. The first administration of this illustrious states- 
man was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry {which see), Dec. 
27, 1783. His second administration was formed May 12, 1804. The right 
honorable William Pitt was son of the great earl of Chatham. He died 



PLA ] 



DICTlONAUr OF DATES. 



473 



Jan. 23, 1806. Mr. Pitt was a minister of commanding powers, and still 
loftier pretensions : and he departed life in possession of the esteem of a 
large portion of his countrymen. A public funeral was decreed to his ho- 
nor by parliament, and a grant of .£40,000 to pay his debts. 

PIUS. This name was first given to the emperor Antoninus Titus, thence called 
Antoninus Pius, on account of his piety and virtue, a. d. 138. This name 
was also given to a son of Metellus, because he interested himself so warm- 
ly to have his father recalled from banishment. The name of Pius has also 
been taken by nine of the popes of Rome, the first of whom assumed it in 
A. D. 142. 

PLAGUE. "The offspring of inclement skies, and of legions of putrifying 
locusts." — Thomson. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the 
world occurred 767 b. c. Petavius, At Carthage the plague was so terrible 
that the people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 b. c. — Ha- 
ronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off a hundred 
thousand persons in and round the city, 461 b. c. At Athens, whence it 
spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 b. c. 
Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed 
2000 persons every d^iy, 188 b. c. Pliny. 



At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 per- 
sons perish daily, a. d. 78. 

The same fatal disease again ravaged the 
Roman empire, a. d. 167. 

In Britain, a plague raged so formidably, 
and swept away such multitudes, that the 
living were scarcely sufljcient to bury the 
dead, a. d. 430. 

A dreadful one began in Europe in 558, ex- 
tended all over Asia and Africa, and it is 
said did not cease for many years. Univ. 
Hist. 

At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its in- 
habitants perished, A. D. 746. 

[This plague raged for three years, and was 
equally fatal in Calabria, Sicily, and 
Greece.] 

At Chichester in England, an epidemical 
disease carried off 34,000 persons, 772. — 
Will. Malms. 

In Scotland, 40,000 person,=; perished of a 
pestilence, a. d. 954. 

In London, a great mortality, a. d. 1094 ; 
and in Ireland, 1095. 

Again in London : it extended to cattle, 
fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111. 
— Holings. 

In Ireland : after Christmas this year, Henry 
II. was forced to quit the country, 1172. 

Again in Ireland, when a prodigious number 
perished, 1204. 

A general plague raged throughout Europe, 
causing a most extensive mortality. Bri- 
tain and Ireland suffered grievously. In 
London alone, 200 persons were buried 
daily in the Charterhouse yard. 

In Paris and London a dreadful mortality 
prevailed in 1362 and 1367; and in Ire- 
land, in 1370. 

A great pestilence in Ireland, called the 
fourth, destroyed a great number of the 
people, 1383. 

30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pesti- 
lence in London, 1407. 

Again in Ireland, superinduced by a fam- 
ine ; great numbers died, 1466 ; and Dub- 
lin was wasted by a plague, 1470. 



An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and 
throughout England a plague which de- 
stroyed more people than the continual 
wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478. 
— Rapin ; Salmon. 

The awful Sudor Anglicus, or sweating 
sickness, very fatal at London, 1485. — 
Delrnme. 

The plague at London so dreadful that Hen- 
ry VII. and his court removed to Calais, 
1500.— Stowe. 

Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in 
three hours). In most of the capital 
towns in England half the inhabitants 
died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 II. 
VIII., Wn.—Stowe. 

Limerick was visited by a plague, when 
many thousands perished, 1522. 

A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525 ; and 
tlie English Sweat, 1528 ; and a pestilence 
in Dublin, 1575. 

30,578 persons perished of the plague in 
London alone, 1603-1604. It was also 
fatal in Ireland. 

200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constan- 
tinople, in 1611. 

In London, a great mortality prevailed, and 
35,417 persons perished, 1625. 

In France, a general mortality ; at Lyons 
60,000 persons died, 1632. 

The plague, brought from Sardinia to Na- 
ples (being introduced by a transport with 
soldiers on board), raged with such vio- 
lence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabit- 
ants in six months, 1656. 

Memorable plague which carried off 68,596 
persons in London, 1665. 

[Fires were kept up night and day to purify 
the air for three days ; and it is thought 
the infection was not totally destroyed till 
the great conflagration of 1666.] 

60,000 persons persons perished of the 
plague at Marseilles and neighborhood, 
brought in a ship from the Levant, 1720. 

One of the most awful plagues that ever 
raged, prevailed in Syria, 1760. — Abbi 
Mariti. 



474 THE world's TROGRESS. .. [ FLA 

PLAGUE, continued. 



In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried 

off 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassorah, 

1773. 
In E^pt, more than 800,000 persons died 

of plague, 1792. 
In Barbary, 3000 died daily; and at Fez 

247,000 perished, 1799. 
In Spain, and at Gibraltar, immense num- 



bers were earned off by a pestilent dis. 
ease in 1804 and 1805. 

Again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever, much 
resembling the plague, caused great mor- 
tality, 1828. 

The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) 1832, 
1834, 1849. 



PLAGUES OP EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, although 
he had performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a display 
of wrath upon the land, in ten awful instances, Avhich are denominated the 
plagues of Egypt, 1492 b. c. In this year the king, named by some Amen- 
ophis, by others Cherres, is, with his whole army, overwhelmed in the Red 
Sea. — Usher, Blair, Lenglet. 

PLANTAGENET, House of. A race of fourteen English kings, from Henry 
IL to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth {ivMch see), 1485. Anti- 
quaries are at a loss to account for the origin of this appellation ; and the 
best derivation they can find for it is, that Fulk, the first earl of Anjou, of 
that name, being stung with remorse for some wicked action, went on a pil- 
grimage to Jerusalem, as a work of atonement ; where being scourged with 
broom twigs, growing on the spot, he took the surname of Plantagenet, or 
Broom-stalk, which was retained by his posterity. 

PLASTER OF PARIS, for moulds, figures, statuary, &c. The method of tak- 
ing likenesses bj^ its use was first discovered b}' Andrea Verrochio, about 
A. D. 1466. This gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, 
v/hence it obtained its name. " 

PLAT.1EA, Battle of, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of 
Persia, and Pausanias the Lacedfemonian, and the Athenians. The Per.sian 
army consisted of 300,000 men, 3000 of which scarce escaped with their 
lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few 
men ; and among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen 
Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the number of the slain. The 
plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian camp was immense. Pau- 
sanias received a tenth of all the spoils, on account of his uncommon valor 
during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their 
respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same 
day as the battle of Mycale, 479 b. c. ; and by it Greece was totally deliver- 
ed for ever from the contiiuial alarms to which she was exposed on account 
of the Persian invasions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia 
dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the Hellespont. 

PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of luxury cannot be precisely 
traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in 
public houses by statute 8 William III., 1696. The celebrated Plate Act 
passed in May 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty 
upon plate passed in 1784. 

PLATINA. This is the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and 
gold. The name which is given to it originated with the Spaniards, from 
the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem on account of its silvery 
color. It was unknown in Europe until a. d. 1748, when Don Antonio 
Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru. — 
Greig. 

PLATTSBURGH, on Lake Champlain, New York, Battle of; 14,000 British 
troops under sir George Prevost repulsed, Sept. 11, 1814. The British fleet 
on the lake captured by Macdonough, at same time. 



POE ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES 



475 



PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime Avere performed in Greece 
and Rome. Plays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 e.g.; 
but they were performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The 
Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a 
proper head or captain, wherein the utmost dexterity was practised. The 
plays of Ceres were instituted to-please the ladies, who from the 12th to the 
20th of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, went 
with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The 
plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down. 
The funeral plays were plaj^s in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their 
ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays 
were first acted in England at Clerkenwell, a. d. 1397. The first company 
of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage, 
and others, the servants of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in 
1574. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See 
Drama. 

PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were 
made in the Saxon language in a. d. 786. They were made in Norman- 
French from the period of the Conquest in 1066; and they so continued lui- 
til the 36tli of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to 
oe taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the 
courts of law till 1731. 

POET LAUREAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office. 
The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III. 
1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shil- 
lings were his annual stipend. — Warton; Maddox, Hist. Exch. Chaucer, on 
his return from abroad, assumed the title poet-laureat; and in the twelfth 
year of Richard II., 1889, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of 
wine. James L. in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 
marks; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles 
I. to lOOZ. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary 
Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 

NAMES OF PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE PROM THE EEIGN OP aUEBN ELIZABETH. 



Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser, 

who died - - - a. d. 1598 

Samuel Daniel, died - - • 1619 

Ben .Tonson, died - - - 1637 

Sir William Davenant, died - -1668 

John Dryden ; he was deposed at the 

revolution .... 1688 
Thomas Shadwell, died - - - 1692 



Nahum Tate, died - - a. d. 1716 

The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730 

CoUey Gibber, died - - . - 1757 

William Whitehead, died - . 1785 

Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - . 1790 

Henry James Pye, died - - - 1813 
Dr. Robert Southey, died . March 21, 1843 

William Wordsworth, died - . 1850 



POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest 
species of refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and 
the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before music in melody, 
and before painting in description. — HazUtt. The exact period of the in- 
vention of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptural history, the song of Moses on 
the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea, 
is said to be the most ancient piece of poetry in the world, and is very sub- 
lime. — Exodus XV. Orpheus of Thrace is the earliest author, and is deemed 
the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249 
B. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to us, flourished 
about 907 b. c— Parian Marb. Iambic verse {which see) was introduced by 
Archilochus, 700 b. c.—Du Fresnoy. For odes, see article Odes. We are 
told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to 
England by Aldhelme, or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close of 
the seventh century. 



476 



THE world's progress. 



Lpol 



POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning 
their husbands, which they too fatally carried into eifect. A female slave 
denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maximus, who ordered them to be pub- 
licly executed, 331 b. c. It is said that this was the first public knowledge 
they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- 
land, and was punished by boiling to deatii (of which there were some re- 
markable instances) 23 Henry VIII. 1532. See article Boiling to Death. 

POITIERS, Battle of, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and John 
king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standard of 
France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were slain. 
The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through 
which he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two kings, 
prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glo- 
rious achievements ; but all that England gained by them was only glory, 
Sept. 19, 1356.— Carte. 

POLAND, Anciently, the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it to 
invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy imder Lechus I. a. d. 550; 
and a kingdom under Boleslaus a. d. 999. Poland was dismembered by the 
emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seiz- 
ed the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finally partitioned, and its 
political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king 
formallj^ resigned his crown at Grodno, and was afterwards removed to Pe- 
tersburgh, wliere he remained a kind of state prisoner till his death in 
1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland. 

Abdication of John Casimir - - 1669 

842 IMassacre of the Protestants at Thorn -1724 

Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins - 1763 

He abolishes torture - - • 1770 

An awful pestilence sweeps away 

250,000 of the people - - - 1770 

992 The evils of civil war so weaken the 

1059 



Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the du- 
cal dignity - - - a. d. 

[Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his 
reign was so prosperous that every 
succeeding native sovereign was call- 
ed a Piast.] 

Introduction of Christianity 

Red Russia added to Poland 



Boleslaus 11. murders the bishop of 
Cracow with his own hands ; his 
kingdom laid under an interdict by 
the pope, and his subjects absolved 
of their allegiafice - - - 1080 

He flies to Hungaiy for shelter ; but is 
refused it by order of Gregory VII., 
and he at length kills himself - 1081 

Uladislaus deposed - - - 1102 

Premislaus assassinated- - - 1295 

Louis of Hungary elected king- - 1370 

War against the Teutonic knights - 1447 
The Wallachians treacherously carry 
oir 100,000 Poles, and sell them to 
the Turks as slaves - . - - 1498 

Splendid reign of Sigismund II. - 1548 

Stephen forms a militia composed of 
Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom 
he bestows the Ukraine - - 1575 



kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the 
royal plunderers, the empress of 
Russia, emperor of Austria, and king 
of Prussia .... 1772 
The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772 

The public partition treaty Aug. 5, 1772 
A new constitution is formed by the 

virtuous Stanislaus - - May 3, 1791 

[The royal and imperial spoliators, on 
various pretexts, pour their armies 
into Poland, 1792, et seq.] 
The brave Poles, under Poniatowski 
and Kosciusko, several times contend 
successfully against superior armies, 
but in the end are defeated. Kosci- 
usko, wounded and taken, is carried 
prisoner to Russia - - - 1794 

Stiwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794 
Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 1794 

[Here Suwarrow subsequently butch- 



* An act of spoliation more unprincipled never dishonored crowned heads. For a century pre- 
viously, the balance of power had engaged the attention of the politicians of Europe; butin per- 
mitting this odious crime, such an object appears to have been totally lost sight of. Austria and 
Prussia had long been deadly enemies, and both hated Russia; yet they now conspired agaiast a 
country they were each pledged to protect, and with unexampled profligacy became leagued in a 
scheme of plunder consummated by the destruction of .500,000 lives ! Russia seized Lithuania, 
and all that part to the eastward that suited her. Austria took Gallicia, the most fertile of the 
provinces, lying contiguous to her own dominions ; and Prussia secured the maritime districts. 
The most extraordinary circumstance attending this afiair was the total inaction of the two greal 
powers, England and France, whose supineness in a more recent instance also is rebuked by policj 
as well as justice, and de]iloredby the food and brave among mankind. — Haydn. 



POL ] 



DICTIONARY OP DATES. 



477 



POLAND, continued. 

era 30,000 Poles of all ages and condi- 
tions in cold blood.] 
Courland is annexed to Russia - - 1795 

Stanislaus resigns his crown ; final par- 
tition of his kingdom - Nov. 25, 1795 
Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796 
Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh, 

Fe>i. 12, 1798 
Treaty of Tilsit (ichich see) - July 7, 1807 
[The central provinces form the duchy 
of Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.] 
General Diet at Wai^saw - June, 1812 

New constitution - - Nov. 1815 

Polish Diet opened - - Sept. 1820 

Revolution commenced at Warsaw ; 
the army declare in favor of the peo- 
ple - - - Nov, 29, 1830 
The Diet declares the throne of Poland 

vacant - - - Jan. 25, 1831 

Battle of Growchow, near Praga : the 



Russians lose 7000 men ; the Poles, 
who keep the field, 2000 Feb. 20, 1831 
Battle of Ostrolenka; signal defeat of 

the Russians - - May 26, 1831 

The Russian, Diebitsch, dies June 10, 1831 
Grand Duke Constantine dies, June 27, 1831 
Battle of Winsk (see Wmsk) July 14, 1831 
Warsaw taken (see Warsaic} Sept. 8, 1831 
[This last fatal event terminated the 
nemorable and glorious, but unfor- 
tunate struggle of the Poles.] 
Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, 
decreeing that the kingdom of Poland 
shall henceforth form an integral part 
of the Russian empire Feb. 26, 1832 

A powerful insurrection ; 40,000 march 

on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1846 
Cracow occupied by the Austrians^ and 
the treaty which had made it inde- 
pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1846 
Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1848 



DUKES AND KINGS OP POLAND. 



k.D. 550 

700 



750 
750 

804 
810 
815 
830 
842 
861 
892 
913 
964 
999 
1025 
1041 
1058 
i082 
1102 
1140 
1146 
1173 
1178 
1194 
1200 



1203 
1206 



1228 
1279 



Lechus I. His posterity held the 
dukedom for about 150 years. 

Cracus I. 

Cracus 11., assassinated by his brother. 

Lechus II., deposed. 

Venda, drowned herself. 

Premislaus. who on being elected was 
named Lescus or Le-ss. 

Lescus II., killed by the French. 

Lescus III. 

Popiel I. 

Popiel II. 

Piastus, a country peasant. 

Zemo Vitus. 

Lescus IV. 

Zemomislaus. 

Miecislaus, surnamed the Blind. 

Boleslans I., surnamed the Intrepid. 

Miecislaus II., went mad. 

Casimir the Pacific. 

Boleslaus II., killed himself 

Uladislaus, surnamed Huraanus. 

Boleslaus III., surnamed Wry-mouth. 

Uladislaus II., fled. 

Boleslaus IV., the Curled. 

Miecislaus III., deposed. 

Casimir II., surnamed the Just. 

Lescus v., relinquished. 

Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a 
few months restored Lescus V. ; but 
for bad conduct he was again forced 
to relinquish the government. 

Uladislaus III. ; he voluntarily retired. 

Lescus v., a third time, being chosen 
by the nobles, assassinated ; suc- 
ceeded by his son, an infant. 

Boleslaus V., the Chaste. 

Lescus VI., surnamed the Black, son 
of Conrad, brother of Lescus V., 
died 1289. An interregnum of five 
years, when the Poles chose 



1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, as- 

sassinated. 

1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeticus ; 

he refused the title of king ; deposed. 

1300 Winceslaus. 

1306 Uladislaus IV., again. 

1333 Casimir the Great, killed by a fall 
from his horse, while hunting. 

1370 Lewis, king of Hungary, succeeded by 
his daughter, 

1383 Hedwigis,"who married, in 

13S5 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em- 
braced the Christian religion, and 
took the name of 
Uladislaus V. ; imited Lithuania to 
Poland. 

1434 Uladislaus VI., killed in battle. 

1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia. 

1447 Casimir IV. 

1492 John Albert. 

1502 Alexander, prince of Livonia. 

1507SigismundI. 

15^18 Sigismund II., Augustus, chose 

1573 Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, sue 

ceeding to the French throne. 

1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl- 
vania. 

1587 Sigismund III., son to the king of 
Sweden. 

1632 Uladislaus VIL 

1648 John Casimir, abdicated. 

1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown. 

1574 John Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter- 

regnum for a year. 

1693 Frederick Augustus II., forced to re- 
sign. 

1704 Stanislaus I., Leczinsky, forced to re- 
lire in 1710. 

1710 Frederick Augustus II., again. 

1733 Stanislaus I., again. 

1733 Frederick Augustus III, 

1764 StanislausAugustus resigns the crown. 



So late as the 13th century, the Poles retained the custom of killing old meu 
when past labor, and such children as were born imi^erfect. 

POLAR REGIONS. For voyages of discovery to the, see Norlh-xijest Pas- 



478 THE world's progress. [ POM 

POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- 
stellation called the lAttle Bear; its nearness to the North Pole causes it ne- 
ver to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the 
seaman's guide. The discovery of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese 
to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned 
and flourished 1970 b. c. — Univ. Hist. 

POLICE. That of London has been extended and regulated at various pe- 
riods. Its jurisdiction was extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I. 
1640 ; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. The 
London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. The 
London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, by statute, 
June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1840, in introducing a 
suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States ; but 
we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the 
world, large or small, is so well provided as London with an efficient and 
useful police force ; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but 
preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A 
science justly viewed as the great high-road to ijublic and private happiness. 
Its history may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Wealth 
of Nolions. 1776. 

POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man M'ell versed in policy, or 
the well regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cun- 
ning man. — Pardon. The term was first used in France about a. d. 1569. — 
Henault. 

POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England a. d. 1378. The re- 
bellion of Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tyler), 1381. It was 
again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed 
by the head, viz. — a duke lOOZ., a marquis 80Z., a baronet 30^., a knight 20Z., 
an esquire 10^., and every single private person 12d., 1667. This grievous 
impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution. 

POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy. 
It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and 
Persiajis. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven 
wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who 
took two wives ; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arca- 
dius A. D. 893. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with death. 
In England, by statute 1 James 1. 1603, it was made felony, but witli bene- 
fit of clergy. This oflfence is now punished with transportation. See 
Marriages. 

POLYGLOT. The term is derived from t\vo Greek words denoting " many lan- 
guages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot Bible 
termed the Comptutensian Polyglot, in 6 vols, folio, was printed a. d. 1514-17 ; 
the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes. Three co- 
])ies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483Z. 
for one of these copies at tlie Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printed 
at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols, folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Pa- 
ris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. The fourth in London, printed by 
Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1657. — Brunei. 

POMPEII, Ruins of. This ancient city of Campania was partly demolished 
by an earthquake in a. d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed 
up by an awful eruption of Ve.suvius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the 
night of the 24th of August, a. d. 79. Many of the principal citizens happen- 
ed at the time to be as.'^euibU'd at a theati-e where public spectacles were 



pop] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



479 



exhibited. The ashes buried the whole city, and covered the surrounding 
country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, a countryman, as he was turning 
up tlie ground, accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discovery attract- 
ing the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous produc- 
tions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun. 
Different monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried 
city; the part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, a. d. 1750. 

I'ONDICHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by 
the French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and 
was beseiged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces in 
Januarv 1761, and was restored in 1763. Pondicherry was once more cap- 
tured by the British, August 23, 1793 ; and finally in 1803. 

I'ONTUS. The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a 
portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pon- 
tus Eiixinus) is very obscure. Artabazes was made king of Pontus oy Darius 
Hystaspes. His successors were little more than satraps or lieutenants of 
the kings of Persia, and are scarcely known even by name. 



Artabazes made king of Pontus by Da- 
rius Hystaspes - - - B. c. 487 
Reijrn of Mitliridates I. - - -383 
Ariobarzanes invades Pontus - - 363 
INIithridates II. recovers it ■ - - 336 
Mithridates III. reians - - - 301 
Ariobarzanes II. reigns - - - 266 
INIithridates IV. is besieged in liis capi- 
tal by tlie Gauls, &c. - - - 252 
Mithridates makes an unsuccessful at- 
tack upon the free cily of Sinope, and 
is obliged to raise the siege by the 
Rhodians - - - - 219 
Reign of Pharnaces ; he takes Sinope, 
and makes it tlic capital of his king- 
dom 183 

Reign of Mithridates V. - - -1.57 

He IS murdered in the midst of his court 123 
Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or 
Eupator, receives the diadein at 12 
years of age ... - 123 

Marries Laodice, his own sister - - 115 
She attempts to poison him ; he puts 

her and her accomplices to death - 112 
Mithridates makes a glorious campaign ; 
conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Col- 
chis, and other countries - - 111 
He enters Cappadocia - - - 97 
His war witlr Rome - • - 89 



Tigranes ravages Cappadocia b. c. 

Mithridates enters Biihynia, and makes 
himself master of many Roman pro- 
vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to 
death ..... 

Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chaero- 
nea ; 100,000 Cappadocians slain 

Victories and conquests of Mithridates 
up to this time - - . . 

The ileet of Mithridates defeats that un- 
der LueuUus, in two battles 

Mithridates defeated by LucuUus 

Mithridates defeats Fabius - 

But is defeated by Pompey 

Mithridates stabs himself, and dies 

Reign of Pharnaces 

BalUe of Zela (see Zela) ; Pharnaces 
defeated by Csesar 

Darius reigns - - - - 

Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns 

Polemon II. succeeds his lather - A. D. 

Mithridates VII. reigns 

Pontus afterwards became a Roman 
province, under the emperors. 

Ale.xis Comncnus founded a new empire 
of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this 
country, a. d. 1204, which continued 
till the Turks destroyed it in 1459.- 



86 



POOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as 
the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By 
an ancient statute, 23 Edward III. 1348, it was enacted that none should 
give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law, the poor were to 
be sustained by " parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that 
none should die for default of sustenance ;" and by statute 15 Richard II. 
impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor. But no 
compulsory lav/ was enacted till the 27th Henry VIII., 1535. The origin of 
the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, 1600. 



In 1580, the Poor Rates were - £188,811 

1680, they amounted to - 665.562 

1698, they amounted to - - 819.000 

1760, they amounted to - 1,556,804 

1785, they amounted to - 2.184,950 

1802, they amounted to - 4,952,421 



In 1815, the Poor Rates were - £5,418.845 

1820, they amounted to - 7,329,594 

1830, they amounted to ■ 8,111,422 

1835, they amounted to - 6,.356.345 

l&JO. they amounted to - 5,468.699 

1845. they amounted to - 5,543,050 



POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Hy- 
genus, A. n. 138; and y.<i\tf Bonifiu ■,■ HT. i)V(H'\ired Phooas, emperor of the 



480 THE world's progress. [ POP 

East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the connivance of Pho- 
cas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian church was established. The 
custom of kissing the pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign 
act of the popes of Rome was by Adrian I., who caused money to be coined 
with his name, 780. Sergius II. was the first pope who changed his name, 
on his election in 844. Some contend that it was Sergius I. and others John 
XII. or XIII. See Names. John XVIII., a layman, was made pope 1024. The 
first pope who kept an armj'- was Leo IX. 1054. Gregory VII. obliged Henry 
rV., emperor of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, bare- 
footed, at his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077. Tlie pope's authority 
was firmly fixed in England 1079. Appeals from English tribunals to the 
pope were introduced 19 Stephen, 11-54. — Viner's Statutes. Henry II. of Eng- 
land held the stirrup of pope Alexander III. to mount his horse, 1161; and 
also for Becket, 1170.* Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI.'s crown 
off his head while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmak- 
ing kings, 1191. The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom of 
England, 1226. The papal seat was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1308, 
for seventy years. The Holy See's demands on England were refused by 
parliament, 1363. Appeals to Rome from England were abolished 1533. — 
Viner. The words " Lord Pope" were struck out of allEnghsh books, 1541. 
The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the pope's toe and other 
ceremonies, were abolished by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope became des- 
titute of all political influence in Europe, 1787. Pius VI. Avas burnt in effigy 
at Paris 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was 
expelled from Rome, and deposed, February 22, 1798, and died at Valence, 
August 19, 1799. Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Was 
dethroned May 13, 1809. Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napo- 
leon's overthrow ; and was restored May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected 
June 1846, decrees a senate of 100, Oct. 2, 1847. Riot at Rome, new ministry, 
May 1, 1848. Count Rossi, the pope's prime minister, assassinated Nov. 
16, 1848. Attack of the people on the Quirinale ; the pope yields and 
grants a liberal ministry, Nov. 16. After being a prisoner in his palace 
for a week, the pope escapes in disguise of a servant to Mola-di-Gaeta, Nov. 
24, and thence goes to Portici, near Naples. Roman republic proclaimed 
Feb. 9, 1849. See Rome. The pope returned to Rome, April 1850. See 
Italy ; Rome; Reformation, cf-c. 

POPES SINCE THE REFORMATION. 

1591 Innocent IX. ; died in 2 months. 



A.D. 1513 Leo X. ; his grant of indulsrences for 
crime led to the reformation. 

1.522 Adrian VI. 

152-3 Clement VII. ; denounced Henry VIII. 
of England. 

1534 Paul III. 

1550 .Julius III. 

1.555 iMarcellus II. ; died in 2] days. 

1555 Paul IV. ; fiery and haughty. 

1559 Pius IV. 

1566 Pius V. 

1572 Gregory XIII. ; learned canon ; re- 
formed the Calendar, {trhich see). 

1585 Sixtus V. ; supposed poisoned. 

1590 Urban VII. ; died 12 days after. 

1590 Gregory XIV. 



1-592 Clement VIII. ; learned and just. 
1605 Leo XI. ; died same month. 
1605 Paul V. 

1621 Gregory XV. ; beneficent. 
1623 Urban VIII. 

1644 Innocent X. ; violent and cruel. 
16.55 Alexander VII. ; liberal and learned. 
1667 Clement IX. ; died of grief. 
1670 Clement X. 

1676 Innocent XI. ; reformed abuses. 
1689 Alexander VIII. 
1691 Innocent XII. ; abolished nepotism. 
1700 Clement XI. 

1721 Innocent XIII. ; the eighth pontiff of 
his family. 



* " When Louis, kin^ of France, and Henry II. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle 
of Torei, on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive "him, and holding each of them one of the 
reins of his bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into 
the castle." — Hume. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englishman that ever obtained the tiara. His 
arrogance was such, that he obliged Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss his foot, hold 
his slirrup, and lead the white palfrey on which ho rode. His name was Nicholas Brekespeare. 
He was elected In the popedom in 115-1 



pop] 



DICTIONARY OP DATES. 



481 



1800 Cardinal Chiaramonte, elected at Van 
ice, as Pius VII., March 13. 

1823 Annibal delta Genga,Leo XII., Sept.23 

1831 Mauro Capellari, Gregory XVI.,Feb.2. 

1846 Mastei Ferretti, Pius IX., inaugurated 
June 21, aged 54. - - June 16. 



POPES, continued. 

1724 Benedict XIU. 

1730 Clement XII. ; reformed abuses. 

1740 Benedict XIV. ; wise and pious. 

1758 Clement XIII. 

1769 Clement XIV. Ganganelli. 

1775 Pius VI., February 14. 

For Succession of Popes to the Reformation, see Tabular Vieios, from page 
50 to page 115. 

POPE JOAN. It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a female, 
named Joan, conceived a violent passion for a young monk named Felda^ 
and in order to be admitted into his monastery assumed the male habit! 
On the death of her lover, she entered on the duties of professor, and being 
very learned, was elected pope when Adrian II. died in 872. Other scan- 
dalous particulars follow ; " yet until the Reformation the tale was repeated 
and believed without offence." — Gibbon. 

POPISH PLOT. This plot is said to have been contrived by the Catholics to 
assassinate Charles II. ; concerning which, even modern historians have 
affirmed, that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and 
others much magnified. The popish plot united in one conspiracy three 
particular designs : to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extir- 
pate the Protestant religion. Lord Stafford was convicted of high treason 
as a conspirator in the Popish plot, and was beheaded, making on the 
scaffold the most earnest protestations of his innocence, Dec. 29, 1680.^ — 
Rapin. 

POPULATION. The population of the world may now, according to the best 
and latest authorities, Balbi, Hanneman, the Almanac de Gotha, &c., be 
stated in round numbers at 1050 millions. Of these, Europe is supposed to 
contain 270 millions ; Asia, 565 millions ; Africa, 115 millions; Amei-ica, 75 
millions ; and Australasia, 25 millions. The population of England in a. d. 
1377 was 2,092,978 souls. In a little more than a hundred years, 1483* it 
had increased to 4,689,000. The following tables of the population of the 
United Kingdom are from official returns : — 

POPULATION OP ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOR ONE HUNDRED YEARS. 



Year 1700 
1710 
1720 
1730 
1740 
1750 
1760 



pulation 5.475,000 


Year 1770 


ditto 


5,240,000 


1780 


ditto 


5,5Bo,U0U 


J 790 


ditto 


5,790.UOO 


1801 


ditto 


6.064.000 


1821 


ditto 


6,467.000 


1841 


ditto 


6.736,U0O 





Population 7,428,000 
ditto 7,953,000 
ditto 8,675,000 
ditto 10,942,646 
ditto 14,391,631 
ditto 18,844,434 



POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Year 1790 Population 3,929.827 

1800 - - - ditto 5,305;925 
1810 • - - ditto 7,239,814 

1820 - - - ditto 9,638,131 

PRESENT POPULATION OP THE CHIEF KINGDOMS AND CITIES OF THE WORLD, 



Year 1830 Population 12,866,920 

1840 - - - ditto 17,063,353 
[See the several States.] 



Chinese empire 

CBalbi) - - 180,000,000 

Russia - - - 58,-500,000 

Russian empire - 72,000,000 

France- - - 36,500,000 

Austria - - - 34,599,000 
Great Britain and 

Ireland - - 27,000,000 
British empire - 158,000,000 

Japan - - - 27,000,000 

Spam - - - 17,500,000 
Spanish empn-e 

(total) ■ ■ - 19,500,000 



Pruss. monarchy 16,550,000 
United States of 



America* 
Tur]i:ey - - - 
Ottoman empire 

Ootat) - 
Persia - - - 
Mexico 
Kingdom of the 

two Sicilies - - 
Brazil - 

Sardinia - - • 
Morocco 



17,063,000 
12,000,000 

24,500,000 
11.800,000 
9,500,000 

8,750,000 
6,250,000 
5,800,000 
5,200,000 



Holland - - ■ 

Dutch monarchy 
(total) 

Bavaria - 

Sweden and Nor- 
way - 

Belgium - 

Poland 

Portugal 

Republic of Co- 
lumbia - 

Eccles. States - 

British America 



5,100,000 

14,7.50,000 
4,600,000 

4,-550.000 
4,500,000 
4,250,000 
3,950,000 

3,350,000 
2,970-000 
2,950;000 



In 1840. Ill 18-V), estimated at 22,000,000. 
21 



482 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[POR 



POPUI.ATION, continued. 








Switzerland 


2,450,000 


St. Petersburgh - 


405,000 


Hamburgh • • 


Denmark - - 


2,400,000 


Vienna - - • 


395,000 


Lyons 


Hanover - 


1,780,000 


New York (1845) 


371.000 


Palermo - - - 


Wirtemberg - - 


1,680,000 


Moscow 


355;000 


Marseilles - 


Saxony 


1,650,000 


Grand Cairo - - 


335,000 


Copenhagen - - 


Tuscany- - - 


1,550,000 


J,isbon 


298.000 


Turin - 


Baden 


1,400,000 


Aleppo - 


280;000 


Seville - - - 


CITIES, 




Berlin - 


280.000 


Warsaw 


Cities. 


Inhab. 


Amsterdam - • 


274,000 


Tunis - - - 


London iParlia- 




Madrid 


270,000 


Baltimore (1848) 


■mentary Ret.) 


1,776,556 


Philadelphia (1848) 


2.'-i8,000 


Prague 


Jeddo {reputed) • 


1,680,000 


Bordeaux - - 


247.000 


Smyrna - - - 


Pekin (reputed) 


1,600,000 


Bagdad 


245;uon 


Brussels 


Paris - 


1,000,000 


Mexico - - - 


£25,000 


Florence - - 


Nankin - - - 


850,000 


Rome - 


224,000 


Stockholm - 


Constantinople - 


800,000 


Rio Janeiro . - - 


200,000 


Munich - - • 


Calcvtta - 


710,000 


Milan - 


193,000 


Dresden 


Madras - - - 


435,000 


Barcelona • - 


183,000 


Boston (1845) - • 


Naples 


410,000 






Frankfort - 



172,000 
168,000 
147,000 
146,000 
145,000 
143,000 
142,000 
141,000 
138,000 
134,000 
133,000 
132,000 
130,000 
122,000 
1V1,000 
113,000 
114,000 
114;000 
110,000 

I'ORCELAIN. Porcelaine. Said to be derived from Pour cent annies, it being 
formerly believed that the materials of porcelain were matured under 
ground 100 years. It is not known who first discovered the art of making 
porcelain, nor is the date recorded ; but the manufacture has been carried 
on in China at King-te-ching, at least since a. d. 442, and here still the finest 
porcelain is made. It is first mentioned in Europe in 1531, shortly after 
which time it was known in England. See China Porcelain^ and Dresdeiv 
China. 

PORTLAND, the largest to\vn in Maine, formerly part of Falmouth; burnt by 
the British, Oct. 1775. Population in 1800, 3,677 ; in 1820, 8,581 ; in 1840. 
15,082. 

PORTO BELLO. Discovered by Columbus, November 2, 1502. It was taken 
from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, November 22, 
1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifica- 
tions, in 1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748, 
and the introduction of register ships, this jjlace was the great mart for the 
rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 

PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba ; built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke 
of Florence, in 1548 ; but the fortifications were not finished till 1628, when 
Cosmo II. completed them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by 
the old Romans in their public undertakings. Here was the residsnce of 
Napoleon in 1814-15. See Bonaparte, Elba, and France. 

PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the most 
strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses 
were established in the reign of Henry VIII. 

PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived from Porto Callo, 
the original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Roman 
arms about 250 b. c, and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall 
of the Roman empire. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 713. They kept 
possession till they were conquered byAlphonsus VI. the Valiant of Castile, 
assisted by many other princes and volunteers. Among those who shone 
most in this celebrated expedition was Henry of Lorraine, grandson of 
Robert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him Theresa, his na- 
tural daughter, and, as her marriage portion, the kingdom of Portugal, 
which he was to hold of him, a. d. 1093. 



Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths 

here - - - - a. d. 472 

Invasion by the Saracens ■ - 713 

The kings of Asturias subdue some 
Saracen chiefs, and Alphonso.s HI. 
establishes episcopal sees ■ - 900 



Alphonsus Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish 
kings, and is proclaimed king by hi:; 
army - - - - - 1139 

Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their 
way to the Holy Land, he takes Lis- 
bon from I lie Moors - - -1147 



por] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



481 



rORTUGAL, contimied. 

The kingdom of Algarve taken from the 
Moors by Sancho I. - - - 1189 

Ueign of Dionysiua I. or Denis, father 
of hi"! country, who builds 44 cities 
or towns in Portugal - - - 1279 

Military orders of Christ and St. James 
instituted, - - - 1279 to 1325 

John I., surnamed the Great, carries 
his arms into Africa - - - 1415 

Madeira and the Canaries seized - 1420 

Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape 
of Good Hope, discovered - - 149S 

Discovery of the Brazils - - 150U 

The Inquisition established - - 1526 

The kingdom seized by Philip II. of 
Spain 1580 

The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and 
place John, duke of Braganza, on the 
throne. His posterity still possess 
the crown .... 1640 

The great earthquake which destroys 
Lisbon. See Earthquake - - 1755 

Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and 
narrowly escapes death - - 1758 

[This affair causes some of the iirst 
families of the kingdom to be tortured 
to death, their very names being for- 
bidden to be mentioned; yet many 
were unjustly condemned, and their 
innocence was soon afterwards made 
manifest. The Jesuits were also ex- 
pelled on this occasion.] 

Joseph, having no son, obtains a dis- 
Densation from the pope to enable 
{lis daughter and brother to intermar- 
ry. See Incest. - . . - 1760 

The Spaniards and French invade Port- 
ugal, which is saved by the valor of 
the English - - 1762 and 1763 

Regency of John (afterwards king) 
owing to the queen's lunacy - - 1792 

The Court, on the French invasion, 
emigrates to the Brazils Nov. 2, 1807 

Marshal Junot enters Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1807 

Convention of Cintra (see article under i 

that name) - - Aug. 30, 1808 

Portugal cedes Guiana to France - 1814 

Revolution in Portugal - Aug. 29, 1820 | 

Constitutional Junta - -Oct. 1, 1820 i 

Return of the Court - • July 4, 1821 ! 

Independence of Brazil, the prince re- | 

gent made emperor - Oct. 12, 1822 i 

The king of Portugal suppresses the j 

constitution - - June 5, 1823 j 

Disturbances at Lisbon ; Don Miguel | 

departs, &c. - - May 1-9, 1824 I 

Treaty with Brazil • Aug. 29, 1825 



' Death of John VI. - Feb. 18, 1826 

Don Pedro grants a charter, and con- 
firms the regency - April 26, 1826 
He relinquishes the throne in favor of 

his daughter Donna Maria May 2, 1826 
Marquess of Chaves' insurrection at 

Lisbon - - - - Oct. 6, 1626 

Don Miguel and Donna Maria betroth- 
ed - - - Oct. 29, 1826 
Portugal solicits the assistance of Gr-jat 

Britain - - - Dec. 3, 1830 

Departure of the first British auxiliary 

troops for Portugal - Dec. 17, 1826 

Don Miguel formally assumes the title 

of king - - - -July 4, 1828 

He dissolves the three estates July 12, 1828 
Revolution at Brazil - April 7, 1831 

Don Pedro arrives in England June 16, 1831 
Insurrection in favor of the queen, in 

which 300 lives are lost Aug. 21, 1831 
Don Pedro's expedition sails from 

Belle-isle - - - Feb. 9, 1832 

At TerceiraDon Pedro proclaims him- 
self regent of Portugal, on behalf of 
his daughter • - April 2, 1S'J2 

He takes Oporto - - -July 8, 1832 

After various conflicts, Don Miguel ca- 
pitulates to the Pedroites May 26, 1834 
Don Miguel is permitted to leave the 

country unmolested - May 31, 1834 

Massacres at Lisbon - June 9, 1834 

The queen declared by the Cortes to be 

of age - - - Sept. 15, 1834 

Don Pedro dies - - Sept. 21, 1834 

Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of 
Leuchtenberg), just married to the 
queen, dies - - March 28, 1835 

The queen marries prince Ferdinand of 

SaxeCoburg - - -Jan. 1,1836 

A sudden change of ministry leads to a 

formidable revolution Oct. 9, 1846 

Action at Evora ; the insurgents defeat- 
ed by the queen's troops Oct. 23, 1846 
[Oporto, where a revolutionary junta 
is established, and other large towns, 
are seized by the insurgent army.] 
Actions are fought at Viana, Valpassos, 
Braga, Torres-Vedras, &c., favorable 
to the queen. Battle of St. Ubes; the 
Insurgents defeated, losing 861 men 
in killed and wounded -May 1, 1847 

Intervention of England, France, and 

Spain, signed in London May 21, 1847 
Claim of the United States on Portugal 
for damages in the war of 1812, re- 
sisted, and U. S. minister leaves Lis- 
bon - - - - July, 1850 



KINGS OP 

..D. 1093 King of Lorraine, count or earl of Port- 
ugal. 

1112 Alphonso I. ; proclaimed king - 1139 

1185 Sancho L 

1212 Alphonso II., suniamed Crassus, or 
the Fat. 

1224 Sancho 11,, the Idle, deposed. 

1247 Alphonsus III. 

1279 Dennis. 

1.325 Alphonsus IV 

1357 Peter the Severe. 

1367 Ferdinand I., died 13S3 ; an interreg- 
num for 18 months. 



PORTUGAL. 

1385 John I., the Bastard, natural son to 
Peter the Severe. 

1433 Edward. 

1438 Alphonsus V. 

1481 John II. 

1495 Emanuel. 

1521 John III. 

1557 Sebastian, killed in Afrtfii. 

1578 Heni-y, the Cardinal. 

1580 Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Enian 
uel, deposed by Philp 11. of Spain, 
who united Portugal to his other do- 
minions, till 1640. 



THE world's progress. 



[pos 



1750 Joseph. 

1777 Mary Frances Isabella. 

1799 John VI. 

1&-26 Don Pedro ; he abdicates May 2, lu 

favor of his daughter. 
1826 Maria de Gloria. 



484 

PORTUGAL, continued. 

1640 John IV., duke of Braganza, dispos 
sessed the Spaniards, and was pro- 
claimed king, Dec. 1. 

1656 Alphonsus VI. 

1668 Peter II. 

1707 Jolm V. 

POSTS. Posts originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who 
erected post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia. Augustus was the 
first who introduced this institution among the Romans, and who employed 
post-chaises. This plan was imitated by Charlemagne about a. d. 800. — 
Ashe. Louis XI. first established post-houses in France owing to his eager- 
ness for news, and they were the first institution of this nature in Europe, 
1470. — Henault. In England the plan commenced in the reign of Edwarf^ 
rV"., 1481, when riders on post-horses werft stages of the distance of twenty 
miles from each other in order to procure the king the earliest intelligence 
of the events that passed in the course of the war that had arisen With the 
Scots. — Gale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In 
1543 similar arrangements existed in England. — Sadler's Letters. Post com- 
munications between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and 
Ireland, existed in 1635.— Strype. 

POST-OFFICE, The General, op England. See preceding article. The first 
chief postmaster of England was Mr. Thomas Randolph, appointed by 
queen Elizabeth in 1581.* 

THE REVENUE OP THE POST-OFFICE OF ENGLAND AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS, VIZ. 



In 1643 It yielded 

1653 Farmed to John Manley, 

Esq., for 
1663 Farmed to Daniel O'Neale, 

Esq., for - 
1674 Farmed for - - - 

1685 It yielded - 
1707 Ditto - - • - 

1764Ditio 
1800 Ditto - - - - 



£5,000 
10,000 



In 1805 Great Britain 
1815 Ditto - 
1820 United Kingdom 
1825 Ditto - 
1835 Ditto 



1,424,994 
1.755,898 
2,402,697 
2,255,239 
- 2,353,34P 



1839 Last year of the heavy 

postage - - -2,522,495 

1840 First year of the low rate, 

1 penny for all distances 471,000 

The first post-ofSce in the colo- 



21,500 

43.000 

65;000 
111,461 
432.048 
745,313 

POST-OFFICE IN THE UNITED STATES. 

nies was established in 1710, by act of Parliament for establishing a general 
post-oflBce for all her Majesty's dominions. During the revolution this de- 
partment was, of course, controlled by Congress, and the Constitution of 
the United States, 1789, provided for the continuance of this control — the 
Postmaster-General being appointed by the President and Senate, as one of 
the cabinet. For successive Postmaster-Generals see Administrations. The 
following table gives the statistics of the post-offices in the United States 
at different times since 1790. 



Year. 


No. of Post 


Amount of 


Net Revenue. 


Extent in miles 




OMces. 


Postagt 






of Post Rmds. 


1790 - 


75 - - 


- $37,93;; - 




- $5,795 - 


■ 1,875 


1800 . 


- 903 - - 


- 280,804 - 




- 66,810 - 


- 20,817 


1810 . 


- 2,300 - 


- 551,684 - 




- 55,715 - 


- 36,406 


1820 - 


- 4,500 - 


-1,111,927 - 




1 - 


- 72,492 


1830 - 


- 8,000 - 


- 1,850,583 - 




1 - 


- 115,000 


1840 . 


- 13.468 - 


-4,539,265 - 




1 - 


- 155,739 


1845 - 


- 14,183 - . 


-4,289,842 - 




t - 


■ 143,940 


1846 - 


-14,601 - - 


-3,487,1991 - 




t . 


■ 152,865 


1847 - 


-15,146 - 


- 3,955,893 1 - 






- 153,818 


1848 - 


-16,159 - 


- 4,371,077 1 - 




- 44,227 - 


- 163,208 


The numbei 


of dead letters returned quarterly 


is estimated 


at 450,000. 



* Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the post was only transmitted ihree days a week be- 
tween Edinburgh and London ; and the metropolis, on one occasion, only sent a single letter, which 
was for an Edinburgh banker, named Ramsay. 

t In all these years the receipts fell short of the expenditures. 

t The returns for 1846, 7, and 8, are for the first three years of the new law passed IMarch 3, 1845, 
•educing the letter postage to 5 cents under -300 miles, and 10 cents for all greater distances. 



pka] dictionary of dates. 485 

POTATOES. The potato is a native of Chili and Peru. Potatoes were ori- 
ginally carried to England from Santa Fe, in America, by sir John Haw- 
kins, A. D. 1563. Other's ascribe this introduction to sir Francis Drake, in 
1586 ; while their general introduction is mentioned by many writers as 
occurring in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter 
Raleigh, who had large estates in that country, about Youghal, in the 
county of Cork. It is said that potatoes were not known in Flanders until 
1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from America, by that 
"patriot of every clime," the late Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Cardin^- 
ton, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its culture became general soon after. It is 
aflQrmed that the Neapolitans once refused to eat potatoes during a famine. 
— Butler. Potatoe disease first appeared in Ireland, &c., causing great 
alarm and distress, Oct. 1845. 

POTOSI, Mines of. These mines were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545, 
and produce the best silver in America. They are in a mountain in the 
form of a sugar-loaf. Silver was as common in this place as iron is in 
Europe ; but the mines are now much exhausted, or at least little is got in 
comparison of what was formerly obtained. 

POUND. From the Latin Pondus. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, 
about A. D. 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part, 
consequently the latter was three times as large as it is at present. — Peacham, 
The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely knoAvn, though some sup- 
pose it was equivalent to an Attic mina, or 2,1. 45. Id. Our avoirdupois 
weight {avoir du poids) came from the French, and contains sixteen ounces ; 
it is'in proportion to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen. — Chaonbers. 

POWDERING THE HAIR. This custom took its rise from some of the ballad- 
singers at the fair of St. Germain whitening their heads to make them- 
selves ridiculous. Unlike other habits it was adopted from the low by the 
high, and became very general about a. d. 1614. In England the powdered- 
hair tax took place in May 1795, at which time the preposterous practice 
of using powder was at its height ; this tax was one guiuea for each person. 
The hair-powder tax is still continued, though it yields in England under 
7000^. per year, and in Scotland about 250^. It was abolished in Ireland. 

PR^TORS. Magistrates of Rome. The office was instituted 365 b. c, when 
one preetor only was appointed ; but a second was appointed in 252 b. g. 
One administered justice to the citizens, and the other appointed judges 
in all causes which related to foreigners. In the year of Rome 520, 
two more ijrEetors were created to assist the consul in the government 
of the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been lately conquered, 
and two more when Spain was reduced into the form of a Roman province, 
A. u. c. 551. Sylla the dictator added two more, and Julius Csesar increas- 
ed the number to 10, and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate to 
64. After this tlieir numbers fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till, 
in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers 
were reduced to three. 

PRAGA, Battle of, in which 30,000 Poles were butchered by the merciless 
Russian general Suwarrow, fought Oct. 10, 1794. Battle of Praga, in which 
the Poles commanded by Skrznecki defeated the Russian army commanded 
by general Giesmar, who loses 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners, and 
12 pieces of cannon; fought between GrothofF and Wawer, March 81, 1831. 

PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and some- 
times state affairs ; and at one time particularly the ordinances of the kings 
of France, wherein the rights of the Galilean church were asserted against 
the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops. Also the emperor's 
letter by advice of his council, in answer to high personages in particular 



486 THE WORLD'S PllOGRESS. [ PEE 

contingencies. The Pragmatic Sanction for settling the empire of Germany 
in the house of Austria, a. d. 1439. The emperor Charles VI. pubhshed the 
P]"agmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of male issue, his daughters should 
succeed in preference to the sons of his brother Joseph I., April 17, 1713, 
and he settled his dominions on his daughter Maria Theresa in conformity 
thereto, 1722. She succeeded in Oct. 1740 ; but it gave rise to a war, in 
which most of the powers of Europe were engaged. 

PRAGUE, Battle op, between the Imperialists and Bohemians. The latter, 
who had chosen Frederick V. of the Palatine (son-in-law to our James I.) for 
their king, were totally defeated. The unfortunate king was forced to flee 
with his queen and children into Holland, leaving all his baggage and money 
behind him. He was afterwards deprived of his hereditary dominions, and 
the Protestant interest was ruined in Bohemia ; all owing to the pusilla- 
nimity and inactivity of James, Nov. 7, 1620. Prague was taken by the 
Saxons in 1631 ; and by the Swedes in 1648. It was taken by storm by the 
French, in 1741 ; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 1744, it was 
taken by the king of Prussia ; but he was obliged to abandon it the same 
year. The great and memorable battle of Prague was fought May 6, 1757. 
In this engagement the Austrians were defeated by prince Henry of Prussia, 
and their whole camp taken ; their illustrious commander, general Browno, 
was mortally wounded ; and the brave Prussian, marshal Schwerin, was 
killed. After this victory, Prague was besieged by the king of Prussia, but 
he was soon afterwards obliged to raise the siege. 

PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. A celebrated parliament, so 
called from one of the members (who had thus fantastically styled himself 
according to the fashion of the times), met July 4, 1653. This parliament 
consisted of 144 members, summoned by the protector Cromwell ; they were 
to sit for fifteen months, and then they were to chose a fresh parliament 
themselves. 

PRATIQUE. The writing or license of this name was originally addressed by 
the Southern nations to the ports of Italy to which vessels were bound, and 
signified that the ship so licensed came from a place or country in a healthy 
state, and no way infected with the plague or other contagious disease. 
The pratique is now called a bill of health, and is still of the same intent 
and import. — Ashe. 

PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD, &c. They were first introduced into the Chris- 
tian church about a. d. 190. — Eusebms. Prayers addressed to the Virgin 
Mary and to the saints were introduced by pope Gregory, a. d. 593. The 
mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope Boniface 
II., A. D. 532. 

PRECEDENCE. Precedence was established in very early ages ; and in most 
of the countries of the East and of Europe, and was amongst the laws of 
Justinian. In England, owing to the disputes that prevailed among cour- 
tiers respecting priority of rank and office, the order of precedency was 
regulated chiefiy by two statutes, namely, one passed 31 Henry VIIL, 1539 ; 
and the other, 1 George I., 1714. 



TABLE OP PRECEDENCY. 



THE QUEEN. 
Prince of Wales. 
Prince Albert. 
Queen Dowager. 
Queen's other sons. 
Princess royal. 



Princess Alice ; and other 1 Archbishop of Canterbury. 



prnicesses. 
Duchess of Kent. 
Queen's uncles. 
Queen's aunts. 
Queen's cousins. 



Lord Chancellor. 
Archbishop of York. 
'Lord high treasurer. 
"Lord president. 
*Lord privy seal. 



' If of the rank of barons. 



pre] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



487 



PRECEDENCE, continued. 

'Lord high constable. 

tLord great chamberlain of 
England. 

*Earl marshal. 

"Lord high admiral. 

Lord steward of the house- 
hold. 

Lord Chamberlain. 

Dukes, according to patent. 

Marquesses, according to 
their patents. 

Dukes' eldest sons. 

Earls, according to their pa- 
tents. 

Marquesses' eldest sons. 

Dukes' younger sons. 

Viscounts, according to their 
patents. 

Earls' eldest sons. 

Marquesses' younger sons. 

Bishop of London. 

Bishop of Durham. 

Bishop of Winchester. 

All other bishops, according 
to their seniority of conse" 
cration. 

Secretary of State, being a 
baron. 

Commissioners of the great 
seal. 

Barons, according to their 
patents. 

[All the above, except the 
royal family, hold their 
Drecedence of rank by act , 



COMMONERS. 

The Speaker. 

Treasurer, comptrollerj and 

vice-chamberlain of the 

household. 
Secretaries of State, if they be 

under the degree of baron. 
Viscounts' eldest sons. 
Earls' younger sons. 
Barons' eldest sons. 
Knights of the Garter. 
Privy councillors. 
Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
Chancellor of the duchy of 

Lancaster. 
Lord chief justice of the 

queen's bench. 
Master of the rolls. 
Vice-chancellor. 
Lord chief justice of the com- 
mon pleas. 
Lord chief baron. 
Judges and barons, according 

to seniority. 
Hereditary bannei'ets. 
Viscounts' younger sons. 
Barons' younger sons. 
Baronets. 

Bannerets for life only. 
Knights of the bath. 

Grand Crosses. 
Knights commanders. 
Knights bachelors. 
Eldest sons of the younger 

sons of peers. 
Baronets' eldest sons. 



Knights of thi Garter's eldest 
sons. 

Bannerets' eldest sons. 

Knights of the bath's eldest 
sons. 

Knights' eldest sons. 

Baronets' younger sons. 

Flag and field officers. 

Sergeants-at-law. 

Doctors, Deans, and chan- 
cellors. 

Masters in chancery. 

Companions of the bath. 

Gentlemen of the privy 
chamber. 

Esquires of trje knights of the 
Bath. 

Esquires by creation. 

Esquires by office or com- 
mission. 

Younger sotb of knights of 
the garter. 

Sons of bannerets. 

Younger sons of knights of 
the bath. 

Younger sons of knights ba- 
chelors. 

Gentlemen entitled to bear 
arms. 

Clergymen, not dignitaries. 

Barristers at law. 

Officers of the army and 
navy, not esquires by com- 
mission. 

Citizens, burgesses, &c. 



31 Henry VIIL] 

PREDESTINATION. The belief that God hath from all eternity unchangeably 
appointed whatever comes to pass. This doctrine is the subject of one of 
the most perplexing controversies that have occurred among mankind. It 
was taught by the ancient Stoics and early Christians ; and Mahomet intro- 
duced the doctrine of an absolute predestination into his Koran in the 
strongest light. The controversy respecting it in the Christian church arose 
in the fifth century, when it was maintained by St. Augustin ; and Lucidus. 
a priest of Gaul, taught it a. d. 470. 

PRESBURG, Peace of, between France and Austria, by which the ancient 
states of Venice were ceded to Italy ; the principality of Eichstett, part of 
the bishopric of Passau, the city of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions 
of Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were transferred to the elec- 
tor of Bavaria and the duke of Wirtemberg, who, as well as the duke of 
Baden, were then created kings by Napoleon ; the independence of the Hel- 
vetic republic was also stipulated, Dec. 26, 1805. 

PRESBYTERIANS. A numerous and increasing sect of Christians, so called 
from their maintaining that the government of the church appointed in the 
New Testament was by Presbyteries, or associations of ministers and ruling 
elders, equal in power, office, and in order. The first Presbyterian meeting- 
house in England was established by the Puritans at Wandsworth, Surrey, 
Nov. 20, 1572. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland, Its distinguish- 
ing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formulary of faith attri- 



* Above all of their own rank only, by 31 Henry VIII. 
t When in actual office only, by 1 George I. 
N. B. TLs priority of signing any treaty or public instrument by ministers of state is taken cj 
fank of office, and net title. 



488 THE world's progress. [ PRE 

buted to Jolin Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1560. It was 
approved by the parliament, and ratified, 1567, and finally settled by an act 
of the Scottish senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of union with 
England in 1707. 

PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. Washington, unanimously elected 
president of the federal convention, which sat at Philadelphia from May 25 
to Sept. 17, 1787 ; and was unanimouslj^ elected first president of the United 
States, April 6, 1789. See United States and Administrations. 

PRESS, THE PRINTING. This great engine was of rude construction from 
the period of the discovery of the art of printing, up to the close of the 
eighteenth century, when many improvements were made. William Caxton, 
a mercer of London, had a press set up at Westminster, 1471. — Stoioe's 
Chron. The earl of Stanhope's iron presses were in general use in 1806. 
The printing-machine was invented by Koenig in , 811, and Applegath's fol- 
lowed. The Columbian press of Cljaner was produced in 1814; and the 
Albion press, an improvement on this last, came into use a few years after. 
Printing by means of steam machinery was first executed in England at 
T/ie Times ofiice, London, on Monday, November 28, 1814. Cowper's and 
Applegath's rollers for distributing the ink upon the types were brought inlo 
use in 1817. Vast improvements have been made in the United States within 
a few years, both in hand and steam-presses. The most celebrated manufac- 
turers, probably, are R. Hoe & Co., of New- York. Their largest presses 
for newspapers are capable of throwing ofl" 10,000 sheets per hour, which is 
so much in advance of any presses in Europe that they have supplied orders 
from Paris. The presses of Seth Adams & Co., of Boston, are perhaps the 
best in the world for book printing. See article Printing. 

PRESS, Liberty of the. The imprimatur, "let it be printed," was much used 
on the title-pages of books printed in the 16th and 17th centuries. The 
liberty of the press was restrained, and the number of master printers in 
London and Westminster limited, by the star-chamber, 14 Charles I., 1638. 
And again by act of parliament, 6 WiUiam III., 1693. The celebrated toast, 
"The liberty of the press — it is like the air we breathe — if we have it not 
we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, London, at a Whig 
dinner in 1795. Presses were licensed, and the printer's name required 
to be placed on both the first and last pages of a book, July 1799. In France 
and Germany the liberty of the press has been occasionally granted, but 
again restricted by the reactionary governments. In the United States it 
was fully guaranteed by the constitution. 

PRESSING TO DEATH. A punishment in England, referred to the reign of 
Henry III. or of Edward I., and on the statute book until the latter part of 
the last century. A remarkable instance of this death, in England, is the 
following : — Hugh Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered 
two of his children, and stabbed his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraign- 
ed for his crime at York assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to 
death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon his breast, 3 James 
I. 1605. — Stoive's Chron. 

PRESTONPANS, Battle of, between the Young Pretender, prince Charles 
Stuart, heading his Scotch adherents, and the royal army under sir John 
Cope. The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and was forced to 
fly at the very first onset. Sir John Cope precipitately galloped from the 
field of battle to Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he was the first to announce 
his own discomfiture. His disgrace is perpetuated in a favorite Scottish 
ballad, called, from the doughty hero, " Johnie Cope." Fought Sept. 2i, 
1745. 

PRETENDER. The person known in English history by the title of the Pretender, 



PEI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 489 

OP Chevalier de St. George, was the son of James II., born in 1688, and ac- 
knowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was pro- 
claimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar and Castletown in Scotland, 
Sept. 6, 1715 ; and he landed at Peterhead, in Abei-deenshire, from France, 
to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other adherents had 
promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed, 
the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he arrived at Gravelines), 
Feb. 4, 1716 ; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765. 

PRETENDER, the Young. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles, 
born in 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June 
1745. He gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk, 
January 18, 1746 ; but was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, and 
sought safety by flight. He continued wandering among the frightful wilds 
of Scotland for nearly six months, and as 30,000Z. was ofllered for taking him, 
he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by 
his enemies, but stiU rescued by some lucky accident, and he at length es- 
caped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died March 3, 1788. His natur- 
al daughter assumed the title of Duchess of Albany ; she died in 1789. His 
brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of Jngland, born 
JMarch 1725, died at Rome in August 1807. 

PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the 
head of two regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing 
in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low 
room, then called hell. Above 160 other members were excluded, and none 
admitted but the most furious of the independents. This atrocious invasion 
of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the privileged mem- 
bers were named the Rump, to whom nothing remained to complete their 
wickedness, but to murder the king, 24 Charles I., 1648. — Goldsmith. 

PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only. 
In the Old Testament the age of priests was fixed at thirty years. Among 
the Jews, the dignity of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's fa- 
mily, 1491 B. c. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and 
the crown were superadded to the high priesthood ; it was the peculiar 
privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no court but 
that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arch-flamen or 
high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular 
sects. 

PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and for- 
merly set forth or published by authority, as the first book children should 
publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers and portions of the 
Scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early a date as 1539. — 
Ashe. 

PRIMOGENITURE, Right op, an usage brought down from the earliest times. 
The first born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren, 
and in the absence of his father was priest to the family. In England, by 
the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It 
came in with the feudal law, 3 William I., 1068. 

PRINTING. The greatest of all the arts. The honor of its invention haa 
been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, 
Basle and Augsburg ; but the claims of the three first only are entitled to 
attention. Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention to Laurenzes 
John Coster of Haerlem, " who printed with blocks, a book of images and 
letters. Speculum Hiimiana Salvalonis, and compounded an ink more viscous 
and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about a. d. 1438." The 
leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were afterwards pasted to- 

21* 



490 



THE world's progress. 



[PRl 



getlier. John Faust established a printing office at Mentz, and printed the 

Tractahis Petri Hispani, in 1442. John Guttenberg invented cut metal 
types, and used them in printing the earliest edition of the Bible, which was 
commenced in 1444, and finished in 1460. See Book. Peter Schseffer cast 
the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of complete 
PRINTING, 1452. — Adrian Junius ; Du Fresnoy. 



Book of Psalms primed -? a. d. 1457 

The Durandi Rationale, first work 
printed with cast metal types % - 1459 

[Printuig was introduced into Oxford, 
about this time. — Collier. But this 
statement is discredited by Bibdin.] 

A iu'y printed. — Dufresnoy - 1 -1460 

The first Bible completed. — Idem% - 14ti0 

[Mentz taken and pi undered, and the art 
of printing, in the general ruin, is 
spread to other towns] - - 1462 

The types were uniformly Gothic, or 
old German (whence oui English, or 
Black Letter) until - - - 1465 

Greek characters (quotations only) first 
used, same year - - - - 1465 

Cicero de Officiis printed {Blair) - 1466 

Pioman characters, first at Rome - 1467 

A Chronicle, said to have been found 
in the archbishop of Canterbui-y's pa- 
lace (the fact disputed), bearing the 
date Oxford, a^ino • - ■ 1468 

William Caxton, a mercer of London, 
set up the first press at Westminster* 1471 

He printed Willyam Caxton' s Recuyel 
of the Historyes of Troy, by Raoul 
le Fein-e.—FniLLiPS - - - 1471 

His first pieces were, A Treatise on the 
Game of Chess, and 7\dly's Offices 
(see below). — Dibdin - - ' - 1474 

.£sop's Fables, printed by Caxlon, is 
supposed to be the first book with its 
leaves numbered - - - 14S4 

Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, and a 
Greek book printed (a/j Aldi) ■ - 1476 

He introduces the Italic - - - 1496 



The Pentateuch, in Hebrew - a. d. 14^ 

Homer, infolio, beautifully done at Flo- 
rence, eclipsmg all former printing, 
by Demetrius !.H88 

Printing used in Scotland - - - !.i509 

The first edition of the whole Bible was, 
strictly speaking, the Complutensian 
Polyglot of cardinal Ximenes (see 
Polyglot 1517 

The Liturgy, the first book printed in 
Ireland, by Humphrey Powell - - 1550 

The first Newspaper printed in England 
(see Newspapers) . . . . 1588 

First patent granted for printing - 1591 

First printing-press improved by Wil- 
liam Blaeu, at Amsterdam - - 1601 

First printing in America at Cambridge, 
Mass., when the Freeman's Oath and 
an Almanac were printed - - 1639 

First Bible printed in Ireland was at 
Belfast.— JJm-t/y's Tour. - - - 1704 

First types cast in England by Caslon.- 
Phillips. 

Stereotype printing suggested by Wil- 
liam Ged, of Edinburgh. — Nichols. 

The present mode of stereotype inven- 
ted by Mr. Golden, of New York 

Stereotype printing was in use in Hol- 
land in the last century. — Phillips.] 
See Stereotype. 

The printing-machine was first suggest- 
ed by Nicholson .... 1790 

The Stanhope press was in general use 
in 1806 

Machine printing (see Press) - - 1811 

Steam machinery (see Press) - . 1814 



1720 
1735 



1779 



TITLES OP THB EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDS. 



The Game and Playe of the Chesse. Trans- 
lated out of the Frenclw and emprynted 
by me Williara Caxton -Pi/wyssAia^/zeZasf 
day of Marclie the yer of our Lord God a 
thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij. 

TULLY. 

The Boke of Tulle of Okie age Emprynted 
by me simple persone William Caxton in 
to Englysshe as the ptaysir solace and re- 
verence of vien growynir iji to old age the 
xij day of August the yere of our lord 
M.cccc.lxxxj. — Herbert. 

THE POLYCRONYCON. 

The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges 
andDedesqfmanyTymesineyghtBokes. 
Imprinted by William Caxton after hav- 
ing somewhat chaunged the rude and 
olde Englysshe, that is to wete (to wit) cer- 



tayn Words which in these Days be nei- 
ther vsyd ne understanden. Ended the 
second day of Juyll at Westmestre the 
xxij yere of the Regne ofKynge Edward 
the fourth, and of the Incarnacion of oure 
Lord a Thousand four Hondred four 
Score and tweyne [1482.] — Dibdin's Tvp. 
Antiq,. 

the chronicles. 

The Cronicles of Englond Enpnted by tne 

Wyllyam Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre 

by London the v day of Jayn the yere 

of thi7icarnacion of our lord god 

M CCCC.LXXX. 

POLYCRONICON. 

Polycronycon. Ended the thyrienth daye 
of Apryll the tenth yere of the regne cf 
kinge Harry the seuenth and of the Jn- 



' To the west of the Sanctuary, in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, 
where the first printing-press in England was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged b/ 
the learned Thomas Milling, then abbot. He produced •' The Game and Play of the Chesse," tie 
first book ever printed in these kingdoms. There is a slight difference about the place in which it 
was printed, but all agree that it was within the precincts of this religious house. — Leigh. 



pr:] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



491 



PRINTING, continued. 

carimcyon of our lord MOCCCLXxxxv 
Emprynled by Wynkyn Theworde at 
Westmeslre. 

HILL OP PERFECTION. 

The Hylle of Perfection emprynled at the 
instance of the reverend relygyous fader 
Tho. Prior of the hous of St. Ann. the or- 
der of the charteroiise Acco'mpiyshe[d] 
a7idfynyssheld] att Westmynster the uiii 
day ofjaneur the yere of our lord Thou- 
sonde occc.LXxxxvii. Andinthexiiyere 
qfkynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de 
worde. — Ames, Herbert, Dibdin. 

ENGLAND. 

The Descrypcyon of Englonde Walys Scot- 
land and Ireland speaking of the A'oblesse 
and Worthynesse of the same Fyimysshed 
and enprynted in Mete strete in the syne 
of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde 
the yere of our lord a m.ccccc and ij. men- 
sis Mayiis [mense Mali]. — Dibdin's Typ. 
Ant. 

the festival. 

The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and 
holidais taken out of the golden legend en- 



prynted at london in Fletestrete at ye syne 
of ye Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the 
yere of our lord m.ccccc. viii. Andended 
the xi daye of Maye. — Ames. 

THE lord's prayer. 

As printed by Caxton in 1483. 

Father our that art in heavens, hallowed be 
thy natne : thy kyngdome come to us ; thy 
will be do?ie in earth as is in heaven : oure 
every days bred give us to day ; and for- 
give us oure tresspasses, as we forgive 
them that tresspass against us ; and lead 
us not into temptation, but deliver usfrom 
all evil sin, amen. — Lewis's Life op 
Caxton. 

a placard. 
As printed by William Caxton. 

If it plese onyman spirituel or temporel to 
bye ony pies of two or thre comemoracios of 
Salisburi use' enpryntid after the forme 
of this preset lettre whicke ben wel and 
truly correct, late him, come to westmon- 
ester in to the almonestye at the reed pale 
[red pale] and he shall have them good 
there. — Dibdin's Typ. Antiq,. 



Among the earlj^ printers, the only points used were the comma, parenthesis, 
interrogation, and full stop. To these succeeded the colon ; afterwards the 
semicolon ; and last the note of admiration. The sentences were full of 
abbreviations and contractions ; and there were no running-titles, numbered 
leaves or catch-words. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced 
with the art of printing. 

PRINTED GOODS. The art of calico-printing is of considerable antiquity, 
and there exist specimens of Egyptian cotton dyed by figured blocks many 
hundred years old. A similar process has been resorted to even in the 
Sandwich Islands, where they use a large leaf as a substitiite for the block. 
See article Cotton. The copyright of designs secured in England by 2 Vic- 
toria, 1839. 

PRIORIES. They were of early foundation, and are mentioned in a. d. 722 in 
England. See Abbeys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens were first 
seized upon by Edward I. in 1285, on the breaking out of a war between 
England and France. They were seized in several succeeding reigns on 
the like occasions, but were usually restored on the conclusion of peace. 
These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3 
Henry V. 1414. — Rymer's Fadera. 

PRISONERS OF WAR. Among the ancient nations, prisoners of war when 
spared by the sword were usually enslaved, and this custom more or less 
continued until about the thirteenth century, when civilized nations, instead 
of enslaving, commonly exchanged their prisoners. The Spanish, French, 
and American prisoners of war in England were 12,000 in number, Sept. 30, 
1779. The number exchanged by cartel with France from the commence- 
ment of the then war, was 44,000, June 1781. — Phillips. The English pri- 
soners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in England, 27,000, 
Sept. 1798. — Idem. The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the 
French, &c., in England to 47,600, in 1811. — Idem. This was the greatest 



* Romish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies {Pica, Latin), as is sup 
posed from the different color of the text and rubric. Our Pica is called Cicero by foreign print 
ers. — Wheatley. 



492 THE world's progress. [ PRO 

nninber, owing to the occasional exchanges made, up to the period of the 
last war. 

PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY, in England, owes its existence to the philan- 
thropic labors of Sir T. F. Buxton, M. P. It was instituted in 1815, and held 
its first public meeting in 1820. Its objects are, the amelioration of jails, by 
the diffusion of information respecting their construction and management, 
the classification and employment of the prisoners, and the prevention of 
crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal, 
on his discharge from confinement, to abandon his vicious pursuits. — 
Haydn. In the United States a Prison Discipline Society for the same object 
was established in Boston in 1825. The Rev. Louis Dwight was its active 
promoter and secretary. Great efforts have been made in several States for 
the amelioration and improvement of prisoners ; and the various systems 
adcipted and practised at Wethersfield, Conn., at Auburn, N. Y., Philadel- 
phia, &c., have attracted the attention of statesmen and travellers from 
Europe. Among those who have labored effectively in this matter is a lady 
— Miss Dix, of New York — who has accomplished more than any other per- 
son, for the welfare of prisoners and of the insane, and may deserve even a 
higher name than the American Mrs. Fry. 

PRIVY COUNCIL, England. This assembly is of great antiquity. Instituted 
by Alfred, a. d. 895. In ancient times the number was twelve ; but it was 
afterwards so increased, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and 
despatch, and Chai-les II. limited it to thirty, whereof fifteen were the 
principal officers of state (councillors ex officio), and ten lords and five com- 
moners of the king's choice, a. d. 1679. The number is now indefinite. To 
attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office made 
capital, occasioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was 
examining him on a charge of high treason, 10 Anne, 1711. 

PRIZE MONEY. In the English navy the money arising from captures 
made upon the enemy, is divided into eight equal parts, and thus distri- 
buted by order of government : — Captain to have three-eighths, unless 
under the direction of a flag-officer, who in that case is to have one of the 
said three-eighths ; captains of marines and land forces, sea lieutenants, 
&c., one-eighth : lieutenants of marines, gunners, admiral's secretaries, &c. 
one-eighth ; midshipmen, captain's clerks, &c., one-eighth ; ordinary and 
able seamen, marines, &c., two-eightlis. 

PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who, 
having but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 b. c. — Ashe. " Until the 
end of the third century, I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ; 
they were always painted or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of 
a head in a very majestic manner." — Addison. 

PROMISSORY NOTES. They were regulated and allowed to be made assign- 
able in 1705. Fii'st taxed by a stamp in 1782; the tax was" increased in 
1804, and again in 1808, and subsequently. See Bills of Exchange. 

PROPAGANDA FIDE. The celebrated congregation or college in the Romish 
Church, Congregatio de Propaganda FUde, was constituted at Rome by pope 
Gregory XV. in 1622. Its constitution was altered by several of the suc- 
ceeding pontiff's. 

PROPERTY TAX in England. Parliament granted to Henry VIII. a subsidy 
of two-fifteenths from the commons and two-tenths from the clergy to aid 
the king in a war with France, 1512. — Rapin. Cardinal Wolsey pro- 
posed a tenth of the property of the laity and a fourth of the clergy 
to the same king, 1522. The London merchants strenuously opposed this 
tax : they were required to declare on oath the real value of their effects ; 
but they firmly refused, alleging that it was not possible for them to give 



PRU J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 493 

an exact account of their effects, part whereof was in the hands of corres- 
pondents in foreign countries. At length, by agreement, tlie king was 
pleased to accept of a sum according to their own calculation of themselves, 
— Butler. This tax was levied at various periods, and was of great amount 
in the last years of the late war. The assessments on real property, under 
the property-tax of 1815, were 51,898,423Z. 

PROPHECY. The word prophet, in proper language, means one of the sacred 
writers empowered by God to display futurity. We have in the Old Testa- 
ment the writings of sixteen prophets ; i. e. of four greater, and twelve 
lesser. The former are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; the latter 
are Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakknk, Ze- 
phaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Prophecy is instanced in the 
earliest times. The prophetic denunciations upon Babylon were executed 
by Cyrus, 538 b. c. God's judgment upon Jerusalem {^Isaiah, xxix. 1 — 8) 
executed by Titus, a.d. 70. Many other instances of prophecy occur in 
Scripture. 

PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires, in 1529, to 
request aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means 
for allaying the religious disputes which then raged, owing to Luther's op- 
position to the Roman Catholic religion. Against a decree of this diet, tc 
support the doctrines of the church of Rome, six Lutheran princes, with 
the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, 
April 17, 1530. Hence the term protestants was given to the followers of 
Luther, and it afterwards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated 
from the see of Rome. The six protesting princes were John and George, 
the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and Francis, the two 
dukes of Lunenburg ; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ; 
these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Con- 
stance, Hailbron and seven other cities. See Lxutheranism, Calvinisvi, <^c. 

PROVISIONS — Remarkable facts concerning them. Wheat for food for 100 
men for one day worth only one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry 
I., about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, and 
eightpence for white, that the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John, 
1200. — Bwrtoii's Aimals. When wheat was at 65. per quarter, the farthing 
loaf was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of the whole 
grain), and to sixteen the white. When wheat was at I5. 61^.* per quarter, 
the farthing loaf white was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain 
(the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first assize, a. d. 1202. — Mat. 
Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. — Dufresnoy. Wheat \s. 
per quarter, 14 Edward I. 1-286. — Stovx. The price of provisions fixed by 
the common-council of London as follows : two pullets, three-halfpence ; 
a partridge, or two woodcocks,- three-half-pence ; a fat lamb sixpence from 
Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest of the year fourpence, 29 Edward I. 1299. 
Stoice. Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate of 21. 8s. of 
our money for a fat ox, if fed witli corn 2>l. 12s. ; a shorn sheep, 55. ; two 
dozen of eggs, Zd. ; other articles nearly the same as fixed by tjie common- 
council above recited. 7 Edwai-d II. 1313. — Rot. Pari. Wine, the best sold 
for 2O5. per tun, 10 Richard II. 1387. Wheat being at I5. Id. the bushel in 
1390, this was deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by 
the historians of that era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, 
and veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Henry VIII. 1533. — ^71- 
derson's Origin of Commerce. Milk was sold, three pints, ale-measure, for 
one halfpenny, 2 Eliz. 1560. — Stowe's Chronicle. 

PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 320 
B. c. The Venedi were conquered by a i^eople called the Borussi, who in- 



494 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[PRU 



habited the Riphtean mountains ; and from these the country was called 
Burussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, sig- 
nifying near, and Russia — Po-Russia, easily modified into Prussia. The 
Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the Teutonic knights, 
and latterly, with the Poles. This people and country were little known 
until about a. d. 1007. 



St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach 
Christianity, but is murdered by the 
pagans - - - a. d. 1010 

Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death 
by dreadful ravages - - . • * * 

Berlin built by a colony from the Nether- 
lands, in the reign of Albert the Bear - 1163 

The Teutonic knights, returning from 
the holy wars, undertake the conquest 
of Prussia, and the conversion of the 
people - - - - . 1225 

Konigsberg, lately built, made the capi- 
tal of Prussia .... 1286 

The Teutonic knights, by their barba- 
rities, almost depopulate Prussia. It 
is repeopled by German colonists in 
the 13th century - - - • * * 

Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by 
purchase from Sigismond, emperor 
of Germany, the margraviate of Bran- 
denburg .... 1415 

[This Frederick is the head of the pre- 
sent reigning family.] 

Casimir IV." of Poland assists the na- 
tives against the oppression of the 
Teutonic knights - - - 1446 

Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master 
of the Teutonic order, renounces the 
Roman Catholic religion, embraces 
Lutheranism, and i.s acknowledged 
duke of East Prussia, to be held as a 
fief of Poland - - - - 1525 

University of Konigsberg founded by 
duke Albert .... 1544 

The dukedom of Prussia is joined to the 
electorate of Brandenburg, and so 
continues to this day - - - 1594 

John Sigismund created elector of Bran- 
denburg and duke of Prussia - 1603 

The principality of Halberstadtandthe 
bisnopric of Minden transferred to the 
house of Brandenburg - -1648 

Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia 
as an independent state, under Frede- 
rick William .... 1657 

Order of Concord instituted by Christian 
Ernest, duke of Prussia, to distinguish 
the part he had taken in restoring 
peace to Europe - - - 1660 

The foundation of the Prussian monar- 
chy was established between the years 
1640 and - - - - 1680 

Frederic III., in an assembly of the 
states, puts a crown upon his own 
head, and upon the head of his con- 
sort, and is proclaimed king of Prus- 
sia, by the title of Frederick I. - 1701 

Guelders taken from the Dutch - - 1702 

Frederick I. seizes NeufchatelorNeun- 
burgh, and Valengia, and purchases 



which the Prussian monarchy is 
made to rank among the fixst powers 
in Europe - - - a. d. 1740 

Breslau ceded to Prussia - - -1741 

Silesia, Glatz, &c., ceded - - 1742 

Frederick the Great visits England - 1744 
General Lacy with 15,000 Austrians, 
and a Russian army, march to Berlin. 
The city laid under contribution ; and 
pays 800,000 guilders, and 1,000,000 
crowns, the magazines, arsenals, and 
foundries destroyed - - - 1760 

Frederick the Great dies - Aug. 17, 1786 
The Prussians take possession of Hano- 
ver - - - Jan. 30, 1806 
Prussia jcms the allies of England 

against France - - Oct. 6, l«06 

Fatal battle of Jena - Oct. 14, IboO 

[Here followed the loss of almost every 
corps in succession of the Prussian 
army, the loss of Berlin, and of every 
province of the monarchy except 
Prussia proper.] 
Berlin decree promulgated - Nov. 20, 1806 
. Peace of Tilsit (tr/(/c/i see) - July 7, 1807 
Convention of Berlin - Nov. 5, 1803 

Prussia joins the aUies - March 17, 1813 
Treaty of Paris - - April 11, 1814 

The king promised liberty of the press 

March, 1817 
Outbreak at Berlin : the king resists 
urgent demands for liberal measures, 

March 14, 1847 
Barricades r.nd fights between troops 

and students - - March 15, 1847 

The king goes to Potsdam - March 18, 1847 
— issues decree demanding a federal 
union of Germany, and granting li- 
berty of the press - March 18, 1S17 
Another bloody collision, 274 killed 

March 18, 1847 
New ministry formed - March 18, 1847 
The king grants general amnesty 

March 20, 1847 
Agitations general throughout Prussia 
A free constitution granted, in a solemn 

convocation, by the king - April 11, 1347 
The duchy of Posen reorganizecj by the 

king - - - March 26, 1848 

Prussian diet meets at Berlin - April 3, 1848 
Constitutional assembly of Prussia 

meets - - - May 22, 184? 

The arsenal at Berlin captured by the 

mob - - - June 16, 1848 

The king prorogues the assembly at 
Berlin, and appoints its meeting at 
Brandenburg - - Nov. 9, 1818 

The Burgher Guard refuses to obey the 
order of the king to disband. Berlin 
in a state of siege - Nov. 12, 1849 

The assembly dissolved, and a new con- 
stitution promulgated - Dec. 6, 1849 



the principality of Tecklenburgli - 1707 
Reign of Frederick the Great, during 

MAEGRAVES AND ELECTORS OP BRANDENBURG, ETC. 

A. D. 923 Sifroi, margrave of Brandenburg. I succession of time, passed into the 

* * Geron, margrave of Lusatia, which, in | families of Staden, Ascani*, Bellen- 



PUR ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



495 



PRUSSIA, continued. 

stadt, and that of Bavaria ; till the 
emperor Sigismond, with the consent 
of the states of the empire, gave per- 
petual investiture to 

1416 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, made 
elector of Brandenburgh, 1417. 

1440 Frederick II., surnamed Ferreus, or 
Ironside ; resigned. 

1470 Albert 1., surnamed the German Achil- 
les. He confirmed the deed made by 
his predecessor, of mutual succession 
with the families of Saxony and 
Hesse ; resigned. 

1476 John, surnamed the Cicero of Germany, 
his son. _ . 

1499 Joachim I., his son. 



1535 Joachim II. ; he was poisoned by a Jew. 
1571 John George. 
1598 Joachim Frederick. 
160S John Sigismund. 
1619 George William. 
1640 Frederick William the Great. 
1688 Frederick, who, in 1701, was made king 
of Prussia. 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

1701 Frederick I. 

1713 Frederick William I. 

1740 Frederick II., surnamed the Grjiit, 

1786 Frederick William II. 

1797 Frederick William III. 

1840 Frederick William IV., June 7. 



PUBLICHOUSES in England. A power of licensing them was first granted 
to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel for their own emolument, 
A. D. 1620-1. The number of public houses in England at this period was 
about 13,000. In 1700 the number was 32,600 ; and in 1790, the number in 
Great Britain was 76,000. It is supposed that there were about 50,000 
public houses, and 30,000 beer-shops in England and Wales in 1830. The 
number on Jan. 5, 1840, was 95,820. 

PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instru- 
ments, are said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple 
of Pythagoras, about 516 b. c. — Univ. Hist. It has been ascertained that in 
a single movable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a continued com- 
bination the power is twice the number of puUies, less 1. — Phillips. 

PULTOWA, Battle of. In this memorable engagement Charles XII. of 
Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and obliged to 
take refuge at Bender, in the Turkish dominions. The vanquished monarch 
would have fallen into the hands of the czar after the engagement, had_ he 
not been saved by the personal exertions of the brave count Poniatowski, a 
Polish nobleman, whom Voltaire has commemorated and immortalized. 
This battle was lost chiefly owing to a want of concert in the generals, and to 
the circumstance of Charles having been dangerously wounded, just before, 
which obliged him to issue his commands from a litter, without being able 
to encourage his soldiers by his presence. Fought July 8, 1709. 

PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and mechanic, is said to have in- 
vented the pump (with other hydraulic instruments) about 224 b. c, although 
the invention is ascribed to Uanaus, at Lindus, 1485 b. c. They were in 
general use in England, a. d. 1425. The air-pump was invented by Otto 
Guericke in 1654, and was improved by Boyle in 1657. An inscription on 
the pump in front of the Royal Exchange, London, states that the well 
beneath was first sunk in a. d. 1282. 

PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against 
Carthage 264 b. c. The ambition of Rome was the origin of this war ; it 
lasted twenty-three years, and ended 241 b. c. The second Punic war be- 
gan 218 B. c, in which year Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000 
foot and 12,000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry on the war to the 
gates of Rome. He crossed the Rhone, the Alps, and the Apennines, with 
uncommon celerity ; and the Roman consuls who were stationed to stop his 
progress were severally defeated. The battles of Trebia, of Ticinus, and 
of the lake of Thrasymenus, followed. This war lasted seventeen years, and 
ended in 201 b. g. The third Punic war began 149 b. c, and was terminated 
by the fall of Carthage, 146 b. c. See Carthage. 

PURGATORY. The middle place between the grave, or heaven, and hell, 



496 THE world's progress. [ PYT 

where, it is believed by the Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the 
fire of purification before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine of 
purgatory was known about a. d. 250 ; and was introduced into the Roman 
church in 593. — Platina. It was introduced early in the sixth century. — 
Dupin. 

PURIFICATION. The act of cleansing, especially considered as relating to 
the religious performance among the Jewish women. It was ordained by the 
Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days after the 
birth of a son, and eighty days after the birth of a daughter, when she was 
to go to the temple and offer a lamb, pigeon, or turtle, a. d. 214. Among 
the Christians, the feast of purification was instituted, a. d. 542, in honor of 
the Virgin Mary's going to the temple, where, according to custom, she 
presented her son Jesus Christ, and offered two turtles for him. Pope Ser- 
gius I. ordered the procession with wax tapers, from whence it is called 
Candlemas-day. 

PURITANS. The name given to such persons as in the reigns of queen Eliza- 
beth, king James, and king Charles I., pretended to greater holiness of 
living and stricter discipline than any other people. They at first were 
members of the established church, but afterwards became separatists upon 
account of several ceremonies that were by the rigidness of those times se- 
verely insisted upon. — Bishop Sanderson. 

PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. The pyramids, according to Dr. Pococke and Son- 
nini, " so celebrated from remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monu- 
ments of art. It is singular that such superb piles are nowhere to be found 
but in Egypt ; for in every other country, pyramids are rather puerile and 
diminutive imitations of those in Egypt, than attempts at appropriate mag- 
nificence. The pyramids are situated on a rock at the foot of some high 
mountains which "bound the Nile." The first building of them commenced, 
it is supposed, about 1500 b. c. They were formerly accounted one of the 
seven wonders of the world. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpen- 
dicular height, \vith a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of 
the base is"? 46 feet. It occupies eleven acres of ground, and is constructed 
of such stupendous blocks of stone, that a more marvellous result of hu- 
man labor has not been found on the earth. 

" Virtue alone outbuilds the pyramids, 

" Her monuments shall stand when Egypt's fall." — Youno. 

PYRENEES, Battle of the, between the British army, commanded by lord 
Wellington, and the French, under the command of marshal Soult. The 
latter army was defeated with great slaughter, July 28, 1813. After the 
battle of Vittoria (fought June 21), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jour- 
dan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which 
his abilities were inferior ; for Soult retreated into France with a loss of 
more than 20,00 men, having been defeated in a series of engagements from 
July 25 to August 2. 

PYRENEES, Peace of the. A peace concluded between France and Spain; 
by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her 
rights to Alsace ; and France ceding her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, &c., 
and engaging not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659. 

PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Founded by Pythagoras, of Samos, head 
of the Italic sect. He first taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or 
transmigration of the soul from one body to another. He forbade his dis- 
ciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he supposed them to have been 
produced from the same putrified matter from which at the creation of the 
world man was formed. In his theological system, Pythagoras supported 
that the universe was created from a shapeless heap of passive matter by 



JJUA J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 497 

the hands of a powerful being, who himself was the mover and soul of the 
world. He was the inventor of the multiplication-table, and a great im- 
prover of geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at 
this day, 539 b. c. 
PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated in honor of Apollo, near the temple 
of Delphi. They were first instituted, according to the more received 
opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory which he had 
obtained over the serpent Python, from which they received their name ; 
though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon, 
or Diomedes, or by Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the council of the Amphio 
tyons, B. c. 1263. — Arundelian Marbles. 

Q. 

QUACKERY and QUACK MEDICINES. At the first appearance that a 
French quack made in Paris, a boy walked before him, publishing, with a 
shrill voice, " My father cures all sorts of distempers ;" to which the doctor 
added in a grave manner, " What the child says is true." — Addisun. Qaacks 
sprung up with the art of medicine ; and several couniiies, particularly 
England and France, abound with them. In London, some of their esta- 
blishments are called colleges. Quack medicines were taxed in England in 
1783 et seq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady, Miss 
Cashiu, whose physician, St. John Long, was afterwards tried for man- 
slaughter ; he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 250Z., Oct. 
30, 1830. 

QUADRANT. The mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter circle. 
The solar quadrant was introduced about 290 b. c. The Arabian astrono- 
nomers under the Caliphs, in a.d. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches 
radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for mea- 
suring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 1731. See 
Navigation. 

QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. The celebrated treaty of Alliance betAveen Great 
Britain, France, and the Emperor, signed at London. This alliance, on the 
accession of the states of Holland, obtained the name of the Quadruple 
Alliance, and was for the purpo.se of guaranteeing the succession of the 
reigning families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of 
the Spanish monarchy. Aug. 2, 1718. 

QUJ?:STOR, in Roman antiquity, was an oflScer who had the management of 
the public treasure, instituted 484: b. c. The questorship was the firstofllce 
any person could bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in the 
senate. At first there were only two; but afterwards the number was 
greatly increased. 

QUAKERS OR FRIENDS. Originally called Seekers, from their seeking the 
truth ; and afterwards Friends — a beautiful appellation, and characteristic 
of the relation which man, under the Christian dispensation, ought to bear 
towards man. — Clarkson. Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the 
name of Quakers in 1650, because Fox (the founder) admonished him and 
those present with him, to tremble at the word of the Lord. This respect- 
able sect, excelling in morals, prudence, and industry, was commenced in 
England about a. d. 1650, by George Fox, who was soon joined by a num- 
ber of learned, ingenious, and pious men — among others, by George Keith, 
Wm. Penn, and Robert Barclay of Ury.* The thee and thou used by the 

* The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, where 
the first Friends who arrived were females, they, even females, were cruelly scourged, and their 



498 THE world's progress. [ QUE 

Quakers originated with their founder, who published a book of instruc- 
tions for teachers and professors. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was 
enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts below, wherein oaths are re- 
quired from other subjects, 8 William III. 1696. 

QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, a. d. 1127, whereby all 
merchants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in 
the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 40 days before they were ad- 
mitted into the city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; that of 
Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and all other 
nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform qua- 
rantine with their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged 
most safe. 

QUATRE-BRAS, Battle of, between the British and allied army under the 
duke of Brunswick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the 
French under marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Waterloo. 
In this engagement the gallant duke of Brunswick fell, Jvme 16, 1815. 

QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English, 
with all Canada, in 1626, but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged 
by the English, but without success, in 1711 ; but was conquered by them, 
after a battle memorable for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of 
victory, Sept. 13, 1759. This battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham. 
Quebec was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Montgomeiy, who was 
slain, December 31, 1775; and the siege was raised the next year. The 
public and private stores, and several wharfs, were destroyed by fire in 
1815; the loss being estimated at upwards of 260,000Z. Awful fire, 1650 
houses, the dwellings of 12,000 persons, burnt to the ground, May 28, 
1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards ; 1365 houses burnt, June 
28, 1845. Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan. 12, 1846. 

QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority as a ruling sovereign, was 
Semiramis, queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 b. c. She embellished the 
city of Babj'lon, made it her capital, and by her means it became the most 
magnificent and superb city in the world. The title of queen is coeval witli 
that of king. The Hungarians had such an aversion to the name af queen, 
that whenever a queen ascended the throne, she reigned with the title of 
king. See note to article Hungary. 

QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL. Caroline, the consort of George IV. of Eng- 
land, was subjected, when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate 
Investigation, May 29, 1806. Her trial commenced Aug. 19, 1820. Illumi- 
nations on her acquittal, Nov. 10-12. Her death Aug. 7, 1821. Riot at her 
funeral, Aug. 14. 

QUEENS OF ENGLAND. There have been, since the conquest, besides the 
present sovereign, four queens of England who have reigned in their own 
right, not counting the empress Maude, daughter of Henry I., or the lady 
Jane Grey, whose quasi reign lasted only ten days. There have been thirty- 
four queens, the consorts of kings, exclusively of four wives of kings who 

cav.s cut off, yet they were unshaken in theii- constancy. In 1659, they stated in parliament that 
2,000 Friends hail endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate ; and 164 Friends offered them- 
selves at tliis time, by name, to government, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal number in danger 
(from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (ont of 120 sentenced) Vifere transported to America, by an 
order of council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some months, an em- 
bargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the scrvi'-e. 
But the Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vesset, and sol- 
diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed; but it was immediately captured 
by the Dutch, who liberated 28 of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of the plague in thai 
year. Set Plague. Of the 120 few reached America. 



que] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



499 



died previously to their husbands ascending the tlirone. Of thirty-five ac^ 
tual sovereigns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen. 
The following list includes all these royal personages : — 



Of William I. 
Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 
Flanders ; she was married in 1051 ; and 
died 1084. 

William II. 
This sovereign died unmarried. 

' Of Henry I. 
Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of 
Scotland; she was married November 11, 
1100; and died May 1, 1119. 

Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of Lou- 
vaine ; she was married January 29, 1129. 
Survived the king. 

Maude oi Matilda. 
Di. nghter of Henry I., and rightful heir to 
the throne ; she was born 1101 ; was betroth- 
ed in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry 
v., emperor of Germany, who died 1125. 
She married, secondly. Geoffrey Plantagenet, 
earl of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside frorn the 
English succession by Stephen, 1135 ; landed 
in England and claimed the crown, 11.39. 
Crowned, but was soon after defeated at 
Winchester, 1141. Concluded a peace with 
Stephen, which secured the succession to 
her son, Henry, 1153; died 1167. 

Of Stephen. 

Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
Boulogne ; she was married in 1128 ; and 
died May 3, 1151. 

Of Henry II. 

Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis 
VII. king of France, and heiress of Guienne 
and Poitou ; she was married to Henry 1152 ; 
and died 1204. 

[The Fair Rosamond was the mistress of 
this prince. See article Rosamond. 

Of Richard I. 
Bere7igera, daughter of the king of Na- 
varre ; she was married May 12, 1191. Sur- 
vived the king. 

Of John. 

Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; 
she was married in 1189. Divorced. 

Isabella, daughter of the count of Angou- 
leme ; she was the young and virgin wife of 
the count de la Marche ; married to John in 
1200. Survived the king, on whose death 
she was remarried to the count de la Marche. 

Of Henry 111. 
Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- 
vence ; she was married January 14, 1236. 
Survived the king ; and died in 1292, in a mo- 
nastery, whither she liad retired. 

Of Edward I. 

Eleanor of Castile ; she was married in 
1253 ; died of a fever, on her journey to Scot- 
land, at Horneby, in Lincoln.shire, 1296. 

Margaret, sister of the king of France ; she 



was married September 12, 1299. Survived 
the king. 

Of EoVfJlRD II. 

Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; 
she was married in 1308. On the death, by 
the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she was 
confined for the rest of her life in her own 
house at Risings, near London. — Hume. 

Of Edward III. 
Philippa, daughter of the count of Holland 
and Hamault ; she was married January 24, 
1328 ; and died August 16, 13G9. 

Of Richard II. 

Anne, of Bohemia, sister of the emperoi 
Winceslaus of Germany ; she was marrieu 
in January 1382 ; and died August 3, 1395. 

/sa6eWa, daughter of Charles VI. of France; 
she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On the mi.j- 
der of her husband she returned to her fa- 
ther. 

Of Henry IV. 

Mary, daughter of the earl of He eford ; 
she died, before Henry obtained the crown, 
in 1.394. 

Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of 
Bretagne ; she was married in 1403. Sur- 
vived the king, and died in 1437. 

Of Henry V. 
Catherine, daughter of the king of France i 
she was married May 30, 1420. "She outliv- 
ed Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor, 
grandfather of Henry VII. 

Of Henry VI. 

Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou ; 
she was married April 22, 1445. She surviv- 
ed the unfortunate king, her husband, and 
died in 1482. 

Of Edward IV. 

Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir 
Richard Woodeville, and widow of sir John 
Grey, of Groby ; she was married March 1, 
1464. Suspected of favoring the insurrection 
of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her life in 
confinement. 

Edward V. 

This prince perished in the Tower, in 
the 13th year of his age ; and died unma ■- 
ried. 

Of Richard IIL 

Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, 
and widow of Edward, prince of Wales! 
whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She is 
supposed to have been poisoned by Richard 
(having died suddenly March 6, 1485), to 
make way for his intended marriage with 
the princess Elizabeth of York. 

Of Henry VII. 
Elizabeth of York, princess of England, 
daughter of Edward IV. ; she was married 
January 18, 1486 : and died February 11 
1503. 



500 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[que 



QUEENS, continued. 

Of Hbney VIII. 

Catherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's 
elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She 
was man-ied June 3, 1509 ; was the mother 
of queen Mary ; was repudiated, and after- 
wards formally divorced, May 23, 1533; died 
January 6, 1536. 

Anna Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Bo- 
leyn, and maid of honor to Catherine. She 
was privately married, before Catherine was 
divorced, Nov. 14, 1532 ; was the mother of 
queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tow- 
er, May 19, 1536. 

Jane Seymour^ daughter of sir John Sey- 
mour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn. 
She was married May 20, 1536, the day alter 
Anna's execution ; was the mother of Ed- 
ward VI., of whom she died in childbirth, 
Oct. 13, 1537. 

Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke 
of Cleves. She was married January 6, 
1540 ; was divorced July 10, 1540 ; and died 
in 1557. 

Catherine Hotcard, niece of the duke of 
Norfolk ; she was married August 8, 1540 ; 
and was beheaded on Tower hill February 
12, 1542. 

Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas 
Parr, and widow of Nevill. lord I.atimer. 
She was married July 12, 15-13. Survived 
the king, after whosedeaih she married sir 
Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley ; and 
died September 5, 1548. 

Edward VI. 
This prince, who ascended the throne in his 
tentli year, reigned six years and five months, 
and died unmarried. 

Lady Janb Grey. 
Daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife 
of lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen 
on the death of Edward. In ten days after- 
wards returned to private life ; was tried 
Nov. 13, 1553 ; and beheaded February 12, 
1554, when but seventeen years of age. 

Mary. 
Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended 
the throne July 6, 1553 ; married Philip 11. 
of Spain, July 25, 1554 ; and died Novem- 
ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in 
1598. 

Elizabeth. 
Daughter of Henry VIII. Succeeded to 
the crown Nov. 17, 1558 ; reigned 44 years, 
4 months, and 7 days ; and died unmarried. 

Of James I. 
Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of 
Frederick 11. ; she was married August 20, 
1589 ; and died March 1619. 

Of Charles I. 

Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 

king of France ; she was married June 13, 

1625. Survived the unfortunate king ; and 

died in France, August 10, 1669. 



Of CHARLE.S II. 

Catherine, infanta of Portugal, daughter 
of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI. : she 
was married May 21, 1662. Survived the 
king, returned to Portugal, and died Dec. 
21, 1705. 

Of James II. 

Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, 
earl of Clarendon ; she was married in Sep- 
tember 1660 ; and died before James ascend- 
ed the throne, in 1671. 

Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daugh- 
ter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; she was mar- 
ried November 21, 1673. At the revolution 
in 1688, she retired with James to Franco; 
and died at St. Germams in 1718, having sur- 
vived her consort seventeen yei.:'P. 

William and Mary. 
Mary, the princess of Orange, daughter i< 
James II.; married to William, Nov. 4, 16^ 7 ; 
ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689 ; died De- 
cember 28, 1694. 

Anne. 
Daughter of James 11. She married George 
prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683 ; succeed- 
ed to the throne March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen 
children, all of whom died young ; lost her 
husband, October 28, 1708 ; and died August 
1, 1714. 

Of George I. 
Sopliia Dorothea, daughter of the duke of 
Zell. She died a few weeks previously to 
the accession of George to the crown, June 
8, 1714. 

Of George H. 
Wilhehnina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran- 
denburgh-Anspach ; married in 1704: and 
died November 20, 1737. 

Of George III. 
Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of 
jNIecklenburgh-Strelitz ; married September 
8, 1761 ; and died November 17, 1818. 

Of George IV. 
Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the 
duke of Brunswick ; she was married April 
8, 1795, ; was mother of the lamented prin- 
cess Charlotte ; and died August 7, 1821. See 
article Queen Caroline. 

Of William IV. 

Adelaide Ainelia Louisa Teresa Caroline, 
sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen ; she 
was married July 11, 1818; and survived the 
king. 

Victoria. 
Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen, 
daughter of the duke of Kent ; bornlMay 24, 
1819 ; succeeded to the crown June 20, 1837 ; 
crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cousin 
prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Feb- 
ruary 10, 1840. 



QUEENSTOWN; Canada. Taken by the troops of the United States of Ameri- 



RAC J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 501 

ca, October 13, 1812 ; but retaken by the British forces, who defeated the 
Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the 
same day. 

QUICKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It 
is endowed with very extraordinaiy properties, and used to show the weight 
of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining sil- 
ver was discovered a. d. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the 
chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at Udria in Carniola in Ger- 
many, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 
1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburgh in 1759. It 
was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by 
Mr. Walker, in 1787. 

QUIETISTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard, 
whose work, the Spiritual Guide, was the foundation of the sect of Quietists 
in France. His principal tenet was, that the. purity of religion coi^sisted in 
an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and 
the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism from a kind of 
absolute rest and inaction in which the sect supposed the soul to be, when 
arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then 
imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its Jod. Ma- 
dame de la Mothe-Guyon, who was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions 
and prophecies, but released thi'ough the interest of Fenelon, the celebrated 
archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she 
occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect 
sprang up about 1678. — Nouv. Diet. 

QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in a. d. 553 ; but some 
say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty 
from living geese ; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling, 
ought to pi'efer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830. — Phillips. 

QUITO. A presidency of Colombia {which see) celebrated as having been the 
scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and 
Spanish mathematicians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls 
were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost 
overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797. 

R. 

RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chari- 
ots). Horse-races were known in England in very eai-ly times. Fitz-Stephen, . 
who Avrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the delight taken by the citi- 
zens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the sovith, 
and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were 
races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. — Camden. In the end of 
Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hj^de-park, and also Newmarket, 
although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronized them, 
and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. 

RACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for exti-acting a confes- 
sion from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe. 
The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times an in- 
strument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI., 
erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now 
teen in the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of 
Buckingham, the judges of England nobly i)rotested against the punish- 
ment proposed in the privj'- council of putting the assassin to the rack, as 
being contrary to the laws. 1G28. See RaviUac. 



5G2 THE world's PK.0GE.ESS. [ EAl 

RADCLIFFE LIBRARY, Oxford. Founded under the will of Dr. John Rad- 
cliffe, the most eminent physician of his time. He left 4.0,0001. to the Uni- 
versity of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1, 1714. The first stone of 
the library was laid May 17, 1737 ; the edifice was completely finished in 
1749, and was opened April 13, same year. 

R ADSTADT, Peace of, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. Con- 
gress of— commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, 
Dec. 9; 1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atro- 
cious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian 
regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798. 

RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow seas but on 
rafts or beams tied to one another, luitil the use of shipping was hrought 
among them by Danaus of Egypt, when he fled from his brother Rameses, 
1485 B. c. — Heylin. 

RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram-ways in and about New- 
castle so early as the middle of the 17th century ; but they were made of 
wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance from the 
pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676 : — " The 
manner of the carriage is by lajing rails of timber from the colliery to the 
river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky carts are made with four roll- 
ers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will 
draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the 
coal-merchants," — Life of Lord-Keeper North. They were made of iron, a,'. 
Whitehaven, in 1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at 
Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament 
(with the exception of a few undertaken by canal companies as small 
branches to mines) was the Surrej^ iron railway (by horses), from the Thames 
at Wandsworth to Croj'don, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first 
great and extensive enterprise of this kind is the Liverpool and Manchester 
railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. 

EXTENT OF RAILWAYS OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, IN 1847. 





Miles. 




Miles 


Great JBritain and Ireland 


■ 3,375 


Italy - 


■ 115 


United States (in 1849, 6,117) - 


- 3,800 


Denmark - 


- - 106 


Germany (in 1849, .3,100) • 


• 1,.570 


Cuba 


- 800 


Holland . - - - 


- 200 


Russia 


- - 52 


Belgium 


- 1,095 


British Colonies 


- 1,000 


France 


- 2,200 


East India - 


- - 500 



Total length of railways opened throughout the world : — in 1847, 21,761 miles. 

In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles 
per hoiu- ; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour ; 
in 1834, the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, the 
North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour; and at the present 
moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During 
the same ])eriod the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been 
diminished five-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for 
one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a corres- 
ponding ratio. — Tuck's Railways, 1847. 

RAILROADS in the UNITED STATES. In January 1849, the lines complet- 
ed reached an aggregate of 

In New England 1,219 miles. 

In New York 840 do. 

In other parts of the United States 4,058 do. 

Total .... 6,117 do. 
JSee Americrm Almanac, 1S50, ]>age 211, for complete list.! 



RAV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 503 

A considerable number of miles have since been completed, including a 
portion of the New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad, &c., &c. The 
first railway in the United States, was the Quincy and Boston, to convey 
granite for Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroad, 
opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, June 27, and Boston and Wor- 
cester, July 6, same year. Utica and Schenectady, opened Aug. 1, 1836. Bal- 
timore to Wilmington, July 19, 1837. Providence and Stonlngton, Nov. 10, 
1837. Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839. Housatonic, Feb. 
12, 1840. 

iiAILROADS IN FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as 
1783; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezieux 22 miles, 
commenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident 
on that from Paris to Versailles, 70 persons killed by collision and fire, includ- 
ing the celebrated navigator D'Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and 
Brussels Railway, train ran off a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded, July 
8, 1846. 

RAILWAYS, BELGIUM. That between Brussels and Antwerp, the first in 
Belgium, opened May 3, 1836. 

RAMILIES, Battle of, between the English under the duke of Marlborough 
and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other; fought on 
Whitsunday, May 23, 1706. The duke achieved one of his most glorious 
victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other import- 
ant places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honors which 
had been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his 
daughters. 

RATISBON, Peace op, concluded between France and the emperor of Ger- 
many, and by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, 
October 13, 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German 
princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under 

' the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806. 

RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat, the great pest 
of our dwellings, originally came to us from Persia and the Southern regions 
of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F. 
Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in 
the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers, 
that nothing could be done to oppose them ; they came from the western 
deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only ad- 
vanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, an(/ 
in some parts of France are still unknown. 

RAVENNA, Battle of, between the French under the great Gaston de Foix 
(duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal 
armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment 
of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April 
11, 1512.' ■ 

R AVILLAC'S MURDER op HENRY IV. op FRANCE. The death of Ravil- 
lac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the king. May 
14, 1610; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations. 
He was carried to the Greve, and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in the 
shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened 
the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire. 
Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot 
pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil pitch, and rosin were 
poured. His body was so robust tliiit lie endured this exquisite pain; and 
his strength resisted that of the foin- liorses by wiiieh his limbs were to be 



504 THE world's progress. [ RET 

pulled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters, 
and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through the 
streets. 

REFORM IN PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation 
for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for 
a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discus- 
sion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which re- 
form was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl 
Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by 
lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords 
by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority, May 7. 
New peers were created May 18, and the bill was finally passed by peers 
(106 to 22) June 4, 1832. 

REFORMATION, The. The early efforts for the reformation of the church 
may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, Miien Paulinus, bishop of Aqui- 
leia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal 
reformers were Wickliffe, Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri, 
Melancthon, Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca, Browne, and Knox. The 
eras of the Reformation are as follows :— 

In Sweden {Petri) - - - a. d. 1530 



In England ( TF/c/tii/fe) - - a. d. 1360 
In Bohemia (Huss) .... 1405 
In Germany {Luther) • ■ - - 1.'517 
In Switzerland {Zuinglius) ■ • • 1519 

In Denmark 1521 

In France (Co/luM) - - - • -1-529 
Protestants lirst so called - • - 1529 



In England {Henry VIII.) - - - 1534 
In Ireland {Browne) .... 1535 
In England, completed {Cranmer, 1 u- 
cer, Fag ins, Sfc.) .... [547 

In Scotland {Knox) 1560 

In the Netherlands - - - . - 1562 



The reformed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession 
to the throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first 
prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1585. See Lidher, 
Protestants, d^-c. 

RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to 
God, the supreme Author of all beings, though it is very often abused, and 
applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false 
gods among the heathens. — Pardon. Religion had its origin in most tribes 
and nations in tlieir ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena, benefits 
being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. — Phillips. Religious 
ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been in- 
troduced by Enos, 2832 e.g.. — Lenglet. See the different sects as described 
throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced 
with the Reformation {wkkh see), 1534. The Six Articles of Religion, for 
the non-observance of which many Protestants as well as Catholics suflered 
death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552 ; 
they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in January 1563, and receiv- 
ed the sanction of parliament in 1571. 

REPEAL or the UNION of Great Britain and Ireland. An Irish associa- 
tion was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 
1829. A new and more resolved association afterwards sprung up, and in 
1841, 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deli- 
berations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, in 
various parts of Ireland, some of them amounting to 150,000 persons, and 
called " monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf. on Oct. 8, 
was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were 
brought to trial, Jan. 15, 1844. 

RETREAT of the GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10,000 Greeks who had 
joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Arta- 
"xerxes. Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the 
retreat of his countryman. H-,> rose superior to dang-er. and though under 



rev] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



505 



contiuual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled 
to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops of moun-. 
tains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his tired companions. 
This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; the Greeks returned 
home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in 
215 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps might 
now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosopher 
who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which 
he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 e. c. — Vossms. 
REVENUE, PUBLIC, of England. The revenue collected for the civil list 
and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordi- 
nary, £1,200,000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles 
11. Raised to ^£6,000,000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated, 
which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary, 
1690. — Salmon's Chron. Hist.. 

GENERAL VIEW OP THE PUBLIC REVENUE SINCE THE CONaUEST, BY SIR JOHN SINCLAIR. 

JB 800,000 

400,000 

450,000 

500,000 

600,000 

' 895,819 

1,517,247 

1,800,000 

2,001,855 

3,892,205 

5,691,803 

6,762,643 

8,522,540 

15,572.971 

65.599,570 

62:871,300 

55,431,317 

50,494,732 

51,067,856 



William the Conqueror 

William Rufus 

Hem-y 1. 

Stephen 

Henry 11. 

Richard I. ■ 

John 

Henry III. 

Edward I. 

Edward II. 

Edward III. 

Richard II. 

Henry IV. 

Henry V. 

Henry VI. 

Edward IV. 

Edward V. 

Richard III. 

Henry VII. 



- ^00,000 
350,000 
300,000 
250,000 
200,000 
150,000 
100,000 
80,000 
150,900 
100,000 
154,000 
130,000 
100,000 
76,643 
64j976 

100,000 
130,000 
400,000 



Henry VIII. 

Edward VI. - 

Mary .... 

Elizahetli ... 

.lames I. .... 

Charles I. ... 

Commonwealth 

Charles II. - - - ■ 

.Tames II. - 

William III. . - . . 

Anne (at the Union) - 

George I. . . . . 

George 11. ... 

George III., 1788 - 

Ditto, 1820, United Kingdom 

George IV., 1825, ditto - 

William IV., 1830, ditto - 

Ditto, 1835, ditto - 

Victoria, 1845, ditto - 



REVENUE OP THE United States, The, is derived chiefly from customs and 
sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 



1790 
1795 
1800 
1805 
1810 
1815 
1820 



$4,399,473 
5,926.216 
10,624;997 
13,520.312 
9,299;737 
15,411.634 
16,779,331 



1325 - 



1835 - 
1836 
1837 - 
1838 
1839 - 



1840 

1844 
1845 
1846 
1847 



«16,993,858 
28,504,519 
29,769.134 
29,499,247 
26,346,790 
35,436,750 



REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES. 



$21,-342,906 
24,280,888 

- 34,163,635 
48.288,219 

- 18,032,846 
19,372,984 

- 30,399,043 

The first publication of the character of a re- 
view was the ''Journal des Savants" established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis 
de Sallo. It was at first published weekly, and contained analyses and cri- 
tiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence. Do 
Sallo died in 1669, and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la 
Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted by a society of 
learned men, and appeared in monthly numbers ; and the collection from 
1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discontinued ; but in 
1816, it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its con- 
tributors, as De Sacy, Langl^s, R^musat, Biot, Cuvier, &c. Numerous other 
literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few 
years. 

The Gentleman's Magazine, which first appeared in 1731, and the Monthly 
Review, in 1749, were the first works of the kind published in London, that 
obtained any great degree of permanency or celebrity. Of the journals 
which preceded the Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated 
by Nichols; viz. ■■ Weekly Memorials, or an Account of Books lately set forth," 



506 THE world's progress. [eev 

1688-9 ; " Memoirs of Literature," 8 vols., 8vo., 1722 ; " New Memoirs of 
Literature," 6 vols., 1725 to 1727 ; " Present State of the Republic of Letters," 
18 vols., 1728 to 1736; "Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732. 

The Gentleman'' s Magazine was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the 
first editor, who died in 1754, leaving the work in the hands of his associate, 
David Henry, who received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in 
1792, having been connected with the management of the magazine more 
than fifty years. Mr. Nichols, who was an eminent antiquary, and author 
of "Literary Anecdotes," 9 vols., died in 1827, having been joint or sole 
editor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by profession ; 
and the appellation assumed aad retained by the conductor of the work 
from its commencement to the present time, is Sylvanus Urban. This Mag- 
azine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first edi- 
tor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of 
this magazine, that its " scheme is known wherever the English language is 
spoken, — that it is one of the most successful and lucrative pamphlets which 
literary history has upon record." A new series of this work was begun 
January, 1834 ; the first series having been completed in 103 volumes 

The Monthly Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was 
established in 1749, by Ralph GriflSths, LL. D., who continued to conduct it 
54 years, assisted by his son in the latter years of his life. This work was 
continued until 1844, and had many able contributors. The first series, 
from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes ; Second Series, ending in 
1825, 108 volumes. 

The Critical Beview [London] was established in 1756, by Archibald Hamil- 
ton, with the assistance of Dr. Smollett and other friends. From 1764 to 
1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnished 
upwards of 2,620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since. 
First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive. 70 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1791 
to 1803, inclusive. 39 volumes; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive, 24 
volumes ; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series 
Avas begun in 1815. 

The British Critic [London] was established in 1793 ; and its first editors were 
the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe: the latter of whom died 
in 1817; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the 
work till the completion of the 42d volume. It was at first published in 
monthly numbers ; but from 1827, it api)eared quarterly, under the title of 
" The British Critic and Theological Review," until 1843, when a new work, 
called the English Review, took its place. It was conducted by the mem- 
bers of the ecclesiastical establishment ; and maintained Tory and High 
Church principles. 

The establishment of the Edinburgh RevieiD, in 1802, formed an era in peri- 
odical criticism ; as this work from its commencement took a wider range 
and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any preced- 
ing publication of the kind. It has uniformly been a strenuous asserter of 
Whig or reforming principles. Its editors have been the Rev. Sidney Smith 
(the first year), Francis Jeffrey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among its 
principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jeffrey, are the distinguished 
names of Playfair, Dugald Stewart, Mackintosh, Brown, Leslie, Brougham, 
and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide circulation ; and at one time, 
upwards of 20,000 copies were published ; but in 1832, the number was some- 
what less than 9000. 

The Quarterly Review [London] was established in 1809, and, as early as 
1812, it is said to have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It 
may be regarded as a rivnl publication to the Edinbu.rgli Review, maintain- 



rev] 



DICTIONARY OP DATES. SOi, 



ing, in a manner equally uncompromising, opposite or High Tory principles. 
It was edited from its commencement till 1825 by William Gifford ; then by 
H. N. Coleridge ; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are num- 
bered sir Walter Scott, Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and 
learned contributors, some of whom are understood to have been connected 
with the government. 
The Eclectic Review [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1805. 
It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical princi- 
ples in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has had 
many able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert 
Hall, and John Foster. — Present editor, Josiali Conder. — First Series, from 
1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive, 
30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829. 
The Christian Observer [London], a monthly journal, conducted by members 
of the established church, was commenced in 1802, and maintains what are 
commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contri- 
butors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay ; the present, the Rev. Samuel 
Charles Wilks. — Most of the volumes of this work have bevJi republished 
in this country. 
Blackioood's Edinburgh Magazine, a monthly journal, was commenced in 1817. 
It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics. 
The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000. 
The Westminster Revievj, established, in 1824, by the disciples of Jeremy Ben- 
tham, is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legis- 
lation. First editor, John Bowring, LL.D ; then succeeded by Mr. Mill, 
and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1845. 
The Foreign Quarterli/ Revieio [London], established in 1827, devoted to 
foreign literature, and conducted with ability, until 1845, when it was united 
to the Westminster Rcvleiu. — Amer. Almanac, &c. 

REVOLUTION, Era of the. This memorable revolution took place in Eng- 
land in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English liberty. James 
II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppres- 
sion ; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 
1688, the throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was 
consummated by Wilhara III. and his queen (Mary, daiighter of James) 
being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689. 

REVOLUTIONS, Remarkable in Ancient History. The Assyrian empire de- 
stroyed, and that of the Modes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 
536 B. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Per- 
sian, on the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331 
B. c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of the Macedonian, or 
Greek monarchy, by Julius Caesar, 47 b. c. The Eastern empire, founded 
by Constantino the Great, on the final overthrow of the Roman, a. d. 306. 
The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, a. d. 802. 
This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire 
under Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the head of the house of Austria, a. d. 1273, 
from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. The Eastern 
empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about a. d. 1293. See also the 
Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rome, 
France, Portugal, &c. 

REVOLUTIONS, the most celebrated in modern history. In Poi'tugal, a. d. 
1640. In England, 1688. In Poland, 1 704, 1795, and 1830. In Russia. 1730 
and 1762. In Sweden, 1772 and 1809. Tn America, 1775. In France. 1789, 
1830. and 1848. In Holland. 1795. In Venice. 1797. In Rome. 1798. In 
the Netherlands. 18.30. In Brunswick. 1830. In Brazil. 1831. Ta R.mre. 



508 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[&iq 



Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary,. &c., 1848-9. These last were temporary only 
— the former governments were restored, 1849. See these countries respec- 
tively. 
REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES in the UNITED STATES. Before the Ame- 
rican Revolution various attempts were made to establish religious and lite- 
rary journals in several places in this country, particularly Boston, New 
York, and Philadelphia ; but no one of them obtained a liberal support or 
had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary and 
religious reviews and magazines : 
BOSTON. Founded. 
American Monthly Ma- 
gazine, (the first) es- 
tablished by Jeremy 
Gridley, continued 3 



years, about - -1745 

Massachusetts Maga- 
zine, (lasted to 1795) 1784 

Monthly Anthology, Prf. 
Ticknor, A. H. Eve- 
rett, Buckminster, &c. 
(to 1811) - - - 1803 

General Repertory and 
Review, (1st Amer. 
quarterly.^ edited at 
Cambridge by Andrews 
Norton - - 1812-13 

North American Re- 
view, commenced by 
W. Tudor* - - 1815 

Christian Examiner, 
(quarterly) Channing, 
Dewey, Ware, &c, - 1818 

American Biblic. Repo- 
sitory, founded by E. 
Robinson, D.D., at An- 
dover • - - 1831 

Christian Revieii},(Jio.'p- 
tist) quarterly - - 1835 

Boston Quarterly Re- 
rzew, (Brownson) - 1837 

New jEngland Maga- 
zine, Buckingham - 1833 

American Quarterly Re- 
gister, Edwards - 18 — 

The Dial, (quarterly) 
Emerson, to 1843 - 1841 

Massachusetts Quarler- 



NEW YORK. 

N. Y. Magazine and 
Literary Repository, 
(to 1792) - - 1787 

Literary Review, R. C. 



Sands, &c. (to 1823) - 1S22 
Atlantic Mag., Sands, 
afterwards New York 
Monthly Review, ■ 1824 
Knickerbocker Mag., C. 

F. Hoffman, succeeded 
by Flint, and now L. 

G. Clark - - 1832 
Democratic Review (un- 
til 1841 at Washington) 1837 

American Monthly Ma- 
gazine, N. Y.,(to 1838) 
Herbert,Hoffman,Ben- 
jamin - - - 1835 

N. Y. Review, (quar- 
terly) J. G. Cogswell, 
(to 1842) - - 1837 

American Review, G. 
H. Colton - - 1844 

Hunt's Merchant's Ma- 
gazine ■ • ■ 1839 

NEW HAVEN. 

Christian Observer - 182- 

American Jour7ial of 
Science ^ Arts, (Silli- 
man's) quarterly - 1818 

New Englaiider, Theol. 
(quarterly) - - 1&43 

Church Revieic (quar- 
terly) - - - 1848 



PHILADELPHIA. 

Aitkin's Pennsylvania 
Magazine was the 
most popular before 
the Revolution; Thos. 
Paine and Francis 
Ilopkinson, editors 

Amer. ilfMseum, pub. by 
Matthew Carey, (to 
1792) - - - 1787 

Literary Magazine and 
American Register, C. 
Brockden Brown, (to 
1810) - - -1806 

Portfolio, pub. monthly 
from 1809 by Jos. Den- 
nie ; edited by Nicho- 
las Biddle,]812-1G, and 
1816-21 by J. E. Hall - 1801 

Analectic Mag., Moses 
Thomas, (to 1820) - 1813 

Amer. Quar. Review, 
Robt. Walsh, (to 1837) 182? 

Graham's Magazine - 

Lady's Book, Mrs. Hale 

Stryker's Arnerican Rs- 
gister, (quarterly) - 1847 

Southern Quarterly Re- 
view, at Charleston, 
(to 1833, recommenced 
1812) - - -1828 

Southern Lit. Messen- 
ger, at Richmond, by 
T. W. White - - 1834 

Biblical Repertory and 
Theological Review, 
Princeton, N. J. - 18— 



hj, Theo. Parker, &c. 1846 

RHEIMS. The principal church here was built before a. d. 406 ; it was rebuilt 
in the twelfth century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, 
the archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine. 
The kings of France have been successively crowned at Rheims ; probably, 
becouse Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, when converted from 
paganism, was baptized in the cathedral here, in the year 496. This city 
was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the war of 1814. 

RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of 
Byzantium, 200 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at 
Rome by Photius Gallus, 87 b. c. — Idem. "We are first to consider what is. 
to be said ; secondly, how : thirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to 
be ornamented." — Cicero. A regius professor of rhetoric was appointed in 
Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor. 



'Subsequent editors:— W. Phillips, 1817; E. T. Channing, Dana, and Sparks, 1817; Edward 
"\verett, 1819; Jared Sparks, 1823; A. H. Everett, ia30; J. G. Palfrey, 183") ; F. Bowen, 1842. 



ROM ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



509 



RHINE, CONFEDERATION op the. See article Confederation of the Rhine. 

RHODE ISLAND, one of the United States ; first settled by Roger Williams 
and his associates, who left Massachusetts to escape religious persecution, 
and founded the town of Providence, in 1636. Williams obtained a patent 
from Plymouth Co. in 1644, inchiding Providence Plantations and Rhode 
Island, which had been settled 1638. New charter by Charles II., in 1663, 
■\vhich has continued in force till recently, unchanged by the Revolution. 
Dorr's attempt to change or overturn this constitution by armed force, in 
June, 1842, defeated by the military force of the government. New consti- 
tution adopted in convention, September 1842. Constitution of the United 
States adopted May 29, 1790 ; this State being the last to accede to it. Poji- 
ulation in 1790, 58,825 ; in 1810, 76,981 ; in 1830, 97,212 ; in 1840, 108,130. 

RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 b. c. The Rho- 
dians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a mar- 
itime code, which was afterwards adopted by the Romans. The republic not 
completed till 480 b. c. The city built 432 e.g. Its famous Colossus 
(which see) thrown down bj^ an earthquake, 224 b. c, and finally destroyed 
by the Saracen admiral Moavia, a. d. 672 — Priestley. 

RJALTO, AT Venice. This renowned bridge is mentioned by Shakspeare in 
his '■ Merchant of Venice." It was built in 1570, and consists of a single 
arch, but a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near 
the middle, wliere it is the narrowest : this celebrated arch is ninety feet 
wide on the level of the canal, and twenty- four feet high. 

RIGHTS, BILL of. The declaration made by the lords and commons of Eng- 
land to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See Bill of 
Rights. 

RIOTS. Some of the most noted in the United States : 



At BaUimore, office of a Newspaper oppos- 
ed to the war, demolished, .July, 1812. 

At Providence, 4 persons killed by the mili- 
tai7, Sept. 24, 1831. 

At Baltimore, about the bank of Md., several 
killed and wounded. Aug. 8, 1835. 

At New York, '-abolition riots," caused by 
discussions on slavery, and supposed in- 
tentions of abolitionists to promote " amal- 
gamation" between whites and blacks, 
July 10-12, 1&34. 

At Charlestown, Mass., a Catholic seminary 
or nunnery burnt, Aug. 11, 1834. 

At Philadelphia, further " abolition" riots, 
40 houses destroyed, Aug. 12, 1834. 

At Utica, Boston, &c., same cause. 1835-6. 

At Cincinnati, printing-press of Mr. Bur- 
ney's "abolition" paper destroyed, July 
30, 1836. 

At New York, caused by the high price ol 
flour ; several hundred barrels of flour des- 
troyed, Feb. 13, 1837. 

At Alton, 111., Rev. E. P. Lovejoy's anti-sla- 
very newspaper destroyed, and lie was 
killed, Nov. 7, 1837. 

At Philadelphia, mob opposed to the anti- 
slavery discussions, destroyed Pennsylva- 
nia Hall, &c.. May 17, 1838. 

In the Pennsylvania legislature, two dilferent 
legislatures organized, the Senate expelled 
from their Chamber by a mob. Militia 
called out and the contest settled after 4 
days, Dec. 8, 1S:38. 



At Cincinnati, chiefly of Irishmen against 
abolitionists and negroes, Sept. 4, 1841. 

Disgraceful alfray in Pennsylvania legisla- 
ture ; a member stabbed by another, April 
8, 1843. 

Another in House of Representatives of U. 
S.; rencontre between Weller and Shriver, 
Jan. 25, 1844. 

Riot at Philadelphia, between " native Ame- 
ricans" and the Irish, 30 houses and 3 
churches burned, fourteen persons killed, 
forty wounded ; finally put down by the 
military. May 6-8, 1S44. 

The same renewed, and 40 to 50 killed and 
wounded by the military: 5000 troops call- 
ed out, July 7,1844. 

Outrages of "Anti-Renters," in Rensselaer 
County, N. Y. Commenced August 21, 
1844 : renewed in December. 

Delaware Co., N. Y., declared by governor 
Wright to be in a state of insurrection. 
Collection of rents being resisted by rioters 
disguised as Indians, and an under sheriff 
murdered, Aug. 27, 1845. 

Anti-Rent riot in Columbia Co. N. Y. March 
25, 1847. 

Riots at the Astor Place Opera House, N. Y, 
against Blr. Macready, the English actor 
21 killed ; May 10, 1S49. 

Disgraceful rencontre between Foote of Mis 
sissippi and Benton of Missouri, in the 
Senate of the U. S., the first gross insult to 
that assembly, May, 1850. 



RIVER AND HARBOR CONVENTION, for promoting improvements, &c. ; as- 



510 THE world's progress. [ ROM 

sembled at Chicago, 111., July 5. 1847. House of Representatives votes 
(112 to 53) that it is expedient and constitutional for the general govern- 
ment to promote such improvements, July 1848. 
ROBESPIERRE'S REIGN op TERROR. Maximilian Rolbespierre headed the 
populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of 
the king, July 17, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers of 
eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary administra- 
tion. Billaud Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tri- 
bune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant !" resounded through 
the hall ; and so great was the abhorrence of the Convention of this wicked 
minister, that he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and 
suffered death, no man deeming himself safe while Robespierre lived. 

ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious band of robbers, who 
infested the forest of Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made 
excursions to many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historians 
assert ti.at this was only a name assumed by the then earl of Huntingdon, 
who was disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession. 
Robin Hood, Little John his friend and second in command, with their nu- 
merous followers, continued their depredations from about 1189 to 1247, 
when he died. — Stowe's Chron. 

ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. War implements of very destructive power, -vyere 
invented by sir William Congreve, about 1803. The carcase rockets were 
first usod at Boulogne, their powers having been previously demonstrated 
in the presence of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. See 
article Boulogne Motilla. 

ROMAN CATHOLICS. The progress of Christianity during the life-time of 
its divine founder was confined within narrow bounds : the Holy Land was 
alone the scene of his labors, and of his life and death. The period of the 
rise of the Roman Catholic religion may be dated from the establishment of 
Christianity by Constantine, a. d. 323. See Borne. The foundation of the 
papal power dates from a. d. 606, when Boniface III. assumed the title of 
Universal Bishop. See Pope. Pepin, king of France, invested pope Ste- 
phen II. with the temporal dominions of Rome and its territories, a. d. 756. 
The tremendous power of the Roman pontiffs was weakened by the Reform- 
ation, and has since been gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed 
doctrines, and the general diffusion of knowledge among the nations of the 
earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, about 160 millions are, or pass under 
the denomination of, Roman Catholics. — M. Balbi, 

ROMAN CATHOLICS in England. Laws were enacted against them in 
1539. They were forbidden the British court in 1673 ; but restored to favor 
there in 1685. Disabled from holding offices of trust 1689 ; and excluded 
from the British throne same year. Obliged to register their names and 
estates 1717. Indulgences were granted to Roman Catholics by parliament 
in 1778. They were permitted to purchase land, and take it by descent, 
1780. The "no-popery" riots (Gordon's) 1780. Catholic Emancipation 
Bill passed April 13, 1829, D. O'Connell being the first M. P. who took his 
seat under the act. 

ROMANCES. " Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic 
flights of the imagination are introduced, giving false images of life." — 
Pardon. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author 
of Elhiopics, in Greek, the first work in this species of writing, he is hence 
styled the "Father of Romances." His work has a moral tendency, and 
particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity. He flourished a. n. 398.- 
H-iiet de Origvne Fabul. Roman. 



BOS ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



511 



ROME. Once the mistress of the world, and subsequently the seat of the 
most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind. 
Romulus is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this cele- 
brated city, on the 20th of April, according to Varro, in the year 3961 of 
the Julian period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the 
birth of Christ, 431 j'^ears after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of 
the sixth Olympiad. In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on 
the summit of Mount Palatine"; and the founder, to give his followers the 
appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard 
as a common asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who fled from 
their native country to avoid the punishment which attended them. From 
such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the 
death of the founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations, the 
Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Coelius, and 
Quirinalis. Their numerous and successful wars led, in the course of ages, 
to their mastery over all mankind, and to their conquest of neari> tlie 
whole of the then known world. The Romans and the Albans, contesting 
for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it. 
The three Horatii, Roman knights, and -the three Curiatu, Albans, having 
been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated com- 
bat, which by tiie victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome, 667 b. c. — 
Livf. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to ]3. 63. 

&e. The pope refuses ; the people 
753 attack the palace, and at 7 p. m. the 
pope yields, and grants a liberal mi- 
nistry - - - Nor. 16, 1848 

The pope, after being a prisoner in his 
palace for seven days, escapes from 
Rome to Blola di Gaeta, in the dis- 
guise of a servant - Nov. 24, 1848 

Roman chambers dissolved, and a con- 
stituent assembly convened - Dec. 29, 1348 

The Roman republic proclaimed ; Maz- 
zini and two others triumvirs Feb. 9, 1849 

Fi'ench armament against the republic 
reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1849 

French repulsed under the walls of 
Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1849 

Rome surrenders after an attack of 29 
days, and false promises on the part 
of the French - - July 2, 1849 

Rome entered by the French under Ou- 
dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi 
and liis force of 3,000 men - July 3, 1849 

Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849 

Oudinot surrenders the government 
into the hands of three commissioners 
of the pope, who begin the work of 
reaction - - - Aug. 3, 1349 

Letter of the French president, dictat- 
ing the basis of the restoration of the 
pope's temporal power, viz. : general 
amnesty, secularization of the admi- 
nistration, code Napoleon, and a libe- 
ral government - Aug. 18, 1849 

Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome - Apr. 1850 



Foundation of the city cemmenced by 
Romulus - - -B.C. 

Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, enters 
Italy, takes Rome, and assumes the 
title of king of Italy, which ends the 
Western empire - - a. d. 

Rome is recovered for Justinian, by 
Belisarius . . . . 

Retaken by the Goths 

Narses, Justinian's general, again re- 
conquers Rome 

Papal power established 

Rome revolts from the Greek emperors, 
and becomes free 

Pope Stephen II. invested with the tem- 
poral dominion of Rome 

Charlemagne acknowledged as ejinperor 
of the West - - - - 



476 



- 726 
756 



800 



Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at 
Rome 1347 

[The popes continued in possession of 
the city and territories. See article 
Popes and Italy.] 

The recent struggles of Rome for free- 
dom commenced in - - - 1848 

Mazzini's first proclamation - Oct. 29, 1848 

Count Rossi, the pope's prime minis- 
ter, assassinated at the senate-house. 
The populace march to the Quirmal, 
and present their demands to the 
pope, viz. : Italian nationality, con- 
stituent assembly, a new ministry, 



ROSARY. "We owe to Dominic de Guzman, a canon of the order of St. Au- 
gustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, ■ the Rosary 
and the Holy Office," a. d. 1202. Other authors mention the Rosary as 
being said in 1093. 

ROSES, The WnrrE and Red. The intestine wars which so long devastated 
England, were i^rried on under the symbols of the White and the Red Rose, 
and were called the wars of the Roses. The partisans of the house of Lan- 



512 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ RCTM 

caster chose the red roses as their mark of distinction, and tliose of York 
were denominated from the white. These wars originated with the descend- 
ants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, Ri- 
chard II., who being deposed, the duke of Lancaster Avas proclaimed king, 
by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heir 
to the crown ; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward 
III., wbereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, \!a&iKird 
son of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspira- 
cies during his reign ; and the animosities which subsisted between his de- 
scendants and those of the duke of York afterwards filled the kingdom 
with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, parf'cularly in 
the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. First battle fought, May 22, 
1455. See Albans^ St. Union of the Roses in the msfrriage of Henry VH. 
with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 1486 

ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of hermetical philosophers, first appeared in Ger- 
many in 1302, and again early in the 17th century. They swore fidelity, 
promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphically ; and affirmed that the an- 
cient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gymno- 
sophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine with themselves. 

ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of Eng- 
land to the scaffold, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cava- 
litrs, and the friends of the parliament were called Round-heads. This 
latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselves 
putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting their 
hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cavaliers. 

ROYAL ACADEMY of ARTS in England. Instituted 1768, under the patron- 
age of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was 
appointed its first president. — Leigh. 

ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, London. This institution, for the recovery of 
persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, He- 
berden. Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally by the exertions 
of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the 
metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus, 
and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object. 

ROYAL INSTITUTION, London. This institution was formed in 1800, un- 
der the patronage of George III., and incorporated by royal charter as 
" The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diffusing the knowledge, and 
facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and 
improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and 
experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life. 
The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lec- 
tured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on this 
establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833. 

ROYAL SOCIETY. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon. 
Robert Boyle and sir Wm. Petty, who, together with the several doctors of 
divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in the 
apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College, Oxford ; where the society 
continued till 1658. Charles II., April 22, 1663, constituted them a body 
politic and corporate, by the appellation of the " President, Council and 
Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge." 

RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of the 
civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments block- 
aded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the 
Presbyterian party, whom he confined ; above 160 more were excluded ; 
and none but the most determined of the Independents, about 60, were 



RUS] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



5i; 



permitted to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights was 
called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump, 
lQ4^.— Goldsmiih. 

RUSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It Is conjectured that the aborigines of this 
vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son 
of Japhet ; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion 
from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distin- 
guished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general ap- 
pellation, until it was clianged by the Romans into that of Scythians. 
Rurick was grand-duke of JVovogorod, a. d. 882, which is the earliest au- 
thentic account of this country. In 981, Woladimer was the first CLristian 
king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Mos- 
cow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in 
subjection till 1 540, when John Basilowitz restored it to independence. In 
tlie middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conquered 
Siberia. 



The foundation of the present monarchy 
laid A. D. 1474 

Basil IV. carries his victorious arms in- 
to the East, 1509 to .... 1534 

Ivan Basilowitz takes the title of czar, 
signifying great king, and drives the 
Tartars clear out of his dominions, 
1534 to 1550 

The navigation from England first dis- 
covered by Robert Chancellor - - 1554 

The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay 
30,000 of the people .... 1571 

The Novogorodians having intrigued 
with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief 
inhabitants to be hewn into small pie- 
ces before his eyes .... 1581 

The race of Rurick, who had governed 
Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 1593 

The imposition practised by Demetrius 
See Impostors. - • - - - 1606 

The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their 
own king, Sigismund II., upon the 
throne of Russia .... 1610 

Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of 
Romanzov, ascends the throne - - 1613 

Revolt from Polish tyranny - - • 1613 

Finland ceded to Sweden. - - - 1617 

Reign of Peter I. or the Great - . 1682 

He visited England, and worked in the 
dock-yard at Depiford . . - 1697 

Orders of St. Andrew, and of St, Alex- 
ander Nevskoi, instituted about - 1698 

The Russians begin their new year 
from Januai'y I - . . 1700 

Peter builds St. Petersburg - . 1703 

Peter II. deposed, aad the crown given 
to Anne ofCourland - - -1730 

Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns, 
in prejudice of Ivan VI., an infant, 
who is imprisoned for life . . 1741 

Peter III. dethroned ami murdered ; suc- 
ceeded by Catheiine his wife, - 1762 

THE CZARS, OR EMPERORS OP RUSSIA. 

A.D. 1461 .lohnlll. 1606 Chousky 

1504 Demetrius; murdered. " " 

1504 Basil V. 

1534 John IV. 

1.584 Theodore I. 

1598 Bovise Godounove. 

1605 Theodore II 

1605 Demetrius II. , assassinated. 



The young prince, the rightful heir, till 
now immured, put to death a. n. 1763 

The dismemberment of Poland com- 
menced by Catherine. (See Poland) 177V 

This perfidious robbery completed - 1795 

Catherine gives her subjects a new code 
of laws ; abolishes torture in punish- 
ing criininals ; and dies - - 179C 

Murder of the emperor Paul, who is 
found dead in his chamber, March 23, 1801 

Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz, 
by Napoleon - - Dec. 2, 1805 

Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814 

The grand-duke Constantine renounces 
the right of succession - Jan. 26, 1822 

The emperor Nicholas is crowned at 
Moscow - - - Sept. 3, 1826 

Russian war against Persia . Sept. 28, 182G 

Nicholas invested with the order of the 
Garter - . - July 9, 1827 

Peace concluded between Russia and 
the Persians - - Feb" 22, 1828 

War between Russia and the Ottoman 
Porte declared - - April 26, 1823 

[For the disastrous consequences to 
Turkey of this war, see 2'urkey and 
Battles.} 

The war for the independence of Poland, 
against Russia . . Nov. 29, 1830 

This war closed with the capture of 
Warsaw, and the total overthrow of 
the Poles. See Warsaw - Sept. 8, 1831 

[For the events of this last war, see ar. 
tide Poland.] 

Cracow, which had been erected into a 
republic, and its independence gua- 
ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in 
1815, is occupied by a Russian and 
Austrian army - Feb. 13, 1836 

Failure of the Russian expedition a- 
gainst Khiva - - Jan. 3, 1840 

Treaty of London. See Syria - July 15, I&IO 



1616 Michael Fedorowitz. 

1645 Alexis. 

1676 Theodore III. 

1682 Peter I., the Great. 

1725 Catherine I. 

1727 Peter II. 

1730 Anne, a nuS». 



22* 



514 THE world's progress. [ SAC 



1740 John V. ; murdered, July ir, 1762. 

1741 Elizabeth. 

1762 Peter III. ; deposed, and died soon af- 
terwards. 



RUSSIA, oontiiiued. 

1762 Catherine II. 

1796 Paul I. ; mui-dered, Feb. 23, 1901. 

1801 Alexander. 

1825 Nicholas, December 1. 

RYE-HOUSE PLOT. The real, or more probably pretended, conspiracy to 
assassinate Cliarles II. and bis brother the duke of York (afterwards James 
II.) at a place called Rye-house, on the way to London from Newmarket. 
This design was said to have been frustrated by the king's house at New- 
market accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eight 
days before the i^lot was to take place, March 22, 1683. The plot was discov- 
ered June 12, following. The patriot Algernon Sidney, suffered death on a 
false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 1683. 

RYSWICK, Peace of, concluded between England, France, Spix-in, and Holland, 
signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697. 

S. 

SABBATH, The. Ordained by the Almighty. The Jews observed the seventh 
day in commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bon- 
dage of the Egyptians ; the Christians observe the first day of the week in 
commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the univer- 
sal redemption of mankind. The sabbath-day, or Sunday, ordained to be 
kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon to Monday at 
break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, a. d. 960. Act of parliament levying one 
shilling on every person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606. 
Act restraining amusements, Charles I., 1626-. Act restraining the perform- 
ance of servile works, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain hours, 
meat in i^ublic houses, and works of necessity and charitj'-, on forfeiture of 
five shillings, 29 Charles II. 1677. 

SABBATIANS. Christians, who, professing to follow the example and precepts 
of Christ, keep the ancient divine Sabbath of Saturday, instead of the mo- 
dern Romish festival of Sunday, for which this sect allege that there is not 
a tittle of Scriptural authority. They maintain that the Jewish Sabbath 
was never abrogated, nor any other appointed or instituted, and consequently 
that it ought to be as religiously observed by the Christians as by the 
Jews, 1549. 

SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 b. c. Every seventh year, 
during which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled, and every 
forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, 
&c., that were before sold or mortgaged, retui'ned to their original families, 
&c. — Josephus. 

SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away 
their daughters by force for wives, having made and invited them to some 
public sports or shows on purpose ; when the Sabines were determined to 
revenge this afiFront, the women became mediators to their fathers in behalf 
of their husbands the Romans, and settled a regular and lasting peace be- 
tween them, 750 b. c. 

SACRED WAR. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 448 b. c. 
The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phocoans, 
356 B. 0. This latter war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all 
the cities of the Phoceans, 348 b. c. — Plutarch. 

SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was oflTered to God by Abel; it con- 
sisted of milk and the firstlings of his flock, 3875 b. c. — Josephus; Usher. 
Sacrifices to the gods were first introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of 



ST. V] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 515 

Argos, 1773 b. c. The offering of human sacrifices seems to have originated 
with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into Greece, Persia, and 
other eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God ceased with the sacri- 
fice of the Redeemer, a. d. 33. 

SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups, 
which led to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use in 
the third century, and are mentioned as made of leather in i* . d. 304. They 
were known in England about the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were in 
use in 1388. Anne, the queen of Richard II., introduced them to the En- 
glish ladies. — Slowe. 

SADDTJCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one 
Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, 
taught there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul 
was mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body from the dead. 
As for their other opinions, the Sadducees agreed m general with the Sama- 
ritans, excepting that thej'' were partakers of all the Jewish sacrifices. This 
sect began about 200 b. c. — Pardon. 

SAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphrey Davy, to prevent ac- 
cidents which happen in coal and other mines, introduced in 1815 ; and im- 
proved in 1817. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in 
passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be 
capable of igniting inflammable substances around, while flame alone ig- 
nites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is 
Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are 
authenticated in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, for 1817, and in 
Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, same year. 

SAGUNTUM, Siege of. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntum (now 
Morviedro in Valencia) was sustained 219 b. c. The heroic citizens, after 
exerting incredible acts of valor for eight months, chose to be buried in the 
ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt them- 
selves, with their houses and all their efiects, and the conqueror became 
master of a pile of ashes and of dead. 

ST. SALVADOR. The first point of land discovered in the "West Indies or 
America by the illustrious Christopher Columbus. It was previously called 
Guanahami, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for 
his deliverance from the dangers to which he was exposed in his voyage of 
discovery) named it St. Salvador, October 11, 1492. 

ST. SEBASTIAN'S, Siege of, by the British and allied army under lord Wel- 
lington. St. Sebastian, after a short siege, dmlng which it sustained a most 
heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, 
was stormed by general (afterwards lord) Graham, and taken, August 31, 
1813. 

ST. SOPHIA, Church of. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sub- 
lime Porte, stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by 
Justinian ; and since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an impe- 
rial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. Its length is 269 feet, and its 
breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the Temple of 
Diana, at Ephesus ; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of the Sun, at 
Rome. 

ST. VINCENT, Battle op, between the Spanish and British fleets off the 
Cape. The latter was commanded by sir John Jervis (afterwards earl St. 
Vincent), who took four line-of-battle ships, and considerably damaged the 
rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14, 1797. 



516 THE wofwLd's progress. [ san 

SALAMANCA, Battle of, between the British and allies commanded by lord 
Wellington, and the French army under Marshal Marmont, fought July 22, 
1812. In this great and memorable battle the illustrious Wellington was 
victorious, though the loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in 
killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 6000 men ; but that of the enemy 
was much greater. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11 
pieces of cannon, 6 stand of colors, and two eagles : 8000 men are believed 
to have been kiUed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French Mar- 
shal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An 
immediate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2500 
more prisoners, and an immense quantity of stores. 

SALAMIS, Battle of. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great sea- 
fight, October 20, 480 b. c. Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only 
380 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, which consisted of .2000 sail. After 
this battle, Xerxes retired from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius, 
with 300,000 men, to carry on the war, and suffer more disasters. In his re- 
treat, he found the bridge of boats he had crossed over at the Hellespont, 
now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest. 

SALIQUE, OR SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inherit- 
ing the crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond, a. d. 424. Rati- 
fied in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French 
monarchy, in 511. — HenauWs France. In order to give more authority to 
the maxim that " the crown should never descend to a female," it was usual 
to derive it from a clause of the Salian code of the ancient Franks ; but 
this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favoring 
the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it. 

SALT and SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from 
salt-springs, or from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitska, near 
Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years, and yet present, it has been 
lately said, no appearance of being exhausted. Rock-salt was discovered 
about A. D. 950. Saltpetre was first made in England about 1625. The fine 
salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. 

SAMARITANS. The Samaritans are often mentioned in the Scriptures. They 
were the inhabitants of a province of which Samaria was the capital, and 
were composed of heathens and rebellious Jews ; and on having a temple 
built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, a lasting enmity arose be- 
tween the people of Judea and Samaria, so that no intercourse took place 
between the two countries, and the name of Samaritan became a word of re- 
proach, and as if it were a curse. — Lemfriere. 

SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one 
entire sanctuary from 751 b. c. In England, privileged places for the safety 
of offenders were granted by king Lucius to our churches and their pre- 
cincts. St. John's of Beveiiey was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. 
St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, a. d. 935; West- 
minster, by Edward the Confessor ; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Sanc- 
tuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in London were 
privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were sup- 
pressed in 1696. 

SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At 
first it was only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the foot 
from the ground, but was in tlie course of time improved to a covering of 
cloth, ornamented Avith all the delicacies of art, and made of the richest 
materials, and worn by the high priests at great solemnities, and by kings, 
princes, and great men as a mark of distinction. Sandals were also worn 
by women, as appears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where, 



sar] dictionary of dates. 517 

among other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of 
which he was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry 
their sandals in cases, ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. See 
Shoes. 

S AJVDWICH ISLANDS. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They 
were discovered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the na- 
tural capacity of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard 
of mankind. It Avas in one of these islands that this illustrious circumna- 
vigator fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779. 
Extraordinary progress in the civilization and improvement of the natives, 
eifected chiefly by the American missionaries. Tamehameha, chief of 
Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 18 . Rihoriho, his son, succeeds 
him, 1819. Idolatry abolished, 1819. Rihoriho and his queen died in Eng- 
land, 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established 
by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000 
pupils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral Dupetit- 
Thouars, 1837. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic mission- 
aries, &c., 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king. Dr. G. P. Jtdd, an Ame- 
rican, prime-minister, 18 . In 1831 there were 14 ships, 2680 tons, belong- 
ing to the Islands — which are important to the United States as a whaling 
station. See Oivhyhee. 

SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of sev- 
enty, or as some say, seventy-three members. They date this senate from 
Numbers xi. 16. It Avas yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, John 
xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon 
at Paris, July 23, 1806 ; and it assembled Jan. 20, 1807. 

SAPPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mity- 
lene. Sappho was equally celebrated for her poetry, her beauty, and her 
amorous disposition. She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth 
of her native country, on which account she threw herself into the sea 
from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid 
her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 594 b. c. 

SARACENS. A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sarra in their 
language signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet ; 
and within 40 years after his death, in a. d. 681, they conquered a great part 
of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered Spain in 718 et seq. ; the 
empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258. 
— Blair. There are now no people known by this name ; the descendants 
of those who subdued Spain are called Moors. 

SARAGOSSA. Anciently C^sarea Augusta ; whence, by corruption, its name. 
Its church- has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin, 
while yet living, appeared to St. James, who was preaching the, gospel, and 
left him her image, which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little 
Jesus in its arms, ornamented with a profusion of gold and jewels, and il- 
luminated by a multitude of lamps. In December 1778, four hundred of 
the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa taken by 
the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafos, during as re- 
nowned a siege as is on record, February 13, 1809. 

SARATOGA, Burgoyne's Surrender at. Here general Burgoyne, comman- 
der of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans in 
the war of independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to the 
American general Gates, when 5791 men laid down their arms, October 17, 
1777. 

SARD ANAP ALUS. The last king of Assyria. See Assyria. One of the most 



518 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



r SAT 



infamous and sensual monarchs that ever lived. Having grown odious to 
his subjects, and being surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into 
their hands, he shut himself up in his capital at Nineveh. Here he caused 
a vast pile of wood to be raised in a court of his palace, and heaping upon 
it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare articles, the royal apparel, 
and other treasures, and inclosing his concubines and eunuchs in an apart- 
ment within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the flames. 
This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The riches 
thus destroyed were worth a thousand myriads of talents of gold, and ten 
TIMES as many talents of silver!!! about 1,400,000,OOOZ. sterling. — Athenaus, 

SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c., are supposed to 
have been the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gauls 
(when they established themselves in Italy, under Brennus, &c.,) from 
whom this country was called Cisalpine Gaul (or Gaul on this side of the 
Alps, with respect to Rome) : it afterwards became a part of Lombardy, 
from whom it was taken by the Burgundians. The island of Sardinia has 
been successively possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks, the Carthagi- 
nians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging to v. Iiich 
various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin. 
Subjugated by the Romans - B.C. 231 



Taken by the Moors, about - - a.d. 728 

Reduced by the Genoese - - - 1115 

The pope grants Sardinia to thePisanese, 
who are, however, too weak to expel 
the Saracens 1132 

Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomes 
master of Sardinia - - - -1324 

Taken from the Spaniards by the Eng- 
lish naval forces .... 1708 

Recovered by the Spaniards • - - 1717 

They again lose possession • - - 1719 

Ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an equi- 
valent for Sicily .... 1720 

Victor Amadeus, having the title of king 
abdicates in favor of his son - a.d. 1730 

Attempting to recover Sardinia, he is 
taken, and dies in prison - - - 17.32 

[The court kept at Turin till 1706, when 
these dominions were overrun by the 
French arms, and shortly afterwards 
annexed to the French empire.] 

The king resigns his crown to his bro- 
ther, duke of Aoust - . June 4, 1802 

Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bona- 
parte crowned king of the whole. 

December 26; 1805 

Restored to its rightful sovereign, with 
Genoa added to it December 1S14 

King Charles Albert, having protested 
against Austrian encroachments in 
Italy, calls out an additional force of 
25,000 men - - - Jan. 10, 1848 

Proclaims the basis of a Constitution 

Feb. 8, 1848 



Declares war against Austria, enters 
Milan with An army, to assist the po- 
pular cause, and drives the Austrians 
towards Mantua - - March 23, 1848 

Takes Lodi .... April 1, *"** 

Forces the Austrian line near Verona, 

April 17, **" 

Takes Peschiara - - -May30, ***' 

Defeats the Austrians under Radetsky, 
at Goito •"•* 

Sardmian army driven from Vicenza, 
Verona, the Adige, &c., June-July - 1848 

Retreats to Ticino after capitulation of 
Milan Aug. 4, **'* 

Followed by an armistice - - i '*" 

Rupture of the armistice - - March 1849 

Battle of Novara ; the Sardinians under 
Charles Albert, totally defeated by 
Radetsky **** 

The king abdicates in favor of his son, 
Victor Emanuel, count of Savoy, and 
leaves the kingdom - March 23, **" 

Insurection at Genoa against the new 
king April 1, *'*' 

Genoa invested by Marmora, April 5, ***' 
and fully reduced - - April 11, *'** 

Charles Albert late king, dies at Lis- 
bon July 28, ••** 

Victor Emanuel opens the legislative 
chamber with a moderate speech, and 
is warmly greeted - Aug. 1. **** 

Treaty with Austria - - Aug. 6, ***' 

The chamber voles 100,000 livres to re- 
lieve the refugees fom various parts 
of Italy - " - - Aug. 30, *"* 



KINGS OF SARDINIA. 

A. D. 1720. Victor Amadeus, son of Charles Ema- I 1802. Victor Emanuel, 

nuel duke of Savoy. | 1821 . Charles Felix. 

1730. Charles Emanuel I 1831. Charles Albert, April 27. 

1773. Victor Amadeus Maria II. 1848. Victor Emanuel 
1796. Charles Emanuel. I 

SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made its 
appearance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius. who was so celebrated in 
this species of composition that he has been called the inventor of it, 116 



SAW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 519 

B. c. — Livy. Lucilius obtained praise lavished with too liberal a hand : we 
may compare him to a river which rolls upon its waters precious sand, ac- 
companied with mire and dirt. — Horace. 

SATURDAY. With us this is the last or seventh day of the week ; but with 
the Jews it is the Sabbath. See Sabbath. It was so called from an idol 
worshipped on this day by the old Saxons, and according to Vertigern was 
named by them Saterne's-day.— Par^^ora. It is more probably from Saturn, 
dies Saturni. — Addison. 

.SATURN. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the 

■'■' sun, and its diameter to be 89,170 miles. His satellites were discovered by 

I' Galileo and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10 ; his belt, &c., by Huj'gens in 1634 ; 

his fifth satellite by the same in 1655; and his sixth and seventh by 

Herschel in 1789. Cassini was also a discoverer of the satellites of the 

planets. 

SATURNALIA. Festivals in honor of Saturn. They were instituted long 
before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and 
equality which prevailed on earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some, 
however, suppose that the Saturnalia were first ©bserved at Rome in , he 
reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines ; while 
others support that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from 
whom he had learned agriculture. Others suppose that they were first 
celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthu- 
mius. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were 
encouraged, distinctions ceased, and even slaves could say what they pleased 
to their masters with impunity. — Lenglet. 

SAVINGS BANKS, England. The benefit clubs among artisans, having ac- 
cumulated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was 
adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an 
extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement; hence, savings banks 
to receive small sums, returnable with interest, on demand, were formed. 
Brought under parliamentary regulation in 1816. The number of savings 
banks considerably increased up to 1846 ; and the number of depositors in 
that year was, for the United Kingdom, 1,063,418 ; and the whole amount 
deposited, 32,661,924Z. In the United States the first savings bank in Phi- 
ladelphia, 1816 ; the next in Boston, 1817. They are now very numerous 
throughout the United States. 

SAVOY. It became a Roman province 118 b. c. The Alemans seized it in a. d. 
395, and the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 
1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title 
of earl. Amadeus, earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his domi- 
nions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, February 19, 1417. Victor 
Amadeus, duke of' Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by treaty, from 
Spain, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of 
Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this country 
in 1792, and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont 
Blanc, in 1800. 

SAW. Invented by Dsedalus. — Pliny. Invented by Talus. — ApoUodorus. Ta- 
lus, it is said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, he employed it to cut 
through a piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron^ like it. 
Beecher says saw-mills were invented in the seventeenth century^ but he 
errs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau, in 1427. 
Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador 
from Miry of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there, 
1555. In England saw-mills had at first the same fate with printing in Tur- 
key, the crane in Strasburg, &c. The attempts to introduce them were 



520 THE woiild's progress. [sch 

violently opposed ; and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be 
abandoned. 

SAXONY. The rd^^al family of Saxony is of very ancient origin, and is allied 
to all the royal houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in the 
same family, notwithstanding it encountered an interruption of more than 
two hundred years, from 1180 to 1423. Saxony, which had been for many 
centuries an electorate, was formed into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick 
Augustus became the first king. That sovereign was succeeded by his 
brother, Anthony, May 5, 1827. The present sovereign is Frederick Au- 
gustus II., who ascended the throne, 6th of June, 1836. Saxony became 
the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. Insurrection at 
Dresden ; the king retires to Konigstern, May 3, 1849. Insurgents put 
down by the Prussian troops, May 7, 1849. 

SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. The name given to a special statute relating 
to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land, 
such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other 
great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous statements, 
false news, or horrible messages. This law was enacted 2 Richard II,. 1378. 

SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, 334 b. c. 
Pyrrho was in continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of everything, 
never made any conclusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject, 
and investigated all its parts, he concluded bj'' still doubting of its evidence. 
As he showed so much indifference in every thing, and declared that life 
and death were the same thing, some of his disciples asked him, Avhy he 
did not hurry himself out of the world"? "Because," says he, "there 
is no difference between life and death." Timon was one of the chief fol- 
lowers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero. — 
Sbrabo. 

SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the 
earlier ages of the world, the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ; 
they afterwards were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the Elder was 
the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 b. c. The 
French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a. d. 481. — Lc 
Geiidre. 

SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduc- 
tion of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — 
Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland 1733. — Scnlly. In Eng- 
land there are now 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the 
education of the poor ; and the number of children is 998,431. The paro- 
chial and endowed schools of Scotland are in number (exclusively of Sunday 
schools) 4,836 ; and the number of children, 181,467. The number of 
schools in Wales is 841, and the number of children 38,164: in Ireland, 
13,327 schools, and 774,000 children. In the United States the system of 
public schools is very generally and effectively supported. The school- fund 
in Maine amounts to $350,000 ; in Massachusetts, $850,000 ; in Connecticut, 
$2,077,641; New York, $6,491,803; New Jersey, $369,278; Delaware, 
$225,000; Virginia. $1,448,261; Georgia, $262,300; Alabama, $1.215,381 ; 
Tennessee, $1,346,068 ; Kentucky, $1,221,819 ; Ohio, $1,566.931 ; Michigan, 
$500,000; Indiana. $2.195 149; Missouri, $575,668; Iowa, $132,909. Total 
in 1849, $21,420,275. ' In the State of New York the number of District 
School Libraries is about 11,000. See Education, Libro.rics, &c. 

SCIENCE IN THE United St.\tes. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, l7-'^2. 
American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of 
Arts and Sciences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United 
States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1792. Botanic garden and Professor of 



SCY 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 521 

Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science, formed, 1845. 

SCILLY ISLES. They held commerce with the Phoenicians. They are men- 
tioned by Strabo as being ten in number. The memorable shipwreck 
of the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This 
brave admiral returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these 
rocks for land, and struck upon them. His ship, the Associatio7i, in which 
were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went 
instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, Captain Hancock, and the Romneij and 
Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped, Oct. 22, 1707. Sir 
Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in 
Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. 

SCOTLAND. See Caledonia. This important member of the British empire 
was governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued 
an independent kingdom till the death of the English queen Elizabeth, 
when James VI. of Scotland, the most immediate heir, was called to the 
throne of England, and constantly resided in the latter ; he and his suc- 
cessors calling themselves kings of England and Scotland, and each 
country having a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign of 
queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name (..f 
Great Britain. See England and Scotland, Tabular Views, p. 75., et seq. 

SCREW. This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pumping- 
screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising water, invented 236 b. c, 
is still in use, and still bears that philosopher's name. The poAver of the 
screw is astonishing ; it being calculated that if the distance between the 
two spirals or threads of the screw be half an inch, and the length of each 
handle twelve inches, the circle that they describe in going roiind will be 
seventy-five inches, and consequently 150 times greater than half an inch, 
the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the 
assistance of this screw, press down or raise up as much as 150 men could 
do without it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the 
spirals and the length of the handles. — Greig. 

SCULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty. 
Tlie invention is given by some ancient writers to the Egyptians, and by 
others to the Greeks. It is referred by some historians to 1020 b. c, and 
sculpture in marble to 872 b. c. Pausanias refers the nearest approach 
to perfection in the art to 560 b. c. Accoi'ding to sacred history, Bezaleel 
and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all the 
vessels and ornaments, were the first architects and sculptors of repute, and 
their excellence is recorded as the gift of God, Exodus, xxxi. Dipcenus and 
Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, establislied a school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of 
them as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues 
before their time being of wood, 568 b. c. This, however, can only be fact 
so far as it relates to the western world ; for in the eastern counti'ies the art 
was known long before. Alexander gave Lysippus the sole right of making 
his statues, 326 b. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which were 
so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in 
gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished followers among the 
Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With the revival of 
the sister art, painting, it revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, born at 
Florence, a. d. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moderns. Sculp- 
ture was revived, under the auspices of the Medici family, about 1460. — 
Abbi Lenglet. 

SCYTHIA. The country situate on the most northern parts of Europe and 
Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated European and 



522 THE world's progress. [ SEM 

Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia were uninhabited, on account 
of the extreme coldness of the climate. The boundaries of Scythia were 
unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast 
tracts of lands which lay at the north, east, and west. The Scythians made 
several irruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially b. c. 
624, when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for twenty-eight 
years ; and we find them at different periods extending their conquests in 
Europe, and penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries after Christ 
they invaded the Roman empire. 
SEAS, So-VEREiGNTY OF THE. The claim of England is of very ancient date. 
Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain, 
and Alfred afterwards supported this right. The sovereignty of England 
over the British seas was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken 
by government in consequence, 8 Charles 1. 1633. The Dutch, after the death 
of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly treated 
by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other parts of the North, armed, 
to avoid search, 1780 ; again 1800. See Armed Neutrality and Flag. 

SECRETARY of STATE. The first in England was lord Cromwell, a. d. 1529. 
Towards the close of Henry VIII.'s reign two secretaries were appointed ; 
and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as secretary for 
Scotch affairs : this appointment was afterwards laid aside : but in the 
reign of George III. the number was again increased to three, one for the 
American department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of par- 
liament ; and the appointments as at present subsequently took place, the 
secretaries being now home, foreign, and colonies. The first Secretary of 
State of the United States was Thomas Jefferson, appointed by Washington, 
Sept. 26, 1789. For his successors see Administrations. There is a Secre- 
tary of State in each of the States, appointed by the executive or elected 
by the people. 

SECTS. See them severally through the volume. The great vicissitude of 
things is the vicissitude of sects. True religion is built upon a rock ; all 
others are tossed upon the waves of time. — Bacon. Assuming the popula- 
tion of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following divi- 
sion, with reference to their religious worship, will appear. — M. Balbi. 

Jews .... 4,500.000 I Idolaters, &c., not professing the 
Christians - - - - 225,O0OJO00 Jewish, Christian, or Maho- 

Mahometans - - - 155,000,000 | metan worship . . 665,500,000 

SEDAN CHAIRS. So called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first 
seen in England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I. by 
the duke of Buckingham, to the great indignation of the people, "who ex- 
claimed that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do the service of 
beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634, when sir Fran- 
cis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of 
such covered chairs for fourteen years. They became in very general use 
in 1649. 

SEDUCTION. For this offence the laws of England have provided no other 
punishment than a pecuniary satisfaction to the injured family. And 
even this satisfaction is only obtained by one of the quaintest fictions in 
the world ; the father bringing his action against the seducer for the loss 
of his daughter's services during her pregnancy and nurturing. — Paleifs 
Moral Philosophy. A law for the punishment of seduction was passed by 
the legislature of New York in 184 . 

SEMPACH, Battle of, between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria. The 
heroic Swiss, after prodigies of valor, gained a great and memorable vic- 
tory over the duke, who was slain, July 9, 1386. By this battle they es- 



sex] DIOTI0NAK.Y OF DATES. 523 

tablished the liberty of their country ; and it is still annually commemo- 
rated with great solemnity at Sempach. 

SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the year, reckoned from January, and the 
seventh from March, whence its name, from septimus, seventh. It became 
the ninth month when January and February were added to the year by 
Numa, 713 b. c. The Roman senate would have given this month the name 
of Tiberius, but that emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his 
own name, Germanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius gave it that of 
Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor 
Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. But these appellations are all gone into 
disuse. 

SEPTUAGINT VERSION op the BIBLE, made 277 b. c. Seventy-two trans- 
lators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; each pair translated the whole ; and 
on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or 
leitQY.— Justin Martyr. St. Jerome affirms they translated only the Pen- 
tateuch ; but St. Justin and others say they translated the whole. Pto- 
lemy gave the Jews about a million sterling for a copy of the T?sta; aent, 
and seventy translators half a million more for the translation. — Joseplms. 
Finished in seventy-two days. — Hewlett. 

SERINGAPATAM, Battles op, called also the battle of Arikera, in which the 
British defeated Tippoo Saib, May 15, 1791. Battle, in which the redoubts 
were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. '6, 1792. 
After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed 
to cede one-half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees (about 
3,300,000^. sterhng) to England, and to give up to lord CornwaUis his 
two eldest sons as hostages. In a new war the Madras army arrived be- 
fore Seringapatanr, April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay army, April 
14 ; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4, 
same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. See India. 

SERPENTS. The largest, the record of which is in some degree satisfactorily 
attested, Avas that which disputed the passage of the army led by Regulus 
along the banks of the Bagrada. It was 120 feet long, and had killed many 
of his soldiers. It was destroyed by a battering-ram ; and its skin was 
afterwards seen by Pliny in the capitol at Rome.— Pliny. The American 
papers have frequently chi'onicled the appearance of a sea-serpent on the 
coast, but its existence has been generally doubted. Haydn quotes from 
Phillips that a sea-serpent was cast on shore on the Orkney Islands, which 
was fifty-five feet long, and the circumference equal to the girth of an 
Orkney pony, 1808. 

SERVANTS. In England, an act laying a duty on male servants was passed in 
1775. This tax was augmented in 1781, et seq. A tax on female servants 
was imposed in 1785 ; but this latter act was repealed in 1792. The tax on 
servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000^. per annum, but in 1840 the revenue 
from it had fallen to 201,482^. 

SEVILLE. The capital of Spain until Philip II. finally established his court at 
Madrid, a. d. 1563. This city is the Hispalis of the Phoenicians, and the 
Julia of the Romans. The peace of Seville, between England, France, and 
Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov. 
9, 1729. Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810 ; and was taken by 
assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27, 
1812. 

SEXTANT. This instrument is used in the manner of a quadrant, and contains 
sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a circle. It is for taking the altitude of 
the planets, &c. Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augsburgh, 



m. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[SHl 



in 1550. — Vince's Astron. The Arabian astronomers under the Caliphs are 
■said to have had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, about a. d. 
mb.—Ashe. 

SHEEP. They were impoliticly exported from England to Spain, and, the breed 
being thereby improved, produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved 
detrimental to our woollen manufacture, 8 Edward IV. 1467. — Anderson. 
Their expoi-tation prohibited on pain of fiiie and imprisonment, 1522. The 
number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated — by som^ 
at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840. 

SHERIFF. The ofiice of sheriff is from shire-reve, governor of a shire or 
county. London had its sheriffs prior to William I.^ reign ; but some say 
that sherifls were first nominated for every county in England by William 
in 1079. 

SHERIFFMUIR, Battle of, between the royal army under the duke of Ar- 
gyle, and the Scotch rebel forces who favored the Pretender (the chevalier 
de St. George, son of James II.), commanded by the earl of Mar; the insur- 
gents were defeated, and several persons of rank were taken prisoners. The 
battle was fought on the very day on which the rebel forces in the same 
cause were defeated at Preston, Nov. 12, 1715. 

SHIP-BUILDING. The art is attributed to the Egyptians, as the first inven- 
tors ; the first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt to Greece 
by Danaus, 1485 b. c. — Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by 
the Tyrians, 786 b. c. — Lenglet. The first double-decked one built in Eng- 
land was of 1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII. 1509 ; it was called 
the Great Harry, and cost 14,000^. — Stoice. Before this time 24-gun ships 
Avere the largest in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns being 
on the upper decks only. Port^holes and other improvements were invented 
by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about 
1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 74- 
gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed 
with India-rubber, 1829. For beautiful models and fast sailing, the shipping 
of the United States — especially the packet ships and steamers sailing from 
New York — are not surpassed, and probably not equalled, by any in the 
world. See Navij and Steam Vessels. 

SHIPPING OF Great Britain and Ireland. Shipping was first registered in the 
river Thames in 1786 ; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle 
of the 18th century, the shipping of England was but half a million of tons 
— less than London now. In 1840, the number of shijjs in the British em- 
pire was 29,174 ; tonnage, 3,277,338; seamen, 205,904. These returns were 
exclusive of ships and boats propelled by steam. See Steam, Vessels. 

SHIPPING OF THE UNITED STATES. Tonnage at different periods. 



Years. 

1791 

1792 

1793 

1794 

1795 

1796 

1797 

1798 

1799 

1800 

1801 

1802 

1803 

1804 



Tonnage. 


Years. 


Tonnage. 


. 502,146 


1806 


• 1,208,735 


- 564,437 


1807 


- 1.268,548 


491,780 


1808 


- 1,242,595 


628,817 


1809 


- 1,350,281 


747,964 


1810 


- 1,424,783 


&31,900 


1811 


- 1,232,502 


876,913 


1812 


. 1,269,997 


898,328 


1813 


- 1,666,628 


- 946,408 


1814 


• 1,159,209 


972,492 


1815 


- 1,368,127 


. 1,033,219 


1816 


- 1,372,218 


892,101 


1817 


- 1,399,911 


- 949,147 


1818 


- 1.225.184 


. 1,042,404 


1819 


- i;260;751 


- 1,140,369 


1820 


- 1.280,166 



Years. 

1821 

1822 

1823 

1824 

1825 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 

1831 

1832 

1&33 

1834 



Tonnage. 


Years. 


1,298,958 


1835 


1,324,699 


ia36 


1,336,565 


1&37 


1,389,163 


1838 


1,423,112 


1839 


1,534,190 


1840 


1,620,608 


1841 


1,741,392 


1842 


1,260,978 


1843 


1,191,776 


1844 


1,267,846 


1845 


1,439,450 


1846 


1,601,150 


1847 


1,758,907 


1818 



1,824,940 
1,892,102 
1,896,685 
1,995,639 
2,096,478 
2,180,764 
2,130,744 
2,092,390 
2,158,602 
2,280,095 
2,417,002 
2,ti62^84 
2,839^»6 
3,150,502 



SHR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 525 

SHIP-MONEY. It was first levied a. d. 1007, and caused great commotions. 
This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634, led to the revolu- 
tion. He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; 
Yorkshire in two ships, of 600 tons, or 12,000^. ; Bristol in one ship of 100 
tons ; Lancashire in one ship of 400 tons. The trial of the patriot Hamp- 
den for refusing to pay the tax, which he at first solely opposed, took place 
in 1638. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances in 1641. 
Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died June 
24, 1643. 

SHIPWRECKS, AND DISASTERS AT SEA. See Wrecks of Shipping. 

SHIRTS. This now almost universal garment is said to have been first gener- 
ally worn in the west of Europe early in the eighth century. — Du Fresnoy. 
Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about the 38th of 
Henry III., 1253, when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period 
from abroad), was first manufactured in England by Flemish artisans. — 
Sto%oe. 

SHOES. Among the Jews thej'' were made of leather, linen, rush, or vood. 
Moons were worn as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women. — Isaiah 
iii. 18. Among the Greeks shoes were of various kinds. Pythagoras would 
have his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees ; probably, that 
they might not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as they re- 
frained from the use of every thing that had life. Sandals were worn by 
women of distinction. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their 
shoes ; and Caligula wore his enriched with precious stones. The Indians, 
like the Egyptians, wore shoes made of the bark of the papyrus. In Eng- 
land the people had an extravagant way of adorning their feet; they wore 
the beaks or points of their shoes so long, that they encumbered themselves 
in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; the fine gentlemen 
fastened theirs with chains of silver, or silver gilt, and others with laces. 
This custom was in vogue from a. d. 1462, but was prohibited, on the for- 
feiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 7 Edward IV. 1467. 
See Dress. Shoes as at present worn were introduced about 1633. The 
buckle was not used till 1668. — Sioioe; Mortimer. 

SHOP-TAX, IN England. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops 
was passed in 1785 ; but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in 
London, that it was deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute 
whereb)^ shop-lifting Avas made a felony, without benefit of clergy, was 
passed 10 and 11 William III. 1699. This statute has been repealed. See 
Acts. 

SHREWSBURY, Battle of, between the royal army of Henry IV. and the 
ai'my of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the duke of 
Northumberland, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army con- 
sisted of about 12.000 men, and the engagement was most bloody. Henry 
was seen every where in the thickest of the fight ; while his valliant son, 
who was afterwards the renowned conqueror of France, fought by his side, 
and though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept the field, and per- 
formed astonishing acts of valor. On the other side, the daring Hotspur 
supported the renown he had acquired in many bloody engagements, and 
every where sought out the king as a noble object of his vengeance. 2300 
gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men. The death of Hotspur 
by an unknown hand decided the fortune of the day, and gave the victoi7 
to the king, July 21, 1403.— //jw«e. [See Shakspeare's Henry IV.} 

SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the Britons were completely subjugated, 
and Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, tlirough the 
treachery of the queen of the Briganti, a prisoner of the Romans, a. d. 51. 



526 THE world's progress. [ SIC 

While Caractacus was being led through Rome, his eyes were dazzled by 
the splendors that surrounded him. " Alas !" he cried, " how is it possible 
that a people possessed of such magnificence at home could envy me an 
humble cottage in Britain 1" The emperor was affected with the British 
hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered him to be unchained 
upon the spot, and set at liberty with the rest of the captives. — Goldsmith. 

SHROVE TUESDAY. In the season of Lent, after the people had made con- 
fession, according to the discipline of the ancient church, they were per- 
mitted to indulge in festive amusements, although not allowed to partake 
of any repast beyond the- usual substitutes for flesh; and hence arose the 
custom yet preserved of eating pancakes and fritters at Shrovetide, the Greek 
Christians eating eggs, milk, &c. during the first >veek in Lent. On these 
days of authorized indulgence the most wanton recreations were tolerated, 
l^rovided a due regard was paid to the abstinence commanded by the church ; 
and from this origin sprang the Carnival. On Shrove Tuesday the people in 
every parish throughout England formerly confessed their sins ; and the 
parish bell for the purpose was rung at ten o'clock. In several ancient par- 
ishes the custom yet prevails of ringing the bell, and obtains in London the 
name of pancake-bell. Observed as a festival before 1430. 

SIBYLS. The Sibyllse were certain women inspired by heaven, who flourished 
in different parts of the world. Their number is unknown. Plato speaks 
of one, others of two, Pliny of three, ^lian of four, and Varro of ten, an 
opinion which is universally adopted by the learned. An Erythrean sibyl is 
said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the Roman desti- 
nies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her, whereupon 
the sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the same price for 
the other six, which being still denied, she burned three more, and again 
demanded the same sum for those that remained ; when Tarquin, conferring 
with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were created 
to consult them on all occasions, 531 b. c. 

SICILY. See Naples. The ancient inhabitants of this island were the Sicani, 
a people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came hither from Italy, 1291: b. c. A 
second colony, under Siculus, arrived 80 years before the destruction of Troy, 
1264 B. c. — Lsiiglet. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here, 
and at last the Carthaginians became masters of the whole island, till they 
were dispossessed of it by the Romans in the Punic wars. Some authors 
suppose that Sicily was originally joined to the continent, and that it was 
separated from Italj'' by an earthquake, and that the straits of the Charyb- 
dis were formed. — Justin. ; Livij. 

Arrival of Ulysses.— i7o?;ter - - B.C. 1186 The Romans arrive m Sicily • B.C. 264 

He puts out ihe eye of Polyphemus - 1186 I Agrigentum taken by the Romans - 282 

Sy racuse founded. — Eusebius ■ - 732 | Palermo besieged by the Romans - - 254 

Gela founded. — Thuct/dides ■ - - 713 Archimedes flourishes - - • 236_ 
Arrival of ihe Jlessenians - - - 668 ! The Romans take Syracuse, and make all 

Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to | Sicily a province - - - • 212 

The servile war began. — Livt/ - - 135 



Conquered by the Saracens - A.D. 821 

[They made Palermo the capilal, and the 



death. — See Brazen Bull ■ ■ ■ 552 

Hippocrates becomes tyranu of Gela • 496 

i.avf of Petalism instituted - • 466 

U sign ol Dionysius - - - - 405 

H fended wiih the freedom of the philo- • staiidard of Mahomet triumphed for 200 

siipher Plato, the tyrant sells him for a I years.] 

slave. — Stanley ... - 386 j They are di-iven out by a Norman prince, 

Plato ransomed by his friends - - • 386 ] Roger I., son of Tancred, who takes the 

Daman and Pythias flourish. — See Dainon j title of count of Sisily - - - lOSO 

and Pythias .... 3g6 | Roger II., son of the above-named, unites 

The sway of Timoleon - - - • 346 i Sicily with Naples, and is crowned Inng 

Usurpation of Agathocles • - . 317 j of the Two Sicilies - - -1130 

Defeat of Hamilcar - - - - 309 ] Charles of Anjou, bro'her to St. Louis, king 

Pilla.?e of the temples of Lepari ■ 304 ' of France, conqu^iS Naples and Sicily". 



sie] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



527 



SICILY, conthiiied. 
deposes the Norman princes, and makes 
himself king - - . a. d. 1266 

The French becoming hated by the Sici- 
lians, a genera! massacre of the invaders 
takes place, one Frenchman only escap- 
ing. — See Sicilian Vespers - ■ 1288 

Li the same year Sicily is seized by a fleet 
sent by the kings of Arragon, in Spain ; 
but Naples remains to the house of An- 
jou, which expires - - - 1382 

Jane, the late sovereign, having left her 
crown to Louis, duke of Anjou, his pre- 
tensions are resisted by Clrarles Du- 
razzo, cousin of Jane, who ascends the 
throne - - - - - - 1386 

Alphonsus, king of Arragon, takes posses- 
sion of Naples .... 1458 

Thi kingdom of Naples and Sicily united 
to the Spanish monarchy - - - 1504 

The tyranny of the Spaniards causes an 
insurrection, excited by Masaniello, a 
fisherman, who, in fifteen days, raises 
two hundred thousand men - - 1647 

Henry duke of Guise, taking advantage of 
these commotions, procures himself to 
be proclaimed king ; but is, in a few 
days, delivered up to the Spaniards by 
his adherents - - - - - 1647 



Ceded to Victor, duke of Savoy, by the 
treaty of Utrecht - - A. d. 1713 

Ceded "by him to the emperor Charles VI., 
Sardinia being given to him as an equi- 
valent - - - - - 1720 

The Spaniards having made themselves 
masters of both kingdoms, Charlesj^son 
of the king of Spain, ascends the throne, 
with the ancient title renewed, of king 
of the Two Sicilies - - - 1731 

Order of St. .lanuarius instituted by king 
Charles 1739 

The throne of Spain becoming vacant, 
Charles, who is heir, vacates the throne 
of the two Sicilies in favor of his brother 
Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty - - 17.'' 3 

Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, 
which destroys 40,000 persons - - 1763 

Naples preserved from the power of the 
French by the British forces under admi- 
ral Nelson 

Violent earthquake in tlie neighborhood 
of Naples .... 

The French invade Naples, depose i 'ng 
Ferdinand IV., and give the crown of -.he 
Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, bro- 
ther to the emperor of the French - 1806 
For subsequent events, see Naples. 



1799 

1805 



KINGS OP THE TWO SICILIES. 



AiwD. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; he 
resigned it to the emperor Charles 
VI.," in 1718, and got Sardinia in 
lieu of it. 

1718. Charles VI. emperor. 

1734. Charlesj second son to the king of 
Spain, resigned in 1759. 

1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former 
king. 



1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 

1808. Joachim Murat ; he was shot, Octo jer 13, 
1815. 

1815. Ferdinand I. ; formerly Ferdinand IV. of 
Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand 
III. of Sicily ; now of the United King- 
dom of the Two Sicilies. 

1826. Francis I. 

1830. Ferdinand II., Nov 8. 



SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known 
by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had 
become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou 
was already ripe, when the following occm-rence led to develop and accom- 
plish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assembled at Pa- 
lermo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride 
happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet, a 
Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to nse her rudely, under 
pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this af- 
front, stabbed him with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French 
were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, 
crying out " Let the French die !" and, without distinction of rank, age, 
or sex, they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number of 
8000. Even such as had fled to the churches found no sanctuary there — the 
massacre became general throughout the island. 

SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held out 
for nineteen years. — Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. — Herodotus. 
This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siege 
of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten years, 1184 b. c. The fol- 
lowing are the princii^al and most memorable sieges since the twelfth cen 
tnry :— 



Acre, 1192, 1799, by Bona- I Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb-vesseh 
parte ; siege raised iij'ler \ first used by a French en- 
6Q days, open Irennlir-s. I ffineer named Renmi. 1S16 

Algesiras, I'Sil. \ .'\lkmaei', 1,")7;<. 



Almeida, August 27, 1810 
Amiens, 1597. 
Ancona, 1798. 
Angouleme, 1343. 



628 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[SIE 



SIEGES, continued. 

Antwerp, 1576. Use of in- 
fernal machines, 1583, 1585 
ir06, 1792, 1814. 

Arras, 1414. 

Ath, 1745. 

Avignon, 1226. 

Aisoff, 1736. 

Badajos, March 11, 1811. Ta- 
ken by escalade on the 
night of April 6, 1812. 

Bagdad, 1248. 

Bangalore, March 6, 1791. 

Barcelona, 1697, 1714. 

Bayonne, 1451. 

Beauvais, 1472. 

Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521, 
1688, 1717, 1739, 1789, 

Bellegarde, 1793, 1794. 

Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761. 

Beraen-op-Zoom, 1583, 1622, 
1747, 1814. 

Berwick, 1293. 

Besancon, 1668, 1674. 

Bethuue, 1710. 

Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. 

Bologna, 1512, 1796. 

Bommol; the invention of 
the covert-nay, 1794. 

Bonifacio, 1553. 

Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703 

Bordeaux, 1451, 1653. 

Bouchain, 1676, 1711. 

Boulogne, 1545. 

Brannau, 1744, 1S05. 

Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793. 

Brescia, 1512, 1796, 1799. 

Breslau, .Ian. 8, 1807. 

Brisac, 16.38, 1703. 

Brussels, 1695, 1746. 

Buda, 1526, 1541, 1686. 

Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22, 
1812 ; raised. The French 
in their retreat blew up the 
works, .June 13, 1813. 

Cadiz, 1812. 

Caen, 1346, 1450. 

Calais, 1347, (British histo- 
rians affirm that cannon 
tcere used at Cressy, 1346, 
and here in 1347. First 
used here in 1388. — Ry- 
mer's FoeD.) 1558, 1.596. 

Calvi, 1794. 

Campo-Mayor,Mar. 23,1811. 

Candia ; the largest cannon 
then knoicn itiEarope used 
here by the Turks, 1667. 

Capua, 1501. 

Carthagena, 1706. 

Castillon, 1452, 1586. 

Ceuta, 1790. 

Chalons, 1 199. 

Charleroi, 1672, 1677, 1693, 
1736, 1794. 

Chartres, 1568, 1591. 

Chaves, March 25, 1809. 

Cherbourg. 1450. 

Chincilla, Oct. 30, 1812. 

Ciudad Rodriffo. 1706; July 
10, 1810; Jan.'l9, 1812. 

Colberg, 1760, 1807. 

Colchester, 1645. 



Compiegne {Joan of Are), 

1430. 
Conde, 1676, 1792, 1794. 
Coni, 1691, 1744. 
Constantinople, 1453. 
Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, 1807. 
Corfu, 1715. 

Courtray. 1302, et seq. 1794. 
Cracow, 1772. 
Cremona, 1702. 
Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813 

to Jan. 12, 1814. 
Dendermonde, 1667. 
Dole, 1668, 1674. 
Douay, 1710. 
Dover, 1216. 
Dresden, 1745, 1813. 
Drogheda, 1649. 
Dublin, 1500. 
Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. 
Edinburgh, 1093. 
Figueras. Aug. 19, 1811. 
Flushing; Aug. 15, 1809. 
Fontenoy, 1242. 
Frederickshal ; Charles XII. 

killed, 1718. 
Fredericfcstein, August 13, 

1814. 
Furnes, 1675, 1744, 1793. 
Gaeta, 1433, 1707, 1734, 1799, 

July, 1806, 1815. 
Genoa 1747, 1800. 
Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809. 
Ghent, 1576, 1703. 
Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See 

Gibraltar), 1782. 
Glatz, 1742, 1807. 
Gotlingen, 1760. 
Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794. 
Gravelines, 1644 
Grenada. 1491, 1492. 
Groningen, 1.580, 1672, 1795. 
Guastaila, 1702. 
Gueldres, 1637, 1640, 1703. 
Haerlem, 1572, 1573. 
Ham, 1411. 
Harlieur. 1415, 1450. 
Heidelberg, 16S8. 
Herat, June 28, 1838. 
Huningen, 1815. 
Ismael: tiie merciless Snwar- 

row butchered 30,000 me7t, 

the brave garrison, and 

6000 -women, in cold blood, 

Dec. 22, 1790. 
Kehl, 1733, 1796. 
Landau, 1702, et seq., 1713, 

1792, and 1793. 
Landrecis, 1.543, 1712. 
Laon, 991, 1594. 
Leipsic, 1637, et seq., 1813. 
Lemberg, 1704. 
Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807. 
Leyden, 1-574. 
Liege, 1468, 1702. 
Lille, 1667, 1708, 1792. 
Lilo, 1747. 

Limerick, 1651, 1691. 
Londonderry, 1689. 
Louisboursr, 1758. 
Lyons, 179T3. 
Maestricht. 1570, 1673. Vau- 



ban first came into TWtice, 

1676, 1743, 1794. 
Magdebourg, 1631, 1806. 
Malag^, 1487. 
Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. 
Mantua, 1734, 1797, 1799. 
Marseilles, 1544. 
Mentz, by Charles V., 1552, 

1689, 1792 et seq., 1797. 
Melun, 1420, 1559. 
Menin, 1706, 1744. 
Mequinenza, June 8, 1810. 
Messina, 1282, 1719. 
Metz, 1552. 
Mezieres, 1521. 
Middleburgh, 1572. 
Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746, 

1792, 1794. 
Mcntargis, 1427. 
Montauban, 1621. 
Montevideo, .Jan. iS08. 
Mothe : thePrench, taught by 

a Mr. Muller, an English 

engineer,first practised the 

art of throwing shells, 1634. 
Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811. 
Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792. 
Naples, 1381, 1435, 1504, 1557, 

1792, 1799, 1806. 
Nice, 1705. 
Nieuport, 1745, 1794. 
Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811. 
Olmutz, 1758. 
Orleans, 1428, 1563. 
Ostend, 1701, 1706, 1745. 
Oudenarde, 1708, 1745. 
Padua, 1509. 

Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813. 
Paris, 1429, 1485, 1594. 
Parma 1248. 
Pavia, 1.525, 1655, 1796. 
Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 
Philipville,1578. 
Philipsburg, 1644, 1675,1688, 
first experiment of firing 

artillery a-ricochet, 1734, 

1795. 
Plattsburg, Sept. 11, 1814. 
Pondicherry, 1748, 1792. 
Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744. 
Puebla, (col. Child) 1847. 
Quesnoy, 1794. 
Rennes, 1357. 
Rheims, 1359. 
Rhodes, 1522. 
Riga, 1700, 1710. 
Rochelle, 1573, 1627. 
Rome, 1527, 1798. 
Romorentin ; artillery firai 

used in sieges.-YoiyiJiiSE, 

1256. 
Rosas, 1645, 1795, 1808. 
Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591. 
Roxburgh, 1460. 
St. Sebastian, Sept. 8, 1813. 
Salamanca, June 27 " 1812 
Salisbury, 1349. 
Saragossa, 1710, 1809. 
Saverne, 1675. 
Schweiiinitz ; first experi- 

vient to reduce aforlreaa 



sil] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES, 



529 



Thorn, 1703. 

Thouars, 1372,1793. 

Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811. 

Toulon, 1707, 1793. 

Toulouse, 1217. 

Tournay, 1340, 1352, 15S1, 
1667, 1709, (this was the 
best defence ever drawn 
from countermines), 1745, 
1794. 

Treves, 1675. 

Tunis, 1270, 1535 

Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799. 

Urbino, 1799. 



Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811. 

Valencienes, 1677, 1794. 

Vannes, 1343. 

Venloo, 1702, 1794. 

Verdun, 1792. 

Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) 1847. 

Vienna, 1529, 1683. 

Wakefield, 1460. 

Warsaw, Sept, 8, 1831. 

Xativa, 1707. 

Xeres, 1262. 

Ypres, 1648, 1744, 1794. 

Zurich, 1544. 

Zutphen, 1572, 1586. 



SIEGES, contimied. 

by spring-ing globes of com- 

j)ression, 1762, 1807. 
Scio (see Greece), 1822. 
Seringapatam. 1799. 
Seville 1096, 1248. 
Smolensko, 1611. 
Soissons, 1414. 
Stralsund ; the method of 

throwing red hot balls first 

practised teith certainty, 

1675,47:13, 1807. 
Tarifa, Dec. 20, 1811. 
Tarragona, May 1813. 
Temeswar, 1716. 
Tliionville, 1643, 1792. 

SIERRA LEONE. Discovered in a. d. 1460. In 178G, London swarmed with 
free negroes living- in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whites, 
mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra 
Leone, at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786. 
The settlement attacked by the French, September 1794 : by the natives, 
February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murder- 
ed by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824. 

SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 b. c. Known at 
Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the 
use of plate of massj^ gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves 
by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of 
silk, A. D. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for 
weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. 
Silk-worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Char- 
lemagne sent Oifa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, a. d. 780. 
The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1130, 
when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun and weaved the 
silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south 
of France, a little before the reign of Francis I., about 1510 ; and Henry IV. 
propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms throughout the kingdom, 1589. 
In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at 
Keuilworth Castle. 1286. Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1584. 
Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk in 
1620. Brought to perfection by the Freneh refugees in London, at Spital- 
fields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at 
Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the ori- 
ginal mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. 

SILVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other 
ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America 
are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in 
1660, which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel. 
In 1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a 
mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum 
at Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1680Z. In England silver-plate 
and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty 
and ambitious man, a. d. 709. — TyrelVs Hist, of England. Silver knives, 
spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300. 

SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say ; others, by 
Phidon of Argos, 869 b. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor, 
269 B. c. Used in Britain 25 b. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which 
were 22^ grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver coin 
in England. See ShUUngs, &c., and Coin. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive, 



530 THE world's progress. [ SLA 

were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,265Z. 15s. in silver, being a yearly 
average of AU.8B0l.—Parl. Ret. 

SIMONIANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their founder 
" Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome 
about A. D. 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet he 
had many followers, a. d. 57. A sect called St. Simonians sprung up in 
France ; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country ; and 
the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particu- 
larly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting iu London, held Jan. 
24, 1834. 

SINGING. See Music. The singing of psalms was a very ancien! custom both 
among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which 
■\vas continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the mode 
and circumstance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by the 
empress Justina, mother of the then young Valentinian 11. a. d. 386, eC'cle- 
siastical music was introduced in favor of the Arians. " At this time it 
was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern 
nations, that the devout might not languish and pine away with ji tedious 
sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congregations of 
the world. — SL Augustin. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the church 
miisic, and made it more exact and harmonious ; and that it might be ge- 
neral, he set up singing-schools in Rome, a. d. 602. 

SI RN AMES, first came up iu Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and 
distinctions ; as Soter, from Saviour ; Nicator, conqueror ; Euergetes, or Be- 
nefactor ; Philopater, lover of his father ; PJiUometer, lover of his mother, 
&c. Strato was surnamed Physicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aris- 
tides was called the Just ; Phocion the Good ; Plato, the Athenian Bee ; 
Xenophon, the Attic Muse; Aristotle, the Stagyrite; Pythagoras, the Samian 
Sage ; MenedaBmus, the Eretrian Bull ; Democritus, the Laughiiig Philoso- 
fher ; Virgil, the Mantuan Sioain, &c. Sirnames were introduced into Eng- 
land by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility, a. d. 1100. The old 
Normans used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used O, 
for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed 
Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the 
father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such 
as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and 
other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1435. — 
Bymer's Fcedera, vol. x. 

SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abomi- 
nable customs, the traffic in men spread from Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia, 
and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven. 
In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of war were treated as slaves. 
The Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving and 
butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their 
proficiency in stratagem and massacre ; and once, for their amusement only, 
they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold 
the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 385 e. c. See 
Helots. 

SLAVERY IN ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a 
great man's hoxise, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. 
By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent 
debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their services or labor, they 
had discharged the sum they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave 
him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 b. c. 
Caecilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves, 12 b. c. 



sla] dictionary of dates. 53, 

SLAVERY IN ENGLAND. Slavery was very early known ; and laws respect- 
ing the sale of slaves was made by Alfred. The English peasantry were so 
commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that children were 
sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ire- 
land, and others to Scotland. A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a 
runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should be brought before 
two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and 
adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take 
the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and 
cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, within that 
space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead 
or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever — second 
desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck, 
arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, and, on running 
away, become a slave to his master, 1547. 

SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the 
Portuguese in 1481. Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone, 
describing the horroi'S of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized 
a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four 
millions of square miles ; and men and women have been bred for sale to the 
Christian nations during the last 250 years, and wars carried on to make pri- 
soners for the Christian market. The Abbe Raj^nal computes that, at the 
time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans, 
"Add 1,000,000 at least moi-e, for it is about ten years since," says Mr. 
Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the j^ear 1768. 
the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786, 
the anmial number was about 100,000 ; and in 1807 (the last year of the 
English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by 
government, that from 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans had been torn 
from their country, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been 
sold in the West Indies.* — Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave 
trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, 
allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, by the representatives 
of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841. 
King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct. 
9, 1847. 

SLAVE TRADE op ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was 
the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic 
of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring 
negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them for sale to the West 
Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. Queen Anne directed the 
colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should 



" Eurojiean avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-creatures, 
recollecting that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land in war, and 
thut a fifth die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning. — Cooper's Letters on the Slave 
TuADE. " But," says Butler, " this monstrous colossal crime has not been perpetrated with im- 
puDiry. Not only its prosecution, but its effects have in some measure called down upon us the 
frowns and the judgments of heaven. 

" By foreign wealth arii British morals changed, 
And Afric's sons, and India's, smile avenged." 
The trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the United 
States in 1807. By England (see above) in 1807. The Allies, at Vienna, declared against it, February 
181.5. Napoleon,' in the hundred days, abolished the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain, 
1817; with the Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. But this horrid traffic contniuea 
fi be encouraged in several states. — Haydi). 



532 



THE world's progress. 



[ SMU 



be devoutly and duly served, according to the rites of the Church of Eng- 
land, and also that the Royal African Company should be encouraged, and 
that the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of tnerchantahU 
negroes at moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships, 
and carried ofF42,000 slaves ; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it ; 
and such was the extent of British commerce in human flesh, that at the pe- 
riod of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1833, the number of 
slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to 
770,280. The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament 
in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. The 
motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83, April 3, 1798. 
After several other efibrts of humane and just mt;n, the question was 
introduced imder the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then mi'iio- 
ters, March 31, 1806 ; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament. 
March 25, 1807. 

SI AVERY OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS in Europe. 



Many of the early navigators to Ame- 
rica, including Columbus himself, 
carried considerable numbers of the 
aborigines to Europe, where they 
were sold into slavery. Queen Isa- 
bella commanded the liberation of 
Indians held in bondage in her pos- 
sessions, in - - - - 1501 



— but the next y^ear the slaverj of In- 
dians was recognized as lawful ; and 
the practice of selling the natives of 
North America into foreign bondage 
continued for nearly two centuries. 
The excellent Wintlirop enumerates 
Lrdians among his bequests. — Ban- 
croft. 



SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. See Slave Trade. 



The first negro slaves in the English 
colonies of North America were 
brousht to Virginia in a Dutch vessel 
of war - - . - - 1G20 

Negroes " who had been fraudulently 
brought from Guinea" to Massacliu- 
setts (the first in New England), were 
sent home at the public expense by 
the general court of that colony - 1646 

Gorton and RogerWilliams made a de- 
cree against slavery in Rhode Island 1652 

White slaves were sold in England, to 
be transported to Virginia : average 
price for 5 years' service, .£5 — while 
a negro was worth £25. — Bancroft - 1672 

Virginia had one slave to 50 whites - 1650 

The Quakers abolished slavery among 
themselves - . . . 1754 

Resolutions against the sl.ive trade 
passed by the first congress 01' the 
colonies .... 1774 

Act against the external slave trade 
passed by congress of tlie United 
States 1789 



[Slavery had been already prohibited 
in most of the northern States in their 
constitutions.! 
Act of congress against fitting out ves- 
sels for slave trade - - - 1794 
Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni- 
ted States Irom holding property in 
foreign slave vessels. United Slates 
vessels authorized to seize slavers - 1800 
Act forbidding, under heavy penalties, 
the introduction of slaves into the 
United States . - - . 1807 
Act declaring the slave trade piracy, 

punishable with death - - 1820 

[Slavery has, however, been continued 
in thirteen of the States. See Mis- 
souri. ] 
The number of slaves in the United 
States in 1790 was . - - 697,697 

In 1800 896,849 

In 1810 1,191,364 

In 1820 - - - ■ • - - 1,538,064 

In 1S30 2,010,436 

In 1840 2,487,:355 



SLAVES, Emancipation of. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
British colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted 
slaves, and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser- 
vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 2O,00O,000Z. sterling, 
passed 3 and 4 William IV., Aug. 28, 1833. By the operation of this act, 
slavery terminated in the British iDossessions on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,280 
slaves became free. 

SLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one day 
attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep con- 
tinued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years ; Pliny says he 
slept fifty-seven years; and when he awoke, he found eveiy object so al- 
tered he knew not where he was. It is supposed that lie lived 289 years, 



SOD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 533 

596 B. c. We have manj, and even very late, instances of persons in 
these countries sleeping continuously for weeks and months. 
SMALL-POX. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation for the 
small-pox from Turkey, her own son having been inoculated with perfect 
success at Adrianople, a. d. 1718. She was allowed, by way of experiment, 
to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned. 
Inoculation for the small-pox was encouraged under the auspices of Dr, 
Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, but the pie- 
sent building was not opened till 1756. See Inoculation and Vaccination. 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithson, a na. 
tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835, and left .£100,000 
"to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution 
for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Act of Congress 
accepting the bequest, and providing for the fulfilment of the trust, 1846. 
Corner stone of the building laid, May 1, 1847. 

SMOLENSKO, Battle of. One of the most memorable of the celebrated 
Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The 
French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but 
they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensko, found the city, 
which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli, 
the Russian commander-in-chief incurred the displeasure of the emperor 
Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and KutusolF succeeded 
to the command, Aug. 17, 1812. 

SMUGGLERS in England. The customs duties were instituted originally to 
enable the king to aflbrd protection to trade against pirates ; and they af- 
terwards became a branch of the public revenue. A severe penalty against 
smuggling was enacted in 1736. 

SNUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures 
made of vast quantities of snuff bj'' sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo 
in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice 
soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, consider- 
ably more than 3,000,0000Z. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, 
there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,805 lbs. were 
entered for home consumption ; the duty was 88,263Z. See Tobacco. 

SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express 
mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be 
an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. 
In remote periods clothes were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upon 
in water. Nausicaa and her attendants. Homer tells us, Avashed theirs by 
treading iipon them with their feet in pits of water. — Odyssey, book vi. 
The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it 
was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound. 

SOBRAON, Battle of ; India. The British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir 
Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The ene- 
my was dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; 
and in attempting the passage of a river by a floating bridge in their rear, 
the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and 
more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British 
loss was 2383 men ; fought Feb. 10, 1846. 

SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by the French admiral, Dupetit Thenars, and 
queen Pomare deposed, Nov. 9, 1843, but the transaction was disavowed by 
the French government. 

SOCIALISM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that all 
men have common interests, and that society ought to be, accordingly, or- 



534 THE world's progress. I SOR 

ganized on that principle. It has been taught, more or less distinctly, in 
all ages and nations: by Pythagoras b. c. 466, and Plato b. c. 422, among 
the Greeks ; by the sect of Essenes, in the time of our Saviour, among the 
Jews ; by the first Christians a. d. 34 ; by several of the fathers of the 
Church ; by sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, a. d. 1515 ; by Campunella, 
A. D. 1623 ; and byBabeau, in France, a. d. ; but the principal modern 

teachers of it have been Charles Fouriei", whowasbornatBesangoninl772; 
and who published a variety of able works on the subject ; by Claude Henri 
St. Simon, born also in France, at Paris, in a.d. 1760 ; and by Robert Owen, of 
England, who first taught it publicly in London in 1834. Through the instru- 
mentality of their writings it has been been spread over Germany, France, 
England, and the United States, where socialism, in different forms, has a 
considerable number of disciples. In February, 1848, an attempt was made 
by Louis Blanc, one of the Provisional Government of Paris, to organize 
labor on socialist principles, but without success. A great many religious 
sects, such as the Moravians, the Rappites, the Zoarites, and the Shakers, 
adopt the doctrine of common property in their social arrangements. 

SOCINIANS. So called from their founders, Faustus and L^lius Socinus. 
They taught that Jesus was a mere man, who had no existence before he- 
was conceived by the Virgin ; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct per- 
son ; and that the Father only is truly God. They maintained that Christ 
died only to give mankind a pattern of heroic virtue, and to seal his doc- 
trines with his death. Original sin, grace, and predestination they treated 
as mere chimeras. Socinianism was propagated about a. d. 1560. — Pardon. 

SODOM AND GOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, destroyed 
by fire from heaven, 1897 b. c. — Bible, Blair, Usher. The offence of sodomy 
was first sown in England by the Lombards. By an old English law, the cri- 
minal was burnt to death, though Fleta says he should be buried alive. 
The crime was subject to ecclesiastical censure only at the time of Henry 
VIII., who made it felony without benefit of clergy, 1538. Confirmed by 
statute 5 Elizabeth, 1562. 
SOLAR SYSTEM. The system nearly as now accepted, after the investiga- 
tions and discoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taught 
by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 b. c. In his system of the universe he 
placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits 
round it — a doctrine deemed chimerical and improbable, till the deep in- 
quiries of the philosophy of the sixteenth century proved it, by the most 
accurate calculations, to be true and incontestable. The system of Pytha- 
goras was revived by Copei-nicus, and it is hence called the Copernican 
system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton, in 1695. 
How truly the poet says — 

" He who through vast immensity can pierce, 

See worlds on worlds compose one universe. 

Observe how system into system runs, 

What other planets circle other suns, 

What varied beings people every star, 

May tell why Heaven has made us what we are." — Pope. 

SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation laid, 480 years after the deliverance 
from Egypt, 1012 b. c. The temple solemnly dedicated, Friday, October 
30, 1004 B. c, being 1000 years before the birth of the Redeemer. — Usher, 
Lienglct. 

SORCERERS and MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against their seductions, 
33 Henry VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed 5 E'i- 
zabeth, 1563. The pretension to sorcery and witchcraft and the conversing 
with evil spirits was made capital, 1 James I., 1603. For shocking instances 
of the punishment of sorcerers, see Witchcraft. 



spa] dictionary of dates. 535 

SOUDAN OR SOUJAH. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, 
which they went by in their provinces or armies. These officers afterwards 
made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of the Nora- 
dine, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 
A. D. 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym. 

SOUND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound ; and when 
the vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated. 
Robesval states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second ; 
Gassendus, at 1473 ; Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, where cannon were 
fired under many varieties of weather in 1738, it was found to be 1107 feet. 
The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles 
on the sea. See Acoustics. 

SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. CEdipus, took extraordinary 
soundings at sea. One of them was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, 
where it extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was 
made in latitude of 33 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W., about 300 
mile from the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms were sounded ; the 
weight employed amounted to 450 lbs., 1840. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States ; first settlement was made 
under Governor Sayle, at Port Royal, in 1670, and at Charleston 1671 ; re- 
ceived a colony of French refugees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict 
of Nantes, 1690 ; church of England established by law, 1703 ; proprietary 
government in the two Carolinas superseded by one established by the peo- 
ple in 1719 ; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English par- 
liament in 1729, when the country was divided into North and South 
Carolina ; received colonies of Swiss, Germans, and Irish at various times. 
This State early resisted the claims of the mother country, and was active 
in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large part of the State taken by 
the British in 1780 ; battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781 ; Federal Constitution 
adopted May 23, 1788, by 149 to 73 ; " nullification ordinance " passed 
Nov. 1832. Population in 1790 was 249,000 ; in 1810, 415,115 ; in 1830. 
581,458 ; in 1840, 594,398, including 327,538 slaves. 

SOUTH SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in 
1710 ; and the company incorpoi-ated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which 
ruined thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates, 
to the value of 2,014,000/. were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier, 
absconded Avith 100,OOOZ. ; but he compounded the fraud for 10,000/., and 
returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the king- 
dom had become stock-jobbers and speculators in this fatal scheme. The 
artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of 100/., to the 
enormous price of 1000/. See Law^s Bubble. 

SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. See Impostors, &c. 

SPAIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal, 
fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively 
planted colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans possessed the whole coun- 
try. In the decline of the Roman empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals, 
Alans, and Suevi ; afterwards subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foun- 
dation of the present monarchy. See Tabular Views, p. 65, et scq. 



The Vandals and Suevi wrest Spain 

from the Romans - - a. d. 412 

The Visigoths enter Spain under their 

leader, Euric - - . . 472 

The Saracens from Arabia invade the 

country - - - 713 et seq. 

Pelagius, a royal Visigoth, proclaimed 

Jfing of Asturias • - - 718 



Alphonsus n. refusing to pay the Sara- 
cens the annual tribute of 100 virgins, 
war is declared ; Alphonsus is victo- 
rious, and obtains the appellation of 
" the chaste" - - a. d. 791 st sea. 

Inigo, first king of Navarre, &c. - 830 

Ferdinand I., count of Castile, takes the 
title of king - - - - KGO 



536 



TrtE world's progress. 



fSPA 



SPAIN, continued. 

Union of Navarre and Castile - a. d. 1031 
The kingdom of Arragon commenced 

under Ramirez I. - - - - 1035 

Leon and Asturias united to Castile - 1037 
Portugal taken from the Saracens by 

Henry of Bourbon - - - 1087 

The Saracens, beset on all sides by the 
Christians, call in the aid of the Moors 
from Africa, who seize the dominions 
they came to protect, and subdue the 
Saracens - - - 1091 et seq 

The Moors defeated in several battles 

by Alphonsus I. of Navarre - - 1118 

Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one 

great pitched battle - - - 1 135 

University of Salamanca founded - 1200 
Leon and Castile re-united - - - r2'26 

Cordova, the residence of the first Moor- 
ish kings, taken by Ferdinand of Cas- 
tile and Leon - - - - 1236 
The kingdom of Granada begun by the 
Moors, their last refuge from the 
power of the Christians - -1238 
Reign of Alphonsus the Wise - - 1252 
The crown of Navarre passes to the 

royal family of France - - 1276 

200,000 Moors invade Spain - - 1327 

They are defeated by Alphonsus XI., 

with great slaughter - - - 1340 

The infant Don Henriquez, son of John 
the First of Castile, tirst had the title 
of prince of Asturias - - - 1388 

Ferdmand IT. of Arragon marries Isa- 
bella of Castile ; and nearly the whole 
Christian dominions of Spain are uni- 
ted in one monarchy - - - 1474 
Granada taken after a two years' siege ; 
and the power of the Moors finally 
extirpated by the valor of Ferdinand - 1492 
Columbus is sent from Spain to explore 

the western world - - - 1492 

Ferdinand conquers the greater part of 

the kingdom of Navarre - -1512 

Accession of the house of Austria to the 

throne of Spain - - - 1516 

Charles V. of Spain and Germany re- 
tires from the world . - - 1556 
Philip I. commences his bloody perse- 
cution of the Protestants - -1561 
The Escurial began building - - 1562 
Portugal united to Spain - ■ - 1580 
The invincible Spanish Armada de- 
stroyed. See Armada, and Naval 
Battles . . - - 1588 
Philip III. banishes the Moors and their 
descendants, to the number of 900,000, 
from Spain - - - - 1610 
Philip IV. loses Portugal - - 1640 
Gibraltar taken by the English - -1704 
Philip V. invades Naples - - 1714 
Charles III. , king of the Two Sicilies, 

succeeds to the crown - - 1759 

Battle of Cape St. Vincent - Feb. 14, 1797 
Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,- 
000 dollars, seized by the English 

Oct. 29, 1804 
Battle of Trafalgar. See Trafalgar, 

Battle of - - Oct. 31, 1505 

Sway of the prince of Peace - - 1806 

Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias 

against his father - July 25, 1807 

Treaty of Fontainebleau - Oct. 27, 1807 



The French take Madrid - a. d. March, 1808 
The prince of Peace dismissed by the 

king of Spain - March 18, IStB 

Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of 

Ferdinand - - March 19, 1803 

And at liayonne,in favor of his "friend 
and ally,"' Napoleon, when Ferdi- 
nand relinquished the crown, May 1, 1808 
The Frencli are massacred at Madrid, 

May 2, 1808 
Napoleon assembles the notables at 

Bayonne - - May 25, 1808 

Joseph Bonaparte enters Jladrid, as 

king of Spain - - July 12, 1808 

He retires Irom the capita! - July 29, 1808 
Supreme Junta installed - Sept. 1808 
Madrid retaken by the French, and Jo- 
seph restored - - Dec. 2, 1808 
The royal family of Spain imprisoned 
in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy, 

Dec. 5, 1008 
[Spain now becomes the scene of the 
struggle called the Peninsular War, 
for the events of which see the arti- 
cles severally.] 
Constitution of the Cortes - May 8, 1812 
Ferdinand VII. restored - May 14, 1814 
Spanish revolution began - Jan. 1, 1820 
Ferdinand sweare to the constitution of 

the Cortes - - March 8, 1820 

Removal of the king to Seville, and 

thence to Cadiz '- March 20, 1823 

The French enter Spain - April 7, 1823 
They invest Cadiz - - June 25, 1823 
Battle of the Trocadero - - Aug. 31, 1823 
Despotism resumed ; the Cortes dis- 
solved; executions - Oct. 1823 
Riego put to death - Nov. 27, 1823 
The French evacuate Cadiz - Sept. 21, 1828 
Cadiz made a free port - Feb. 24, 1829 
Salique law abolished - March 25, 1830 
Queen of Spain appointed regent dur- 
ing the king's indisposition, and a 
complete change made in the minis- 
try - - - Oct. 25, 1832 
Don Carlos declares himself legitimate 
successor to liis brother's throne, 
should the king die - April 29, 1833 
Death of Charles IV., and his queen 
assumes the title of governing queen, 
until Isabella II., her infant daughter, 
attains her majority - Sept. 29, 1833 
The royalist volunteers disarmed, with 

some bloodshed, at Madrid - Oct. 27, 1833 
Don Carlos lands at Portsmouth with 

his family - - June 18, 1834 

He suddenly appears among his ad- 
herents in Spain - July 10, 1834 
Tlie peers vote the perpetual exclusion 
of Don Carlos from the throne, Aug. 30, 1334 
[Here cominences the desolating civil 
war, in which British auxiliaries take 
the side of the queen.] 
Espartero gains the ^battle of Bilboa, 

and is ennobled - - Dec. 25, 1836 

General Evans retires from the com- 
mand of the auxiliary legion, and ar- 
rives in London, after having achieved 
various successes in Spain - June 20, 1837 
Madrid is declared in a state of siese. 

Augfll, 18:i7 
[Espartero and other Christino generals 



spa] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



537 



SPAIN, continued. 



engage with the Carlists, and nume- 
rous conflicts take place with various 
success.] 

JNIadrid is again declared in a state of 
siege - - A. D. Oct. 30, 1838 

The Spanish Cortes dissolved - June 1, 1839 

The Carlists imder Marota desert Don 
Carlos - - - Aug. 25, 1839 

Marota and Espartero conclude a treaty 
of peace - - Aug. 29, 1839 

Don Carlos seeks refuge in France 

Sept. 13, 1839 

Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to 
maintain the war, enters France with 
a body of his troops - July 7, 1840 

The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Se- 
bastian and Passages - Aug. 25, 1840 

Espartero makes his triumphal entry 
into Madrid - - - Oct. 5, 1840 

The queen regent appoints a new min- 
istry, who are nominated by Espar- 
tero .... Oct. 5. 1810 

The abdication of the queen resent of 
Spain - - - Oct. 12, 1840 

[She subsequently leaves the kingdom ; 
visits France ; next settles in Sicily ; 
but returns.to France.] 

Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the 
papal nuncio - - Dec. 29, 1840 

The Spanish cortes declare Espartero 
regent during the minority of the 
young queen - - " Apr. 12, 1841 

Insurrection in favor of Christina is 
commenced at Pampeluna by Gen. 
O'Donnell's army - - Oct. 2, 1841 

It spreads to Vittoria and other parts of 
the kingdom - - Oct. 1811 

Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at 
Madrid, and his followers are repuls- 
ed, and numbers of them slain by the 
queen's guard - - Oct. 7, 1841 

Don Diego Leon, having been seized, is 
shot at Madrid - - Oct. 15, 1841 

Zurbano captures Bilboa - Oct. 21. 1841 

Hodil, the constitutional general, enters 
Vittoria - - - Oct. 21, 1841 

Espartero decrees the suspension of 
queen Christina's pension - Oct. 26, 1841 

Espartero makes his triumphal entry 
into Madrid - - Nov. 23, 1841 

An insurrection breaks out at Barce- 
lona ; the national guard joins the 
populace - - Nov. 13, 1812 

Battle in the streets between the national 
guard and the troops : the latter lose 
500 in killed and wounded, and retreat 
to the citadel - - Nov. 15, 1842 



The troops evacuate the citadel, and 
retire to Montjuich - Nov. 17, 1812 

The regent Espartero arrives before 
Barcelona, and demands its uncondi- 
tional surrender - - Nov. 29, 1842 

Bombardment of Barcelona - Dec. 2, 1842 

It capitulates - - Dec. 4, 1842 

The disturbances of Malaga - May 25, 1843 

The revolutionary junta is re-establish- 
ed ^t Barcelona - - June 11, 1843 

[Corui.na, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, 
and numerous other towns, shortly 
afterwards " pronounce" against the 
regent Espartero.] 

Arrival of Gen. Narvaez at Madrid, 
which surrenders - - July 15, 1843 

Espartero bombards Seville - July 21, 1843 

The siege is raised - - July 27, 1843 

[The revolution is completely success- 
ful, and Espartero flies to Cadiz, and 
embarks on board her Majesty's ship 
Mtdabar.] 

The new government deprive Espartero 
of his titles and rank - Au^. 16, 1843 

Espartero and his suite and friends ar- 
rive in London - - Aug. 23, 1843 

Reaction against the new govermnent 
breaks out at Madrid - Aug. 29, 1843 

The young queen Isabella II., 13 years 
old, is declared by the cortes to be of 
age - - - ■ Nov. 8, 1843 

The queen- mother. Christina, returns to 
Spain - ■- - March 23, 1844 

Don Carlos, from Bourges, formally re- 
linquishes his right to the crown, in 
favor of his son - - May 18, 1845 

Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb. 
12; they return to power, March 17 ; 
and again resign - - March 28, 184G 

The queen is publicly affianced to her 
cousin, don Francisco d'Assiz, duke 
of Cadiz - - - Aug. 27, 1846 

Escape of Don Carlos and others from 
France - - - Sept. 14, 1846 

Marriage of the queen ; and marriage 
also of the infanta Louisa to the duke 
de Montpensier - ■ Oct. 10, 1846 

[The Montpensier marriage occasions 
the displeasure of England, and dis- 
turbs the friendly relations of the 
French and English governments.] 

Amnesty granted by the queen to po- 
litical offenders - - Oct. 18, 1846 

The queen has a son born, who dies the 
same day - - - July 1, 1850 



KINGS OP SPAIN. 

548. 



A..D. 406. Alaricl., king of the Goths; murdered. 
411. Athalsus; murdered by his soldiers. 
415. Wallia. 

420. Theodoric I.; killed in battle. 
450. Torrismunn , assassinated by his fa- 
vorite. 
452. Theodoric II. 
466. Euric. 

484. Alaric 11. ; killed in battle. 
507. Geaalric; killed in battle. 
511. Anialaric; killed in battle. 
531. Theodat ; assassinated by a madman. 

2-3* 



Theodisele ; murdered for female vio- 
lation. 

549. Agila ; taken prisoner and put to death. 

554. Athanagild. 

507. From tfiis year to the year C87, sixteen 
kings reigned. 

687. Egica or Egiza. 

697. Vitizza. 

741. Roderick; killed in battle in 714. 
An interregnum till 

718. Pelagius. 

736. Favila; killed by a boar in hunting. 



538 



THE world's progress. 



[spa 



SPAIN, continued. 

738. Alphonsus I. ; Catholic. 
757. Fioila I. ; killed by his brother Aure- 

lius. 
768. Aurelius. 
774. Silo. 
783. Mauregat. 
789. Veremond. 

791. Alphonsus II. ; the chaste. 
324. Ramiro I. ; he put 70,000 Saracens to 

the sword in one battle. 
860. Ordogno I. 
862. Alphonsus III. ; sumamed the great ; 

deposed by his son. 
910. Garcias. 
914. Ordogno n. 

923. Froila II. 

924. Alphonsus IV. ; abdicated. 
931. Rarairo II. , killed in battle. 
950. Ordogno III. 

955. Ordogno IV. 

956. Sanchol., the Fat; poisoned with an 

apple 

967. Ramiro III. 

982. Veremund II. ; the Gouty. 
999. Alphonsus V. ; killed at the siege of 
Viscu. 

1028. Veremund III. ; killed in battle. 

1035. Ferdinand the Great, king of Leon and 
Castile. 

10G5. Sancho II., the Strong, king of Castile ; 
Alphonsus in Leon and Asturias ; and 
Garcias in Galicia. 

1072. Alphonsus VI., the Valiant; in Castile 
and Leon. 

1109. Alphonsus VII. 

1122. Alphonsus VIIL 

1157. Sancho IIL, the Beloved, in Castile ; 
Ferdinand in Leon. 

11.58. Alphonsus IX., in Castile. 

1214. Henry L 

1236. Ferdinand III. the Holy ; in him Cas- 
tile and Leon were reunited, and per- 
petually annexed. 

1252. Alphonsus the Wise ; deposed. 

1284. Sancho IV., the Brave ; Peter III. in 
Arragon. 

1295. Ferdinand IV. 

1312. Alphonsus X. ; John in Arragon. 



1350. Peter the Cruel ; deposed. Reinstated 
by Edward the Black Prince of Eng- 
land; afterwards beheaded by his 
subjects. 

1368. Henry II., the Gracious ; poisoned by 
a monk. 

1379. John I. ; he united Biscay to Castile. 

1390. Henry 111., the Sickly. 

1406. John II. 

14.54. Henry IV, the Impotent. 

1474. Ferdinand v., the Catholic, in whom, 
by his marriage with Isabella, the 
vingdoms of Castile and Arragon 
were united. 

1504. Philip I. of Austria, and his queen 
Joan. 

1.506. Joan alone over both kingdoms. 

1516. Charles I, and emperor of Germany, 
resigned both crowns, and retired to 
a monastery. 

1555. Philip II., married Mary, queen-reg- 
nant of England. 

1598. Philip IIL, son of the preceding; he 
drove the Moors from Grenada and 
the adjacent provinces. 

1621. Philip IV., his son ; a reign of nearly 
continuous and unfortunate wars with 
the Dutch and France. 

1665. Charles IL 

1700. Philip v., duke of Anjou, grandson to 
Louis XIV. of France; resigned. 

1724. Lewis I. ; who reigned only a few 
months. 

1724. Philip V. ; again. 

1745. Ferdinand VI., surnamedthe Wise ; he 
distinguished his reign by acts of 
liberality and beneficence. 

17.59. Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies. 

1788. Charles IV. ; abdicated in favor of hia 
son and successor. 

1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon, of 
of France, also forced to resign. 

IS08. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napo- 
leon ; deposed. 

1814. Ferdinand VII. ; restored ; succeeded 
by his daughter. 

1833. Isabella II., Sept. 29 ; who came to the 
throne when three years of age. 

While nearly all the other nations of the world have been at peace, this coun- 
try, for the last quarter of a century, has been a prey to the most deplor- 
able commotions, and almost continuous and destructive civil war. From 
the death of Ferdinand, the intrigues of Christina, the queen-mother, and 
the parties in her interest, have led to successive revolutions in the state, 
and caused, in 18i0, her own abdication of the regency, and expulsion from 
the kingdom. 

SPANISH ARMADA ag.a.inst England. See article Armada. 

SPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one of the most considerable republics of 
the Peloponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens. Though without 
walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the valor of its citizens, for 
eight centuries. The epoch of its foundation is much disputed. Lelex is 
supposed to have been the first king, 1516 b. c. From Lacedsemon the fourth 
king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders of the 
city, it obtained the names by which it was most known. The history of 
Lacedffimon may be divided into five eras, viz., 1st. Under the ancient kings, 
from Lelex to the settlement of the Heraclidie, comprising about four bun- 



SPI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 539 

dred and twelve years. 2d. Under the Heraclidae as absolute monarchs, till 
Lycurgns instituted a senate, by which the people obtained a share in the 
government, including about two hundred and twenty years. 3d. From the 
establishment of the senate, to the introduction of ephori, or five inspectors 
by Theopompus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 4th. From the 
appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five hun- 
dred and forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the sub- 
jugation of the country to the Roman power, a period of about seventy- 
two years, 147 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. See Tabular Views ; Greece, page 7, et 
seq. See also Greece. The Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers. They 
cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All their 
laws, all their institutions, all their education, in a word, the very constitu- 
tion of their republic, Avere calcvilated to make them warriors. And never 
were men brought into the field more capable of enduring fatigue. They 
hardened their bodies by stripes, and by manly exercises, accustoming them- 
selves to undergo hardships, and even to die without fear or regret. The 
women were as courageous as the men, and celebrated with festivals the fall 
of their sons, when killed in battle, or coolly put them to death with their 
own hands, if by a shameful flight, or the loss of their arms, they brought 
disgrace upon their country. — Abbe Lenglet. 

SPECTACLES and READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were un- 
known to the ancients. They are generally supposed to have been invented 
in the 13th century, by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, 
about A. D. 1285. — Gen. Hist. They were invented by Roger Bacon, our own 
illustrious countryman, according to Dr. Plott. The hint was certainly 
given by Bacon about 1280. Some affirm that the real inventor was Salvi- 
no ; and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his Treatise on Spec- 
tacles. 

SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, were invent- 
ed by Anaximander, 552 b. c. The armillary sphere is said to have been in- 
vented by Eratosthenes about 255 b. c. The planetarium was constructed 
by Archimedes before 212 b. c. It was maintained by Pythagoras that the 
motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to 
the ears of mortals, which he called the music of the spheres. 

SPINNING. The art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the 
goddess of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arca- 
dia, taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 b. c. Lucretia with 
her maids was found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to 
her from the camp. The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner ; and a 
garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was preserved in the tenj- 
ple of Fortune. Augustus Caasar usually wore no garments but such as 
were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was in- 
vented at Brunswick, about a. d. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton 
was performed by the hand-spinning-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious 
mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning-jenny, with eight spindles. 
Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's 
machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of Har- 
grave's ; but he also applied a large and small roller to expand the thread, 
and, for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first, he 
worked his machinery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream 
of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which 
is a further and wonderful improvement of this art. — P dllips. 

SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it was 
the seat of the imperial chamber till 1689, Avhen the city was burnt by the 
French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The diet to 



540 THE world's progress. [ STA 

condemn the reformers was held at Spires, called there by the emperor 
Charles V., 1529. This was the era of Protestantism. See Protestants. 

SPIRITS. See Distillation. No human invention has ever tended more to cor- 
rupt the morals, and ruin the character, constitution, and circumstances of 
numbers of mankind, than distillation. In all nations spirituous liquors 
have been considered as a proper subject of heavy taxation for the support 
of the state. In 1840, England made about ten millions of gallons of spirits, 
Scotland made about seven millions of gallons, and Ireland about nine mil- 
lions of gallons. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, duty was paid, in 1840, 
on the following quantities of spirits, viz. — Rum, 2,830,263 gallons ; brandy, 
1,107,756 gallons ; Geneva, 18,640 gallons ; on other foreign spirits, 8,758 
gallons ; and on British, Irish, and Scotch spirits, 25,190,843 gallons ; mak- 
ing in the whole nearly thirty millions of gallons, upon which the duty 
amounted to about eight millions of pounds sterling ! — Pari. Returns. 

SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533, by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it 
Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595, it 
was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be 
the original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from 
the many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds. 

STAMP-DUTIES in England. The first institution of stamp-duties was by 
statute 5 and 6 William and Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed 
upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was 
commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which 
stamp-duty was made payable. The American Stamp Act, a memorable 
statute, one of those imposts levied by the parliament of Great Britain 
which produced the American Avar, and led to the independence of the 
United States, was passed March 22, 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland com- 
menced 1774. Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp- 
duties produced in England, in 1800, the revenue of 3,126,535Z. ; and in 
1840, for the United Kingdom, 6,726,817^. See Newspapers, &c. 

STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the 
cross on standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross 
to Constantine, previously to his battle with Maxentius : this fact rests on 
the authority of Eusebius, who states that he had received it from the em- 
peror himself, a. d. 312. For the celebrated French standard, see LUy. 
Standard or Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel dare look. It was car- 
ried in procession about 1768, when several hundred Christians who igno- 
rantly looked iipon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace. The 
Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bed- 
ford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the 
kingdoms, Jan. 1, 1801. 

STAR-CHAMBER, Court of. So called haply from its roof being garnished 
with stars. — Coke. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and 
part of the Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not from the stars on its 
roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), 
but from the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Ri- 
chard I. No Star was allowed to be valid except found in those reposito- 
ries, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by Edward I. 
The court was instituted 2 Henry VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of 
the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent 
of any law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in 
their sufferings, and contributed to render government odious and con- 
temptible. — Golds'inilh. It was abolished 16 Charles I., 1641. Thei'e were 



STE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 541 

from 26 to 42 judges, the lord-chancellor having the casting foice. — 
Gibbon. 
STARS. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 b. c 
Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and 
that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably 
gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus), about 344 a. c. Job, He- 
siod, and Homer, mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library 
at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 b. c, in 
which '1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of the stars dis- 
covered by Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronomy and Solar System. 

STA.TES-GENERAL op FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Pre- 
viously to the Revolution it had not met since a. d. 1614. The states con- 
sisted of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and commons. They were con- 
vened by Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789. Here a 
a contest arose, whether the three orders should make three distinct houses, 
or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, assuming 
the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to 
proceed to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if 
they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to 
concede the point, and they all met in one hall. See National Assembly. 

STATIONERS. Books and paper were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the 
dealers were called stationers. The company of stationers of London is of 
great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented ; yet it was 
not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in 
Paternoster-row. — Mortimer. 

.STATUES. See Moulds, Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter 
passed for one of the wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among 
the ancients, 440 b. c. He had previously made a statue of Minerva at the 
request of Pericles, which was placed in the Parthenon. It was made with 
ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised a golden 
statue to his lather, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the 
art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast 
models in wax, 326 b. c. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among 
the moderns. The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain was that 
of Charles I. in 1678. 

STEAM ENGINE. This is the most important prime mover that the inge- 
nuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the 
marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions, as "a way to drive up 
water by fire," A. D. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble in- 
ventor could ever interest the public in favor of this great discovery. 

Watt's expansion engine - - - - 1778 



Papin's digester invented - a. d. 1681 

Captain Savery's engine constructed 
lor raising water - - - 1698 

Pain's engine, exhibited to the Royal 
Society, about - - - - 1699 

Atmospheric engine by Savery and 
Newcomen .... 1713 

First idea of steam navigation set fortli 
in a patent obtained by Hulls - 1736 

Watt's invention of performing conden- 
sation in a separate vessel from tlie 
cylinder .... 1765 

His first patent - ... 1769 

His engines upon a large scale erected 
in manufactories, and his patent re- 
newed by act of parliament . .1775 

Thomas Paine proposed the application 
of steam in America - - - . 1773 

Engine made to give a rotary motion - 1778 



Double acting engines proposed by Dr. 
Falck on Newcomen's principle - 1779 

Watt's double engine, and his first pa- 
tent for it granted - - - . 1781 

The marquess .Jouffroy constructed an 
engine on the SaSne - - . 1781 

Fitchs' experiments in steam naviga- 
tion on the Delaware, (See Smith's 
Am. Curios.-) .... 1783-4 

Oliver Evans' experiments in the 
same 1785-6 

Rurasey's experiments in the same in 
Virginia 1787 

W. Symington made a passage on the 
Forth and Clyde canal - - . . 17S0 

First steam-engine erected in Dublin by 
Henry Jackson 1791 

Jouffroy's experiments in France - ■ 179-.i 



542 



THE WORLD S PROaRESS. 



[ STE 



STEAM ENGINE, continued. 

Chancellor Livingston builds a steamer 
on the Hudson 1797 

First experiment on the Thames - - 1801 

The experiment of Mr. Symington re- 
peated with success - - - - 1802 

Trevethick's high-pressure engine - 1802 

Oliver Evans' experiments lu locomo- 
tive engines in Pemi. - - - 1804 

WoolPs double cylinder expansion en- 
gine constructed . - . . 1804 

Manufactories warmed by steam - 1806 

Fulton started a steam-boat on the river 
Hudson, built by himself, and named 
"The North River;" engine by Boul- 
ton and Watt j passage to Albany in 33 
Iiours : FIRST steam navigation on 
record - ... 1807 

The next three steam-boats in the world 
were the Car of Neptune, - - ISOS 

T\\6 Paragon 1811 

The Richmond 1812 

all in New York. 

Steam power to convey coals on a rail- 
way, employed by Blenkinsop - - 1811 

Stecim vessels first commenced plying 
on the Clyde (first in Europe) - 1812 



Steam applied to printmg in the Timea 
office. See Press . . - . 1814 

There were five steam vessels in Scot- 
land iParl. Returns) in - - - 1813 

First steam vessel on the Thames 
brought by Mr. Dodd, from Glasgow 1815 

The first steamer built in England {Pari. 
Returns') 1815 

The Savannah steamer, of 350 tons, 
went from New York to Liverpool 
in 26 days .... July 15, 1313 

First steamer in Ireland - - - 1830 

Captain Johnson obtained 10,OOOZ. for 
making the first steam voyage to In- 
dia, in the Enterprise, which sailed 
from Falmouth - - Aug. 16, 1825 

Locomotive steam carriages on rail- 
ways, at Liverpool - - Oct. 1829 

The Railway opened (see Liverpool) ■ 1830 

The Great Western arrives from Bris- 
tol at New York, and the Sirius from 
Cork, same day, being their first voy- 
age, in 18 days - - June 17, 1838 

War steamers built in England - - 1838 

First steamer of the Cunard line was 



the Bi"itannia to Boston ; after a pas- 
sage of 14 ds. 8 hrs., arrived July 18, ISIO 

STEAM BOATS in the UNITED STATES. In 1838 returns from 23 States 
gave an aggregate of 700 vessels — whole tonnage, 153,600 tons ; but these 
retui'ns were not complete. The increase from 1838 to 1850 was very great : 
probably there are, in 1850, at least 1500 vessels, with an aggregate of 300,000 
tons. The first American ocean steamer of any note was the Washington, 
which made her first passage to Southampton in June 1847. The whole 
number of steam-boats, locomotive and stationarj' engines, in the United 
States, in 1838, was 3,010. 

STEAM VESSELS op the BRITISH EMPIRE. 

STEAM VESSELS BELONGING TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS; 



Year. 


England. 


iScotland. 


Ireland. 


Dependencies. 


Total. 


1814 - 





5 





1 


6 


1815 


- . 3 


5 





2 


10 


1820 - 


17 


14 


3 


9 


43 


1825 


- -112 


36 


3 


17 


168 


1830 - 


- 203 


61 


31 


20 


315 


1835 


-344 


85 


68 


48 


645 


1815 - 


- 694 


139 


79 


89 


1001 



STEEL-YARD. A most ancient instrument, the same that is translated 6a- 
lance in the Pentateuci The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- 
tioned in 815 B. c. 

STENOGRAPHY. The art of wi-iting in short-hand is said to have been prac- 
tised by most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the 
hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also attributed to the poet Ennius, 
improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man, and still more by Seneca. The 
Ars Scribendl Characteris, printed about a. d. 1412, is the oldest system ex- 
tant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590. 
There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement 
and great simplicity. 

STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking 
the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about a. d. 1350. — 
Anderson. 

STEREOTYPE. See Printing. It is said that stereotyping was known in 
1711 ; but this is doubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Ged 



STO J DICTION.iRY OF DATES. 543 

of Edinburgh, 1735. — Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by 
others to Mr. Tilloch, 1779. The invention of it is also attribiited to Fran- 
cis Ambrose Didot, of Paris, about that year. — Ferguson. But stereotype 
printing was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and a quarto Bible and 
Dutch folio Bible were printed there. — Phillips. Stereotyping was intro- 
duced into London, by Wilson, in 1804. — Idem. 

STEREOTYPING. The foregoing is from Haydn. But this art is said to have 
been invented by Cadwallader Golden of New York, who sent the details of his 
plan in 1779 to Dr. Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin communicated the plan 
to Didot, the famous printer, and Herbau, a German, who had been an assist- 
ant of Didot, took it up in opposition to Didot. It is affirmed, on good au- 
thority, that Herbau's method of stereotjqDing is i^recisely similar to that 
which Golden invented. Stereotj'ping was first actually practised in New 
York in 1813, when John Watts stereotyped the Larger Gatechism. In 
June 1815 the Bruces of New York stereotj^ped a duodecimo Bible. — Dr. 
J. W. Francis. 

STOGKINGS. Those of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547- In 
1560, queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stock- 
ings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones 
any more. — Huwell. He adds, " Henry VIII. wore ordinarily cloth hose, 
except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings ; 
for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with 
a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and 
the present was then much taken notice of — Idem. Others relate that Wil- 
liam Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant, 
a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like 
them, which he presented to the earl of Pembroke, the first of the kind 
made in England, 1564. — Stowe. 

STOGKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced 
into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have 
had its rise in 1694. The number of stockholders in 1840 amounted to 
337,481. By a return of the average price of the public funds by the com- 
missioners for the reduction of the national, debt, it appears that Consols 
averaged in the year — 



1780 - £63 13 


6 1795 


- £74 8 


6 1810 


- £67 16 


3 


1825 


- £90 


8 


1785 - - 68 6 


6 1800 - 


-66 3 


3 1815 - 


-58 13 


9 


1830 - 


-89 15 


7 


1790 - 71 2 


6 1805 


- 58 14 


1820 


- 68 12 





1840 


- 89 17 


6 


See Public Debt. 



















STOIGS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher; they obtained the name 
of stoics because they listened to his instructions and harangues in a porch 
or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoa. Zeno taught that man's su- 
preme happiness consisted in living according and agreeable to nature and 
reason, and that God was the soul of the world. The Pharisees aflected 
the same stiffness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility, which this 
sect is famous for. — Stanley. 

STONE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, a. d. 670. ' A stone 
bridge was built at Bow in 1087, and is accounted the first ; but a bridge 
exists at Growland, which is said to have been built in 860. See Bridges. 
The first stone building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Building. Stone 
china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues 
was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 1776. 
Stone paper was made in 1796. 

STONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity. 
Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius Ambrosius, 
in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hengist, the Saxon, a. d^ 



544 



THE world's progress. 



[STO 



475. — Geoffrey of Monmouth. Erected as a sepulchral monument of Am- 
brosius, a. d. 500. — Polydore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in 
which the Druids oflSciated.— I>r. Stukeley. Tlie Britons had annual meet- 
ings at Abury and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and justice adminis- 
tered, and heinous crimes punished, by bui'ning alive in wicker-baskets. 

STORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memo- 
rable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, a. d. 944. 
One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming 
from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ; and in London 500 houses 
fell, October 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais, 
and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against 
the barons, perished, 1215. — Holinshed. 



It thundered 15 days successively, with tem- 
pests of rain and wind, a.d. 12:33. 

A storm with violent lightnings ; one flash 
passed through a chamber where Edward 
1. and his queen were conversing, did them 
no damage, but killed two of their attend- 
ants: 1285. — Hoveden. 

A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in 
France, which fell on the army of Edward 
III., then on its march. The hail was so 
large that the army and horses suffered 
very much, and Edward was obliged to 
conclude a peace, 1339. — Matt. Paris. 

When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohe- 
mia, on setting foot on shore an awful 
storm arose, and her ship and a number 
of others were dashed to pieces in the har 
bor, Jan. 1382. — Ilolins/ied. 

Richai-d's second queen also brought a storm 
with her to the English coasts, in which 
the king's baggage was lost, and many 
ships cast away, 1389. — Idem. 

A hurricane throughout Europe, which did 
very considerable damage ; more remark- 
ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 1G58, the 
day that Cromwell died. — Mortimer. 

A storm on the eastern coasts of England ; 
200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of 
their crews, 1696. 

The storm called the "Great Storm," one of 
the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- 
land. The devastation on land was im- 
mense ; and in the harbors, and on the 
coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives 
was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703.* 

A snow stoi'm in Sweden, wlien 7000 Swedes, 
it is said, perished upon the mountains, in 
their march to attack Dronthcim, a. d. 
1719. 

One in India, when many hundreds of ves- 
sels were cast away, a fleet of Iirdiamen, 



greatly damaged, and some ships lost, and 
30,000 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737. 

A dreadful hurricane at the Havana ; many 
public edifices and 4048 houses were de- 
stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished, 
Oct. 25, 1768. — Annual Register. 

An awful storm in the north of England, in 
which many vessels were destroyed, and 
4 Dublin packets foundered, Oct. 29, 1775. 

At Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000 
of the inhabitants, April 22, 1782. 

One hundred and thirty-one villages and 
farms laid waste in France, 1785. 

A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the 

. Leeward Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept. 
1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone, 
104 vessels were lost. 

At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred 
vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. 

Awful hurricane on the western coast of . 
England, and in Ireland. The storm raged 
through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and War- 
wickshire ; 20 persons were killed in Li- 
verpool, by the falling of biuldings, and 
100 were drowned in the neighborhood; 
the coast and harbors were covered with 
wrecks ; the value of two of the vessels 
lost being nearly half a million sterling. In 
Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other 
places, more than 200 houses were blown 
down, and as inany more were burnt, the 
wind spreading the fires. Dublin sufler- 
ed dreadfully ; London and its neighbor- 
hood scarcely sustained any damage, Jan. 
6-7, 1839. 

Hurricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275 
houses destroyed, and 1038 injured, Oct. 
10-11, 1846. 

Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, &c. Aug. 
21. 1848, 



STOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German 
stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of 



* The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000.000?. sterling. The number of per- 
sons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in 
ships blown from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve 
men-of-war, with more than ISOO men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees 
were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed, 
and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The bi- 
shop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in bed in their palace, in Somersetshire. Multi- 
tudes of cattle were also lost; in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. 



sugJ dictionary of dates. 545 

the room, the roof being open. Apartments were warmed too by port- 
able braziers. See Chinnieys. 

STRASBURG. The attempt at insurrection in the city of Strasburg, by Louis- 
Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two offi- 
cers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of 
the parties. The prince was afterwards shipped off to America by the 
French government, Oct. 29, 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt, 
by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See France: 

STRATTON-HILL, Battle op, in Devonshire, between the royal army and the 
forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller ; in this battle the 
victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed 
and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol ; fought May 16, 
1643. 

STUCCO-WORK. The art was known to the ancients, and was much prized 
by them, particiilarly by the Romans, who excelled in it. — Abbe Lenglet. 
It was revived by D'Udine about a. d. 1550; and is now exquisitely per- 
formed in Italy and France, and is advancing rapidly to perfection in 
England. 

STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Cassar's ordering leap-j'ear to be 
but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8b.c. 
Again at Rome, by taking twelve daj^s off the calendar, a. d. 1582. See 
Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act 
passed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian, 
1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year. 

STYLE, ROYAL, of the KINGS of ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and 
Titles. 

SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, par- 
ticularly in wool ; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the 
war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of 
England for the last time by James I., 1624, but they were contained in a 
bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to fo- 
reign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolution- 
ists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable 
of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at 
Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be 
vigorouslj prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting 
powers should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, 
Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to 
the amount of many tens of millions sterling. — Phillips. 

SUB-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging 
to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to l8, Jan. 23, 1840 ; repealed 
Aug. 9, 1841. Re-enacted in a new form, 184-. 

SUCCESSION, ACT op. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics 
from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689 ; and the 
crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act of 
June 12, 1701. 

SUCCESSION, The WAR of. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by 
the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and 
unprofitable results, arose m the question whether an Austrian or a French 
prince, grandson of Louis XIV., should succeed to the throne of Spain. 
Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies 
withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded ; 1702 to 
1713. See Utrecht, Peace of. 

SUGAR, Saccharum officinaruvi. Sugar is supposed to have been known to the 



546 THE world's progress. [ SUI. 

ancient Jews. Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 
325 B. c. — Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the 
juice of the cane as a common beverage. — Lucan. The best sugar was 
produced in India. — Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. — 
Encyclop. Brought into Europe from Asia, a. d. 625. In large quantities, 
1150. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy; but not succeeding, the 
Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510. — Robertson's 
History of Charles V* 

SUGAR-REFINING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Eu- 
ropeans by a Venetian, a. d. 1503. It was hrst practised in England in 1659. 
though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few years 
sooner. Sugar was first taxed by name, 1 James 11., 1685. — Anderson ; Mor- 
timer. See Beet Root. 

SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish 
history is that of Saul, 1055 b. c. — ApoUodoriis. The Greek and Roman 
philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from 
the rest of the bodJ^ In the earlj^ part of the Roman history, the only in- 
stance recorded occurs ia the reign of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, tliink- 
ing themselves disgraced by being ordered to make common sewers, des- 
troyed themselves, 606 b. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of 
illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 b. c. In the Catholic church, 
in the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should bo 
made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This- ecclesias- 
tical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the 
statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation 
of land and goods. 

A FEW OP THE MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OP SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, &C. 



Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840 
or I(ml James Beresford - April 27, 18-11 
Of the earl of Mimster - March 20. 18=12 
Of Laman Blanchard - - Feb. 25; 1845 
Of col. Gurvvood - - Dec. 29, 1845 
Of Haydon, the eminent painter 

June 22, ]8'15 



Suicide of gen. Pichegru - April 7, 1804 
Of marshal Berthier - - June 1, 1815 
OfSamuel Whitbred, esq. • Sept. 6, 1815 
Of sir Samuel Romilly - - Nov. 2, 1818 
Of Christophe, king oi" Hayti Oct. 8, 1820 
Of marquess of Londonderry Aug. 12,1822 
Of hon. colonel Stanhope - Jan. 26, 1825 

There have been only three instances of self-destruction by fire ; that of 
the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount 
Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in 1820, 
into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the 
furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccount- 
able passion for suicide seized the Milesian virgins, from which thej'- could 
not be prevented bj' the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree 
being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should 
be drawn naked through the streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordi- 
nary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being 
previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV., 1823. 
SULTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying Jang of kings, and 
given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the 
Turkish princes Angrolipex and Musgad, about a. d. 1055. — Vatticr. It 

* About the year 1 138 the sugar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence 
to Madeira., and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at vchat date su^ar 
was introduced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. 
Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript 
;ettei-, from sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March, 1546, advertises him that 
sir Edward had taken up for his lordship, 25 sugar loaves at six shillings a loaf, " whiche is eighte 
penco a pounde." In 1840, the imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 cwts., 
"if which nearly four millions were for home consumption; and the duty amounted to about five 
•nillion:; and a half sterling. 



SUP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 547 

was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mahmoud, in the fourth 
century of the Hegira. 

SUMMATRA, Island of. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having committed 
piracies on American vessels, the town was destroyed by the United States 
frigate Potomac, and 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832. 

SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. 
Those of Zaleucus ordained that no Avoman should go attended by more 
than one maid in the street, unless she were drunk ; and that she should 
not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely, 
450 B. c. — Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchia among 
the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the 
dishes at an entertainment ; and it also enforced that during supper, which 
was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be 
left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Ed- 
ward III. and Henrj^ VIII. See Dress, Luxury, &c. 

SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 
529 B. c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated 
geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun, 
about 280 b. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries, 
and astronomy lay neglected until about a. d. 1200, when it was brought 
into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system, 
was made kno'svn in 1530. See Copernican System and Solar System. Ga- 
lileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Macute 
were first discovered byChr. Scheiner, 1611. Transit of Mercury observed 
by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened 
the sun's disk in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its 
motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun. Dr. Halley, 1702. A ma- 
cula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21, 
1766, and frequently since. Herschel measured two spots whose length 
taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779. 

SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c— Pliny, 1, 2. The first 
erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided 
into hours, 298 b. c. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, a. d. 613.-^ 
Abbe Lenglet. 

SUNDAY, OR LORD'S DAY. Sunday was the day on which, anciently, di- 
vine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians it is called the 
Lord's daj^, on account of our Saviour's rising from the dead on that 
day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the 
sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews 
on the sabbath to this day. The first civil law for its proper observance 
■was made by Constantino, a.d. 321. — E-usebius. The council of Orleans 
prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of Innocent Simday Sports, au- 
thorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, pub- 
lished in England 14 James I. in 1617, was violently opposed by the clergy 
and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles I. was a primary 
cause of the civil war which ended in his death. This book was burnt by 
the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament. — Ra.pin. 
Sunday schools were established in England first by Mr. Raikes in 1780. 
Act of parliament closing all the post-offices on Sunday passed May 1850. 

SUPREMACY OVER the CHURCH. The supremacy of the king over the 
church as well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the king was made 
head of the church of England, was established in 1534, when Henry VHI. 
shook olF the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in himself Our 
kings have from that time had the title of supreme head of the church con- 
ferred upon them by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and 



§48 THE world's PKOGRESS. [ SWB 

the ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous others, 
beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. — Haydn. 

SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made 
a separate study from philosophy, &c., about 410 b. c. Hippocrates mentions 
the ambe, the ancient instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. 
Celsus flourished about a. d. 17 ; Galen, 170 ; -S^tius, 500 ; Paulus ^gineta 
in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900 ; and in the 16th century 
sprung up a new era in the science ; between these periods surgery was 
confined to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the 
illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England 
surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries, 
1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London. 

SURGEONS, College of. The first charter for surgeons was granted by Hen- 
ry VIII., 1540. Formerly bai'bers and surgeons were united, until it was 
enacted that "no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall 
occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the 
drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained another charter in 1745 ; and 
a new charter in 1800. 

SURPLICES. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, a. d. 
316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying 
public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Can. 58. The 
garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547 ; and again 1 Elizabeth, 1558 ; 
and 13 and 14 Charles IL, 1662. 

SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China, 
near King-tung ; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from 
rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspen- 
sion bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the Menai Strait 
is the most surprising Avork, every way considered, of modern times. 

SUTTEES, OR THE BURNING of WIDOWS. This custom began in India from 
one of the wives of " Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his 
death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows 
have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 
700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. Mr. Holwell was present 
at many of these sacrifices. On February 4. 1743, he saw a young and 
beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children, 
thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude and courage that astonished every 
witness of the scene. — HolwcU. The English government in India have dis- 
couraged these s-lf-immolations, while yet avoiding any undue interference 
with the religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were abolished by 
English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829 ; but they have since occasionally, though 
rarely, taken place. 

SWEARING ON THE GOSPEL. First used a. d. 528. Introduced in judicial 
proceedings about 600. — Rapin. Frofane Swearing made punishable by 
fine ; a laborer or servant forfeiting Is., others 2s. for the first offence ; for 
the second offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 William III., 1695. See 
Oaths. 

SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modem inhabi- 
tants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory 
on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been 
masters of the country. 

Gylf reigns in Sweden - - - B.C. 57 1 barbarians, falls upon the North of 
During this reign, Odin, sumamed the Europe, making vasts conquests . •*•• 

Divine, at the head of a swarm ol | 



SWE j 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



549 



SWEDEN, contbmed. 

Ynge, founder of the family of the Yn- 

lingars, reigns - - - B.C. 32 

[Tlie early histoiy of the kingdom is 
altogether involved in fables and ob- 
scurity.] 

Olif the Infant is baptized, and intro- 
duces Christianity among his people, 
about . - . . A.D. 1000 

Gothland, so celebrated for its warlike 
people and invasions of other coim- 
tries, is annexed to Sweden - - 1132 

Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru- 

gen, and destroys the Pagan temples 1168 
Stockholm founded - - - 1260 

Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular 

form of government - - - 1279 

Tlie crown of Sweden, which had been 
hereditary, is made elective ; and 
Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek, 
or the Foolish, king of Norway, is 

elected 1318 

Waldemar lays Gothland waste - - 1361 

The crown niade elective - - 1320 

Albert of Mecklenburg reigns - -1365 

Sweden united to the crowiiof Denmark 

and Norway, under Margaret - 1394 
University of Upsal founded - - t476 
Christian II., " tlie Nero of the North," 
massacres all the Svvedisli nobility, to 
fix his despotism - - - 1520 

The Swedes delivered from the Danish 

yoke by the valor of Guslavus Vasa 1523 
He makes the crown hereditary, and 

introduces the reformed religion - 1544 
The titles of count and baron introduced 

by Eric XIV. . - - . 1561 

.The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, 

between 1612 and - - - 1617 

He is slain at Lutzen - - - 1633 

Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1648 
Abdicatiori of Christina - - - 1654 

Charles X. overruns Poland - - 1657 

Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660 
Charles XII., '' the madman of the 

North," begins his reign - - 1699 

He makes himself absolute abolishes 
the senate - - . • » > • 

KINGS OP 

A 1) 825 Regnard Lobrock. 
* * ' "Reigns uncertain.] 

906 Eric, the Victor. 

994 Olaf, or Olif Sckotkong. 
1026 Edmund Jacobson. 
1035 Edmund, or Amaod III. 
1041 Haquin. 

1056 Stenkell, or Steenchel. 
1060 Ingo I. ; assassinated by his brother. 
1064 Halstan. 
1080 Philip. 

1100 Ingo II. ; died in a monastery. 
1130 Ragwald ; murdered by the Visigoths. 
1133 Magnus I. ; assassinated in Scania. 
1144 Suercher II. 

1150 EricX. ; beheaded by rebels. 
1162 Charles VII. ; made prisoner by Ca- 
nute, who reigns. 
1168 Canute, son of Eric X. 
1192 Suercher III., son of Charles ; killed in 

battle. 
1211 Eric XI. 
1220 John 1. 



Battle of Pultowa, where Charlea is 
defeated by the czar of Russia. See 
Pultowa - - - A.D. 1709 

He escapes to Bender, where after three 
years' protection, he is made prison- 
er by the Turks - - - 1713 

He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, 
and fighting numerous battles, he is 
at length killed at the siege of Frede- 
rickshall - - - Dec. 11, 1718 

Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despot- 
K government - - - . 1719 

Royal Academy founded by Linne, af- 
terwards called Linnffius - - 1741 

Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, 
who are beheaded - - - 1756 

Despotism re-established ■ - 1772 

Order of the Sword instituted - - 1772 

Assassination of Gustavus III. by . cunt 
Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16 : he 
expired the 29th - - - 1792 

The regicide was dreadfully scourged 
with whips of iron thongs three suc- 
cessive days ; his right hand was cut 
off, then his head, and his body im- 
paled - - - May 18, 1792 

Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the go- 
vernment assumed by his uncle, the 
duke of Stidermania - March 13, 1809 

Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of 
Russia - - - Sept. 17, 1809 

Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte 
Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of 
Sweden - - Aug. 21, 1810 

Gustavus IV. arrived in London, 

Nov. 12, 1810 

Swedish Pomerania seized by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte - - Jan. 9, 1812 

Alliance with England - July 12, 1812 

Sweden joins the grand alliance against 
Napoleon - - March 13, 1813 

Norway is ceded to Sweden by the trea- 
ty of Kiel - - Jan. 14, 1814 

Bernadotte ascends the throne of Swe- 
den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 1818 

Treaty of navigation between Great 
Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826 

SWEDEN. 

1223 Eric XII. 

12.50 Waldemar. 

1276 Magnus II. 

1290 Birger II. 

1318 Magnus^IlI. ; dethroned by his subjects 

1365 Albert. 

1397 Margaret. 

1411 EricXIII. ; abdicated. 

1441 Christopher. 

1448 Charles VIII. 

1458 Christian I. 

1497 John II. 

1520 Christian II. 

1528 Gustavus I., Vasa. 

1556 Eric XIV. ; died in prison. 

1569 John III. 

1592 Sigismond I., king ot Poland. 

1606 Charles IX. 

1611 Gustavus Adolphus II. 

1632 Christina ; resigned her crown to 

1654 Charles X., Gustavus duke of Deux 

Fonts. 
1660 Charles XI. 



550 



THE world's progress. 



I.SWU 



1771 GustavusIII., Adolphus. 

1792 Gustavus Adolphus IV. 

1809 Charles XIII. 

1818 Charles .John XIV., Beruadotte, Feb. 5. 

1844 Oscar, his son, March 8. 



SWEDEN, continued. 

1699 Charles XII.; killed at the siege of 

Frederickshall. 
1718 Ulrica Eleanora ; resigned when her 

husband was elected. 
1720 Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. 
1751 AdoJphus Frederick, duke of Holstein. 

SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mystics, so called from the learned but ec- 
centric Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the New 
Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be es- 
tablished, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man, of 
the Word, of heaven and of hell — concerning all which subjects error and 
ignorance now prevail, and in which church this knowledge will bear its 
])roper fruits — love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purity of life. 
His first work on theology was published in 1743 ; his sect rose about 1760, 
but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a conside- 
rable number of respectable advocates in the United States. 

SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered 
by Julius Caesar, and afterwards subject to the Burgundians and Germans. 
Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz 
was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habitation in 
Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marius ; 
after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 b. c. This canton has given 
name to the whole confederacy. 



The Helvetiann converted to Christian- 
ity by Irish missionaries - a. d. 612 
Helvetia ravaged by the Huns - - 909 
Becomes subject to Germany - - 1032 
Fribourg built by Berthold IV. - - 1179 
Tyranny of Geszler, which occasions 
the memorable revolt under the pa- 
triot William Tell. - - 1306 
Swiss independence - Nov. 7, 1307 
A malignant fever carries off, in the can- 
ton of Basle, 11,000 souls - - 1314 
Form of government made perpetual - 1315 
Lucerne joins the confederacy - • 1335 
The canton of Zurich joins, and be- 
comes head of the league - - 13o0 
Berne, Glaris, and Zug'join - - 1351 
The Grisons league (see Caddee) ■ 1400 
Second league of the Grisons - - 1424 
The third league of the Grisons - 1436 
Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay 

of France, under Louis XI. - -1480 
Union of Fribourg and Soleure - 14S1 

Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledges 

Swiss independence - - - 1499 

Scharfhausen joins the union - -1501 
The Swiss confederacy acknowledged 

by France and other powers - 1516 

The Reformation begins at Basle ; the 

bishop compelled to retire - - 1519 

The Grison leagues join the Swiss con- 
federacy as allies - - - 1514 
Appenzel joins ihe other cantons - 1597 
Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts 
Geneva by surprise, scales the walls, 
and penetrates the town ; but in the 
end is defeated - - - 1602 
[This circumstance gives rise to an an- 
nual festival commemorative of their 
escape from tyranny.] 



Independence of Switzerland recognized 
by the treaty of Westphalia (see 
Wes/phalia, Peace of } - a. D. 1648 

[From this period until the French Re- 
volution the canton enjoyed tranquil- 
Jity, disturbed only by the changes 
arising out of their various constitu- 
tions.] 

Alliance with France - May 25, 1777 

Domestic sti'ife in Geneva, between the 
aristocratic and democratic parties; 
France interferes - - - 1781 

1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum 
in Ireland (see Geneva) ■ • 1782 

Swiss guards ordered to quit France - 1792 

Helvetic confederatioia dissolved; its 
subjugation by France - - 1798 

The number of cantons increased to 19 : 
the federal government restored; and 
a landamman appointed by France, 

May 12, 1802 

Uri, Schweitz, and Undervvald separate 
from the republic - July 13, 1802 

Switzerland joins France with 6,000 
men - - - Aug. 24, 1811 

The Allies entered Switzerland in the 
spring of 1814. The number of can- 
tons increased to 22, and the indepen- 
dence of Switzerland secured by the 
treaty of Vienna - - - 1815 

Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1847 

— passes resolves against the Sonder- 
bund, and troops of Uri attack canton 
Tessino - - Nov. 4, 1847 

Forces of the diet attack Friburg, Nov. 
10, and take Lucerne - Nov. 24, 1847 

Neufchatel declares independence, 

Feb. 29, 1848 



SWORDS. 

1879 E. 



They were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese, 
c. — UiiU-. Hisl. The sword is one of th< earliest implements 



syr] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 551 



of war. The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broad- 
sword and scimitar' are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at 
an English king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel 
swords are the most prized ; and next, the sword of Ferrara steel. The 
Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from a celebrated 
artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew 
Pcrraras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 
1724. 

SYCAMORE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The 
date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was very early. 
In Mrs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Mary 
queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she 
planted in the gardens of Holyrood, and that from this little tree have 
sprung all the beautifal groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 

SYDNEY, New South Wales. Founded by governor Philip, on a cove of Port 
Jackson, in 1788. as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally 
intended for Botany Bay ; but now the principal seat of the government of 
the colony. It was denominated S3^dney in compliment to lord Sydney. 
The town is now becoming considerable in extent and population ; and it 
has a legislative council, which was tirst held July 13, 1829. See New South 
Wales; Convicts, C^c. 

SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had 
synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others 
to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 syna- 
gogues. There are in London six synagogues. 

SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by 
Christian princes ; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his 
legates usuallj' ijresiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation 
only. The first of this kind held in England was at Hertford, a. d. 673 : the 
last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but 
by royal authority, 25 Henry VIII. , 1533. 

SYNOD OF DORT. The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to 
which deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in 
Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, 
and Arminius, principally upon the points of justification and grace, 1618. 
— Aitzema. 

SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 b. c.—Eusebius. 749 b. c— Univ. Hist. 
Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, v/as 
slain, 212 b. c. (see Sicily). Syracuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with 
many thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed, 
Aug. 6, 1757. 

SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particulars are gleaned 
from Scripture ; and it otherwise aftbrds nothing peculiar, being involved 
in the histories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires {which 
see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus ; but after the battle 
of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the Seleucidte) founded the celebrated city 
of Antioch. 



Seleucus, surnamed Nicator, i. e. Con- 
queror, enters Babylon - - B.C. 312 

jEra of tlie Seleucidce (2t)AicA see) • 312 

Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death 
ofAntieonus • - - - 301 

City of Antioch founded ■ - 299 



Aniiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in 
love with his faihe.s' queen, Straton- 
ice, he pines away nearly to death ; 
but the secret being discovered, she 
is divorced by the father and married 
by tlie son.' - - - e.g. 297 



* This is related as one of ihe most stranse events connected with the early history of physia 
Erasistratus, the illustrious lather of anaioiny (jointly with Ilerophilu.s), had observed, than when- 



552 



THE world's progress. 



[SYR 



SYRIA, continued. 

Battle of Cyropsedion • -B.C. 

Seleucus i3 foully assassinated by Ce- 
raunus. — Lenglet. 

Antlochus defeats the Gauls, and takes 
the name of Soier, or Saviour 

Reign of Antiochus II. , surnamed by the 
Milesi^s Theos, or God ! 

Seleucus 11. makes a treaty of alliance 
with Smyrna and Magnesia' - 

Reign of Seleucus III., surnamed Ce- 
raunus, or Thunder - 

Battle of Raphia, in which Antiochus 
III. is signally defeated 

Antiochus' conquest of Judea - 

War with the Romans begins - 

Reign of Antiochus IV., who assumes 
the title of Theos-Epqyhanes, or the 
Illustrious God! 

He sends Appolonius into Judea ; Jeru- 
salem is taken; the temple pillaged; 
40,000 inhabitants destroyed ; and 
40.000 more sold as slaves 

Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son 
Seleucus with her own hand 

Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus, 
whom she attempts to poison ; but he 
compels his mother to swallow the 
deadly draught herself 

Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and 
of Grypus at Antioch 

Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, who en- 
ters Syria, and dethrones Aniiochus 
Asiatichus, about 



Conquest of Syria - - a.d. 970 

[This conquest is made by the Fatimite 

caliphs who rule in Egypt.] 
Revolt of the emirs of Damascus - 1067 
The emirs of Aleppo revolt - - 106S 

The Crusades from Europe commence 

(see article Crusades') - - 1095 

[The Christians ultimately conquer that 

part of Syria called the Holy Land. — 

See Jerusalem.'] 



Noureddin conquers Syria - a.d. 1166 
Saladin puts an end to the power of the 

Fatimite dynasty - - - 1171 

The Tartars overrun all Syria - - 1259 

Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who 

expel the Crusaders - - - 1291 

Syria overrun by Tamerlane - - 1400 

Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 1517 

After the conquest by Selim, Syria con- 
tinued in possession of the Turks till 
the invasion of Esypt by the French, 

July 1, 1793 

Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with 
great loss - - - Aug. 6, 1798 

He overruns the country, and takes Ga- 
za and Jaffa .... 1793 

Siege of Acre - March 6 to May 27, 1799 

Bonaparte returns to France from E- 
gypt .... Aug. 23, 1799 

Egypt is evacuated by the French army 

Sept. 10, 1801 

Mehemet Ali attacks and captures A"ve, 
and overruns the whole of Syria, I83i-32 

Ibrahain Pacha, his son, defeats the ar- 
my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832 

[Numerous battles and conflicts follow 
with various success.] 

Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish ar- 
my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839 

The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria 
and places itself at the disposal of 
Mehemet Ali - - -Julyl4, ia39 

The Five Powers propose to the Porte 
to negotiate with Mehemet Ali, July 

16, ia39 

Death of the celebrated lady Hester 
Stanhope - - - June 23, 1840 

Treatv of London (not signed by offend- 
ed France) - - - July 15, laiO 

Capttu-eofSidon - Sept. 27, 1840 

Fall of Beyrout (see Beyrout) Oct. IC 1840 

Fall of Acre (see Acre) - Nov. 3, 1840 



After much expostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Aus- 
tria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon hini to make the pachalic of Egypt 
hereditary -u the family of Mehemet Ali, who surrenders to the Turkish 
fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that effect signed at 
London, between the representatives of those powers, July 13, 1841. This 
result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and its continu- 
ance among the great powers of Europe. 



ever the queen appeared, the young prince her step-son blushed, a tremor overspread his frame, 
his pulse quickened, and his voice grew weak. She was of his own age, and of exceeding beauty. 
On discovering the true cause of his patient's disorder, Erasistratus adopted an expedient which 
was the foundation of his great fame. He informed the king that his heir must die, as he languished 
under a hopeless passion. '"Who," asked Seleucus, " is the object of his love 7" '■'■My wife" 
answered the physician. " Then resign her to him," said the king. "But if," said Erasistratus 
" it were the^2(eerehe loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idol of your affections to another?' 
" Yes," replied Seleucus, " I would readily relinquish both my queen and kingdom to save 
my son's life." " Then be at ease," Erasistratus rejoined, " for the object of his" love is Stra 
lonice !" — Biog. Diet, 

' This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the court of the Theatre of Oxfora. I 
was presented to Oxford by the carl of Arunde' in the reign of Charles II. 



thr] dictionary of dates. 553 

T. 

TAHITI. The French, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Otaheite. 

TALAVERA, Battle of, between the united British and Spanish armies under 
sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and the French 
army, amounting- to 47,000, commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastiani, 
July 27 and 28, 1809. 

TALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality 
of the Jews, — the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The 
one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second 
century; the second, being commentaries, &c., by succeeding rabbis, were 
collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged by Maimon- 
ides in the twelfth century. 

TAMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of 
Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo. He subdued the renowned warrior Bajazet, sul- 
tan of the Turks, whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter 
had destined for his adversary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed 
his head against the bars of this prison, and killed himself, 1403. — Chalcon- 
dila's Hist. Turk. 

TANNING. Was early practised by various nations. The use of tan was in- 
troduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising 
orange-trees, It was discontinued until about 1719, when ananas were first 
brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in garden- 
ing. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, et seq. 

TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence 
its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of 
tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. 
— CHiicciardini. Manufactured in France under Henry IV., by artists in- 
vited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by WiUiam 
Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir 
Francis Crane, 17 James I., 1619. — Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of 
tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early 
instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also 
in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For 
the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. 

TARENTUM, War of. The war which the people of Tarentum supported 
against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epii-us, and which is 
greatly celebrated in history. This war, which had been undertaken b, c. 
281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had ofiered to their 
ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years ; 300,000 pri- 
soners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. 

TARTARY. This name is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar 
race was known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians. 
It was during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began per- 
manently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and 
the first of these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of 
Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The 
first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghis 
Khan, a. d. 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all 
Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it 
was split into parts in a few reigns. Tiniur, or Tamerlane, again conquered 
Persia, again broke the power -of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and 
founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia, 
till the close of the eighteenth century. 

TAVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various names, 

24 



554 THE world's progress. [tea 

in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century. 

"In the raigne of king Edward the Third only th^-ee taverns yvere allowed 
in London : one in Chepe, one in Walbroke, and the other in Lombard- 
street." — Sir Henry Spelman. The Boar's Head, in Eastcheap, existed in 
the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his 
dissolute companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the residence of Mrs. 
Quickly, and the scene of sir John Falstaff' s merriment. — Shakspeare, 
Henry IV. Of little less antiquity is the White Hart, Bishopsgate, estab- 
lished in 1480 : this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by 
an act of Edward VI., 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 
in Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in 
Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in 
Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 
3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Taverns were licensed in 1752. 

TAXES. The first levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legis- 
lator, 540 B. c. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, 
about 55Z. English money. The next was by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, 
which was a land-tax by assessment, and deemed so odious that his subjects 
styled him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 b. c. — D'Eon's His- 
toire des Finances. Taxes in specie were first introduced into England by 
William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily; yet siibsidies in kind, as 
in wool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till 
the accession of Richard 11. , 1377. — Camde^i. First taxation of the British 
colonies in America, 1764 ; produced active resistance, 1765 ; stamp act 
repealed, 1766 : re-enacted 1767. See Income, Revenue, Cost of Govern- 
ment, &c. 

TE DEUM. A kind of hymn or song of thanksgiving used in the church, 
beginning with the words Te De^im laudanms — We praise thee, God. It 
is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose, 
about A. D. 390; and is sung in the Romish church with extraordinary pomp 
and solemnity on some happy event, such as a national thanksgiving for a 
great victory or for a bounteous harvest. 

TEA. First kno^vn in Europe, being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610. 
Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, from 
Holland ; and being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from 
thence, and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India 
Company took up the trade. — Anderson. Green tea began to be used in 1715. 
The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the de- 
struction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773, 
and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war. 

TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WITH DUTY IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 

lbs. 24,133,000 I 1825. - lbs. 27,803,668 

25,414,000 I 1830. - - 30,544,404 

- 26,368,000 1835. - - 44,360,550 

25,662,474 | 1840. - - 38,068,555 

In England, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000,OOOZ. annually. 
Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree leaves, are every 
year mixed with Chinese teas in England. — Report of the House of Coinmons, 
1818. The consumption of the whole civilized world, exclusively of Eng- 
land, is about 22,000,000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great 
Britain is 30,000.000. — Evidence in the Honse of Commons, 1830. The first 
tea-sale in London on the abolition of the exclusive privilege of the East 
India Company, Aug. 19, 1834. The value of teas imported into the United 
States for one year, ending July 1, 1847, was ^4.278.463 ; while that of coffee 
was $9,102,872. 



1726. 


lbs. 700,000 


1805. 


1766. - 


7,000,000 


1810. 


1792. 


- 13,185,000 


1815. 


1800. - 


23,723,000 


1820. 



TEM ] DICTIONAKY OF DATES. 55L 

TEA-TREE. Thea Bohea. Brouglit to England from China, about 1768. 
The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens ; but the 
first that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of Nor- 
thumberland at Sion. 

TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different in- 
struments used by the ancients for communicating information pyrsics, 
because the signals were always made by fire. The most ingenious of the 
moderns had not thought of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when 
the plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a 
telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. 
M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about 
this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrument was applied to useful 
purposes : M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French. 
Two erected over the admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was 
erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previously- 
concerted sentences to be transmitted from ^hip to ship, ty varying the 
combinations of two revolving crosses; and also to spell any particular 
words, letter by letter. See Electric Telegraph. 

TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571. 
Roger Bacon, about A. D. 1250, described telescopes and . microscopes ex- 
actly, and yet neither were made till one Metius, at Alkamaer, and Jansen, 
of Middleburgh, made them about the same time ; the latter from an ac- 
cidental discovery made by his children, 1590 — 1609. Galileo imitated 
their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of 
which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's 
moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular, and 
were improved by Zucclii, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton ; and finally by 
Martin, Hall, Dolland, and Herschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by 
More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observa- 
tory of Madrid, which cost 11.000^. in 1802; but the Herschel telescope, 
made 1789 — 1795, is superior : it has the great speculum 48 inches in dia- 
meter, BJ inches thick, weighs 2118 lbs., and magnifies 6400 times. See 
Herschel Telescope. 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. It is to the credit of the American people that 
the first great public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this 
country. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the 
most prominent of the first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt 
of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The 
exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temperance and total 
abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general 
habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies, under various 
names, have been formed, and a large number of vessels now sail from 
various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with 
spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent 
in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the 
Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has 
administered the "total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his 
countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1880. In Ger- 
many there were 300 temperance societies in 1846. 

TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in 
A. D. 1118 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The templars were numerous 
in several countries, and came to England in 1185. The order was sup- 
pressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon 
other orders, in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged, 
and it suft' red great persecutions throughout Eiirope, particularly in France 



656 THE world's progress. [tew 

in the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times suppressed 
in England, and finally in 1340. 

TEMPLE, London. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house 
of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was purchased 
by the professors of the common law, and converted into inns. They are 
called the Inner and Middle Temple. 

TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. — Busebius. 
The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus. 
The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. — ApoUonius. For tem- 
ple of Belus, see Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012 
B. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Rebuilt, 536 b. c. Pillaged by 
Antiochus, 170 b. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 b. c. Destroyed by Titus, a -... 
70. — The temple of Apollo, at Delphos, first a cottage with boughs, built 
of stone by Trophorius, about 1200 b. c. Burnt by the Pisistratidfe, 548 b.c. 
A new temple raised by the family of the Alcm;Bonid«, about 518 b. c. — 
Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; plamned by Ctesiphon, 544 
B. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 856 b. c. To rebuild it, 
employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, a. d. 260. — The Temple of 
Piety was built by Aciiius, on the spot where once a woman had fed w,)ch 
her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded 
from all aliments. — Val. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years b. c, 
is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the world. — ^The heathen 
temples were destroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantino the 
Great, a. d. 331. See Heathen Temples. 

TENNESSEE. One of the United States ; was originally included in the char- 
ter of North Carolina by Charles II. in 1664 ; first settlement on Wetangp 
river, 1757 ; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the 
Indians in 1760 ; the Indians chastised next j^ear, but continued frequent 
contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North 
Carolina to the United States in 1790 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 
1796. Population in 1790, 35,691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681.904; in 
1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves. 

TEST ACT. The statute of Charles II., directing all officers, civil and mili- 
tary, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of 
the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, 
&c., was enacted March 1673 ; repealed, 1828. 

TEUTONI, OR TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimbri 
made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They 
were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made 
prisoners, 101 b. c. See Cimbri. 

TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy 
Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in 
the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Christian 
army under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The 
order was confirmed by a bull of pope Cselestine lU., a.d. 1191. See 
Prussia, &c. 

TEWKSBURY, Battle of, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over 
the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and her son, 
were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, 
where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, 
as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, aftei-- 
wards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475, hj the French king, 
Lewis XL, for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses 
of York and Lancaster, Mav 4, 1471. See Roses. 



the] dictionary of dates. 557 

TEXAS. One of the United States ; first settled by the Spaniards at San Fran- 
cisco in 1690 ; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction 
with the adjacent State of Coahuila, on the formation of the Mexican re- 
public — an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first dis- 
agreement with the central government ; colonization of Texas by emigrants 
from the United States, commenced 1821 ; war with Mexico for indepen- 
dence commenced 1833, and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican 
president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the 
independence of Texas ; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th), 
after active opposition with reference to the exclusion of slavery, Feb. 20, 
1845. Population at that time about 200,000. [The first treaty for its an- 
nexation was I'cjected by the United States Senate, 35 to 16, June 8, 1844.] 

THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunei, to form a communication 
between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most 
extraordinary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was 
begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft the first irruption 
took place, May 18, 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen 
perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width 
is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, including footpath, 
about 14 feet ; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the 
bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot 
]3assengers, March 25, 1843. 

THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a 
nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate ; but most 
properly, an officer under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called 
thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Con- 
quest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland 
by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. 

THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 b. c, was the 
first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 b. c. Theatres 
were afterwards numerous, and were ei-ected in most cities of Italy. There 
was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were 
assembled on the night of August 24, a. d. 79, when an eruption of Vesu- 
vius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by 
Balthazar Sienna, a. d. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England 
was in 1574, to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of 
Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But long before 
that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of ad- 
mission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery, 2d. ; lords' room, Is. 
— Dickens. The first play-bill was dated Aj^ril 8, 1663, and issued frcca 
Drury-lane; it runs thus: " By his Majestie, his company of Comedians at 
the New Theatre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Humov- 
rovs Lievtenant." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus : "The 
play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened 
in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the United States 
was the acting of Otway's Orphan, in Boston, in 1750 ; but all such exhibi- 
tions were immediatelj^ afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company 
acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was in 
New York in 1793 ; the second in Boston ; and the third in Philadelphia 
soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Theatre was j)ublished in New 
York, 1832. See Drama, Plays, &c. 

THEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Heca- 
tompylos, on accoimt of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to 
Jupiter. In the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles, 
and upon any emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred 



558 THE wokld's progress. [thr 

gates, 20,000 flgliting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was ruined by Cam, 
byses. king of Persia, and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal. 
— Plutarch. Also Thebes, the capital of the country successively called 
Aonia, Messapia. Ogygia, Hyantis, and Bceotia. See Baotia. Thebes was 
called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, the founder of the city. It rose to a cele- 
brated republic, styled the Theban, about 820 b. c. It was dismantled by 
the Romans, 145 b. c. — Livy ; Thiocydides. 

THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death 
at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominal- 
ly punished theft with death, if above 12d. value ; but the criminal could 
redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemp- 
tion was taken away, 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very 
severe in England ; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel's 
acts, 9 and 10 George IV. 

IHEISTS. The sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660. and 
they taught a union with all men who believed in one God, but who reject- 
ed public worship and exterior forms of religion. They maintained that 
their religion was better because older and more simple than that which waa 
given by God to the Hebrews. 

THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Ando- 
ver, founded 1808. 

THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several 
scientific person all about the same time. Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, 
A. D. 1609. — Boerhaave. Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. — Fulgenho. Invent- 
ed by Sanctorio in 1610. — Borelli. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented 
about 1726 ; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. The mode of 
construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years 
subsequently. 

THERMOPYL^, Battle op. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the 
defile of Thermopylae, withstands the whole force of the Persians during three 
days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a se- 
cret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, who, 
thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their 
country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of 300 
heroes who engaged in this conflict with hundreds of thousands of the Per- 
sians, one man only returned home, and he was received with reproaches and 
insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, with 
their royal leader, had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the 
hands of the Spartans, Aug. 7, 480 b. c. — Vossius de Grcec. Hist. 

THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as being 
the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. The first king 
of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from 
whom his subjects were called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all 
Greece. From Thessaly the most powerful tribes of Greece derived their 
origin, as the Acha;ans, the ^tolians, the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The 
two most remarkable events in the early history of this country, are the 
deluge of Deucalion, 1508 b. c, and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263. 
See them severally. 

THRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of Mars. Conquered by Philip and 
Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 385 b. c. ; and it 
so remained till the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, .168 b. c. By- 
zantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which C'-iistantinople 
was built. The Turks took the country under Mahomet II., a.d. 1453. — 
Priestley. 



TIM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 559 

THRASHING-MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument formerly in use. 
The Romans used a machine called the triiulum, a sledge loaded with stones 
or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attempted 
in modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 
1732 ; Miekles, in 1776. 

THRASYMENUS, Battle of. A most bloody e"ngagement between the Car- 
thaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 b. c. No 
less than 15,000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken 
prisoners ; or, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of 
Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10,000 Romans made their es- 
cape, all covered with wounds. — Livy ; Polybius. 

THUMB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the 
first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England 
also. The Rev. Wm. Carstairs was the last who suflered by it before the 
privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly 
resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was given him as a 
present by the council. King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it 
on, bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but at the third turn he cried out, 
" Hold ! hold! doctor ; another turn would make me confess any thing." 

rHTJRSDAY. The fifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero 
worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly 
by the Scandinavianis and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over 
the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is 
said to have been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day, which 
was consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, and 
Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday, or Thors-day, 
has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. 

TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posi- 
donius of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, 
about 79 B. c. ; and Ciesar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic 
War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 
A. D. 1598 ; but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved 
for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove 
universal gravitation, about 1683. 

TILSIT, Peace of. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Rus- 
sia, when Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his terri- 
tories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the ele- 
vation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones 
of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July 
19 following. 

TILTS AND TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the 
eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them, 
and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry 
IV., about A. D. 1400. — Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the 
suppression of the gladiators in the fifth century. They were suppressed in 
France in 1560. — Voltaire's Gen. Hist. 

TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60,000 
loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five will stand 
on an acre ; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship 
consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the produce of fifty-seven acres 
in a century. Hence the whole navy consumes 102,600 acres, and 1026 per 
annum. — Allnut. England imports about 800,000 loads of timber annually, 
exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lathwood, &.C., together with about 8,000,- 
000 of deals and deal-ends. — Pari. Ret. 



560 THE world's phogress. [tob 

TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 b. c. Early au- 
thors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each 
twelve inches long ; but as they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he in- 
vented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-horns, glass being a 
great rarity, a. d. 887. The ancients had three time-measures : hour-glasses, 
sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks, 
Watches, &c. 

TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100 
years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them 
commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tin- 
mines appear to have been neglected ; but after the coming in of the Nor- 
mans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, paz'- 
ticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. ; a charter and various immuni- 
ties were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the 
stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall. 
Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall 
into a dukedom, with which he invested his son, Edward the Black Prince, 
1535. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the ciown of England, if eldest 
sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany, 
which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in 
Europe, a. d. 1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Barbary 1640 ; in India, 1740 ; 
in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons 
of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of 
400,000;. 

TITHES AND TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490 
B. 0. — Joseplm.s. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were 
given purel}^ as alms, and were voluntary. — Wickllffe. "I will not put the 
title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though such a right 
certainly commenced, and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish the- 
ocracy." — Blackstone. The first mention of them in any English written law, 
is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, a. d. 786. 
Ofla, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom', to 
expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had 
caused to be basely murdered, a. d. 794. — Burn's Eccles. Law. Tithes were 
first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold, 
A. D. 844. — Henry's Hist, of Eng. They were established in France by 
Charlemagne, about 800. — Henault. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran 
councils, 1215. — Rainaldi. 

TITLES, ROYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles 
swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of " Grace" and " My liege" 
conferred upon him, 1399. The title of "Excellent Grace" was conferred 
upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of " Most High and Mighty 
Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485 ; and Henry VIIL 
had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last 
were absorbed in the title of " Majesty," being that with which Francis I. 
of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520. — See Field 
of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled 
" Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to " Majesty" the present " Sacred/' 
or " Most Excellent Majesty." " Majesty" was the style of the emperors of 
Germany ; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France, 
about 1463. 

TOBACCO, Nicotiana Tabacum. This plant received its name from Tabacco, 
a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago, 
one of the Caribees ; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It was 
first observed at St. Domingo, a. d. 1496 ; and was used freely by the Span- 



TOP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 661 

iards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth, 
1565, by sir John Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake 
are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured 
only for exportation for some years. — Stowe's Chron. In 1584 a proclama- 
tion was issued against it. King James I. issued his famous Counter-Blast 
against Tobacco in 16 . The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 65. lO^^. 
per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles 11. 
An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation 
was allowed in Ireland 1779. The tax was increased, and put under the 
excise, 1789. — Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to 
tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ire- 
land passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be purchased 
in order to its being destroyed, 1832. The quantity consumed in England 
m 1791 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen 
millions of pounds. — Chan, of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached 
to forty millions of pounds. — Pari. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is 
grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia ; but to some extent in all t'ae 
southern states. The value of the croj) exported in 1848 was S7,551,122. 
Tobacco is produced also in France, in India, &c. ; that of the United 
States is considered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred for 
smoking. Several works have been published on the evil effects and bad 
taste of this weed. 

TOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, a. d. i 642. Taken by the English, 1672 ; re- 
taken, 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island ; but in 1768 it was 
ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasso 
in 1781, and confirmed to them in 1788. Again taken by the English, April 
14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was 
once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and 
was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814. 

TOLERATION ACT. To WiUiam III. is due the honor and wisdom of the 
first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The 
•dissenters have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interi'up- 
tion, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of 
queen Anne's reign. 

TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, a. d. 
1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 
1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for 
every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes 
were used in 1663. 

TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods, 
commenced in England about 21 Edward III., 1846. The first granted to 
the kings of England for life, 5 Edward IV., 1465. Cunmgham's Hist. 
T^axes. 

TONTINES. Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so 
called from the inventor Laurence Ton ti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on 
foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government, by 
amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, a. d. 1653. — Vol- 
taire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a 
lOOZ. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor of the share- 
holders, his share produced him 8000Z. per annum. He died worth 2,115,- 
244Z., aged 103 years, June 19, H'i8.— Haydn. 

TOPLITZ, Battle of. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austrians 
and Prussians, in which the latter were defeated, 1762. Battle of Toplitz, 
August 30, 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-quarters a 
considerable time in this latter year. Treaty of Toplitz, being a triple 

24* 



562 THE world's progress. [too 

alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. 9, 1813. Ti'eaty of 
Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year, 
TORTURE. It has disgraced humanity in the earliest ages in every country. 
It was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It was 
used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used in 
England so late as the 1st Elizabeth, 1558 ; and in Scotland until 1690. 
The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, by order 
of Louis XVI., in 1780, although it had not been practised there some time 
before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by GustaTtis III., 1786. It 
yet continues in other countries. 

TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to be 
derived from an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col • 
lector of tithes and taxes. — Encyclop. The names of Cavaliers and Round- 
heads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us, 
into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated 
the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives ; 
while " the Whigs " denoted a friend to civil and religious liberty. — Ashe. 
The name of Tory was given by the country party to the court party, com- 
paring them to Popish robbers ; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot (which 
see), in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two par- 
ties in the aristocracy : the Whigs, Avho would curb the power of the crown ; 
and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. — Phillips. In our 
revolutionary war the term was applied to the royalists ; but, oddly enough, 
at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party, 
while the other great party called themselves WJiigs. See Whigs. 

TOULON, France. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by 
land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of 
ruins, and several ships burned ; but they were at last obliged to raise 
the siege. It surrendered, August 23, 1793, to the British admiral, lord 
Hood, who took possession both of the to^vn and shipping in the name of 
Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitu- 
tion of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and French 
forces, when the latter were i-epulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated 
by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised 
towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British. 

TOULOUSE, France. Founded about 615 b. c. A dreadful tribunal was es- 
tablished here to extirpate heretics, a. d. 1229. The troubadours, or rheto- 
I'icians of Toulouse, had their origin about a. d. 850, and consisted of a frater- 
nity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to 
the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadours. 

'OULOUSE, Battle op. The final battle between the British Peninsular army 
under lord Wellington and the French — one of the most bloody that had 
been fought from the time lord Wellington had received the command of 
the troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soult, 
whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours fight- 
ing, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British 
forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the 
allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men ; that 
of the French exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte 
had abdicated the throne of France ; but neither of the commanders was 
aware of that feet, or the close of the war at Paris. Fought April 10, 1814. 

TOURNAMENTS or JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin, 
such as Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a mar- 
tial sport or exercise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show 



TOW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 563 

tlieir bravery and address. It is derived from the French word tourner, 
" to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agility, 
both of horse and man, was necessary. They wei-e much practised a. d. 
890; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about 
919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance 
in 1136. One was held in Smithfield so late as the 12th century, when the 
taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the 
count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused 
the king's death in a few days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were from 
this event abolished in France, and with them " the age of chivalry is 
fled." A magnificent and costly feast and splendid tournament took 
place at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week : many 
of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour 
being the " Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this fes- 
tivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament. 

TOUENAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria 
by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison 
in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under ge- 
neral Labourdonnaj-e, Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians 
and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious, 
May- 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French, 
when the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three field- 
pieces. May 6, 1794. 

TOURS, Battle of. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that 
which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours, 
and from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammer. We 
are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as 
well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahomedan; October 10, 
A. D. 732. 

TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of 
Shinar {Genesis xi.), 2247 b. c. See Babel. The Tower of the Winds at 
Athens, built 550 b. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 b. c. Tow- 
ers were built early in England ; and the round towers in Ireland may be 
reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the only struc- 
tures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English, 
except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. 
These towers were tall, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing 
towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above 
the ground, and covered with conical roofs of the same materials. Of these 
productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet 
high. 

TOWER OP LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more 
than what is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first 
marked out by William the Conqueror, a. d. 1076, commenced in 1078, and 
completed by his son William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls, 
and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it, 
and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was re- 
built ; and since the restoration of king Charles E. it has been thoroughly 
repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are 
the Armory, Jewel-office, and various other divisions and buildings of 
peculiar interest ; and here were many executions of illustrious persons, 
and many murders See England. 

TOWTON, Battle of. This great battle is supposed to be the most fierce and 
bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between 
the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter 



664 THE world's progress. [ TRA 

of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 of his subjects 
fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless 
slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner and confined in the Tower ; 
his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders : fought March 29, 1461. 

TRAFALGAR, Battle of, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by Eng- 
land, fought by the British, under command of the immortal Nelson, against 
the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve 
and two Spanish admirals. The enemy's force was eighteen French and 
fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ;. that of the British twenty-seven ships. 
After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villenexive and the other ad- 
mirals Avere taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. 
But the hero of England lost his life in this memorable battle ; and admiral 
Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and 
his last signal on going into the engagement, was " England expects every 
man to do his duty." Oct. 21, 1805. 

TRAGEDY. That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first 
tragic poet at Athens, 536 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. Prizes instituted, and the 
first gained bj^ .lEschylus, 486 b. c. — Ibid. Another prize carried by Sopho- 
cles, 470 B. c. — Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 b. c. — Ibid. Another by 
Astydamus, 377 b. c. — Ibid. See Drama ; Plays; Theatres. 

TRAJAN'S PILLAR. Erected a. d. 114, by the directions of the emperor 
Trajan, and executed by ApoUodorus. This column, which still exists at 
Rome, was built in the large square called the Forum Romanum ; it is 
140 feet high, of the Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the 
emperor. 

TRANSFUSION of the BLOOD. It began to be practised in the fifteenth 
century, and was successful in France, where Louis XL, when dj'ing, went 
farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of pro- 
longing life, A. D. 1483. — HenauU. After trials of the efficacy of transfusion 
upon animals, M. Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of five 
persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited 
the expei'iment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668. Lower, an English 
physician, who died in 1691, practised in this way. — Friend's Hist, of Phys. 
Transfusion again attempted in France, in 1797 ; and recently in Gi'eat Bri- 
tain, but seldom with success. See article Blood. 

TRANSPORTATION of FELONS in ENGLAND. The first criminals were 
ordered for transportation instead of execution, a. d. 1590 ; but banishment 
for lighter offences than those adjudged death was much earlier. England 
is reproached abroad for transporting persons whose offences are compara- 
tively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to trans- 
portation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771. — Phillips. More 
recently, the reverend Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, was 
transported for forging a frank, (10^. postage) Sept. 9, 1818. The first 
transportation of felons to Botany Bay was in May 1787 ; thej'- arrived at the 
settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished 
with death until 1834, when an act passed making the offence punishable 
by transportation for life. 

TR ANSUBSTANTIATION. This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about 
A. D. 840. It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000. It 
was opposed in England about 1019 ; but the English church admitted the 
doctrine before 1066. Belief in it as necessary to salvation was finally es- 
tablished by the coiincil of Placentia, 1095. The word " transubstantiation" 
was first used by Peter of Blois about 1165. John Huss, in subseq\ient 
times, was the first opposer of this doctrine ; he was burnt by order of the 
council of Constance, a. d. 1415. — Caves Hist. Lit. 



TRE ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



565 



TRAPPISTS, OR MONKS of LA TRAPPE. A French order ia the depart- 
ment of Orne, famed in the days of superstition for their austerity of dis- 
ciphne, and for keeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with 
rebellion and conspiracy in France, and 64 English and Irish Trappists were 
shipped by the French government at Painbceuf, Nov. 19, and were landed 
from the Hebe French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have established 
themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford ; but do not maintain 
there the extreme rigor of their order. 

TRAVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage 
English subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money 
there, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license 
for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., 1685. — Rapin. 

TREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to raise 
water for the irrigation of the fields. The tread-mill lately introduced into 
the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is 
the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton 
jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States. 

TREASON. See High Treason. It was punished in England only by banish- 
ment till after Henry I. — Baker^s Chronicle. Ascertained by law, Edward 
III., 1349. Trials regulated, and two witnesses required to convict, 1695. 
The laws relating to treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment 
was dreadful — hanging, quartering, beheading, &c., and even burning alive. 
Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolitioii of burning alive for treason, 
which passed both houses in 1788. Petty treason may happen three 
ways : a wife's murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master ; 
and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior — so 
declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350. 

TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any 
foreign nation was entered into a. d. 1217. The first commercial treaty Avas 
with the Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 
1308. — Anderson. The chief treaties of the principal civilized nations of 
Europe will be found described in their respective places : the following 
forms an index to them. See Conventions ; Coalitions; Leagues, &c. 



Abo, peace of - 


- 1743 


Aix-la-Chapelle 


- - 1668 


Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of 


- 1748 


Akermann, peace of 


- - 1826 


Alt Radstadt 


- 1706 


America, peace with 


- - 1783 


Amiens, peace of 


- 1802 


Armed Neutrality - 


- - 1800 


Arras, treaty of 


- 1435 


Arras, ditto - 


- - 1482 


Augsburgh, league of • 


- 1686 


Baden, peace of 


- - 1714 


Barrier treaty • 


- 1715 


Basle, peace of 


- - 1795 


Bassein, India - 


- 1802 


Bayonne, treaty of - 


- -1808 


Belgium, treaty of London 


- 1839 


Belgrade, peace of - 


- - 1739 


Berlin, peace of 


- 1742 


Berlin decree 


- - 1806 


Berlin convention 


- 1808 


Breda, peace of 


- - 1667 


Bretigny, peace of 


- 1360 


Bucharest, treaty of 


- - 1812 


Cambray, league of - 


- 1508 


Cambray, peace of 


- - 1529 


Campo-Formio, treaty of 


- 1797 


Carlowitz, peace of 


- -1699 



Carlsbad, congress of - 
Cateau-Cambresis, peace of 
Chaumont, treaty of 
Chunar, India 
Cintra, convention of - 
Closterseven, convention of 
Coalition, first, against France 
Coalition, second, ditto 
Coalition, third, ditto - 
Coalition, fourth, ditto 
Coalition, fifth, ditto 
Coalition, sixth, ditto 
Concordat 
Conflans, treaty of 
Constantinople, peace of 
Constantinople, treaty of • 
Copenhagen, peace of 
Cressy 
Dresden 

Family compact 
Fontainebleau, peace of 
Fontainebleau, treaty of 
Fontainebleau, concordat at 
Friedwald, treaty of 
Fuessen, peace of 
Ghent, pacification of 
Ghent, peace o<" America) 



1819 
1559 
1814 
1781 
1803 
1757 
1792 
1799 
1805 
1806 
1809 
1813 
1801 
1465 
1712 
1833 
1660 
1544 
1745 
1761 
1679 
1785 
1813 
1551 
1745 
1576 
1814 
1356 



566 



THE world's progress. 



[raa 



TREATIES, contimved. 




Grand Alliance 


-1689 


Greece, treaty of London - 


- - 1829 


Hague, treaty of the 


- 1659 


Hague, treaty of the 


- - 1669 


Halle, treaty of 


- 1610 


Hamburgh, peace of 


- ■ 1762 


Hanover treaty - 


■ 1725 


Holland, peace with 


- - 1784 


Holy Alliance - 


-1815 


Hubertsberg, peace of 


- - 1763 


Interim - 


- 1548 


Kiel, treaty of 


- - 1814 


Laybach, congress of - 


- 1721 


League 


. - 1576 


Leipsic, alliance of 


- 1631 


Leoben, peace of 


- - 1797 


Lisbon, peace of 


-1668 


I/Ondon, treaty of (Greece) 


- - 1829 


London, convention of (Turkey 


-1840 


Lubeck, peace of - 


- - 1629 


Limeville, peace of 


-1801 


Madrid, treaty of 


- - 1526 


Methuen treaty - 


-1703 


Milan decree 


. - 1807 


Munster, peace of 


-1648 


Nantes, edict of 


- - 1598 


Naumberg, treaty of 


- 1554 


Nice, treaty of 


- - 1518 


Nimeguen, peace of 


- 1678 


Noyon, treaty of 


- ■ 1516 


Nuremberg, treaty of - 


- 1532 


Olivia, peace of 


- - 1660 


Paris, peace of (see Paris) 


-1763 


Paris, treaty of 


- - 1796 


Paris, peace of (Sweden) 


-1810 


Paris, capitulation of 


- - 1814 


Paris, treaty of - 


- 1814 


Paris, peace of 


- - 1815 


Paris, treaty of - 


- 1817 


Partition, first treaty 


- - 1698 


Partition, second treaty - 


- 1700 


Passarowitz, peace of 


- - 1718 


Passau, treaty of 


-1552 


Petersburgh, peace of 


- - 1762 


Petersburgh, treaty of - 


-1772 


Petersburgh, treaty of 


- .- 1805 


Petersburgh, treaty of - 


- 1810 


Peterswalden, convention of 


- - 1813 


Pilnitz, convention --f - 


-1791 


Poland, partition of - 


- - 1795 


Pragmatic Sanction 


-1439 


Pragmatic Sanction 


- - 1713 


Prague, peace of 


■ 1653 


Presburg, peace of - 


- ■ 1805 


Public good, league for the 


- 1464 



TREATIES OF the UNITED STATES, 



Pyrenees, treaty of the 
Quadruple Alliance 
Radstadt, peace of - 
Radstadt, congress of - 
Ratisbon, peace of - 
Ratisbon, treaty of • - 

Religion, peace of - 
Rhine, Confederation of the 
Ryswick, peace of - 
St. Germam's, peace of 
St. Germain-en-Laye 
St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain 

France - - . . 

Seville, peace of 
Siorod, peace of - 
Smalcald, league of - 
Spain, pacification of (London) 
Stettin, peace of - 
Stockholm - 

Stockholm, peace of 
Stockholm, treaty of - 
Stockholm, treaty of 
Teineswar, truce of 
Teschen, peace of - 
Teusin, peace of 
Tilsit, peace of 
Tolentino, treaty of 
Toplitz, treaty of - 
Triple Alliance - 
Triple Alliance of the Hague 
Troppau, congress of - 
Troyes, treaty of 
Turkmauchay, peace of 
Ulm, peace of 
Utretht, union of 
Utrecht, peace of - 
Valencay, treaty of 
Verona, congress of 
Versailles, peace of 
Vienna, treaty of 
Vienna, treaty of alliance 
Vienna, definitive peace 
Vienna, peace of 
1762 I Vienna, treaty of, March 23 
Vienna, treaty of, May 31 
Vienna, treaty of, June 4 - 
Vossem, peace of 
Warsaw, treaty of - 
Warsaw, alliance of 
Westmin.ster, peace of 
Westminster (with Holland) 
Westphalia, peace of 
Wilna, treaty of - 
Worms, edict of 
Wurtzburg, treaty of - 

Some of the most important 



with 



■ 1659 

•1718 

• 1714 
•1797 
•1630 

■ 1806 
1.555 
1806 
1697 
1570 
1679 

1795 

1792 

1613 

1529 

-1834 

- 1570 

-1630 

■ 1719 

■ 1724 

■ 1813 

• 1664 
■1779 

• 1.595 

■ 1807 
•1793 
•1813 
•1717 

1668 

• 1820 

■ 1420 
•1838 

• 1620 
•1579 
•1713 
•1813 

1822 

• 1783 

• 1725 
.1731 
.1737 
.1809 

1815 
1815 

• 1815 

• 1673 
•1768 

■ 1683 
1674 
1716 
1648 
1561 
1521 
1610 



Alliance with France - Feb. 6, 1779 

Treaty of Paris (independence secured) 

Sept. 3, 1783 
Treat)' of commerce with Prussia - 1785 
Treaty with Morocco - - - 1787 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain 

(Jay's) 1794 

Treaty with the Six Nations and other 

Indian tribes - - - - 1794 

Treaty with Spain, by Pinckney ; and 

Algiers, by Humphries - - - 1795 

Treaty with Tunis; with Prussia (by 

J. a. Adams) - - - - 1799 

Treaty with France, by Ellsworth, Pa- 
trick; Henry, &c. Sept. 30, 1800 



Treaty with Great Britain, by Monroe 
and Pinckney — rejected by the Ame- 
rican government 
Treaty of Ghent, with Great Britain, 
signed by J. Q,. Adams, Gallatin, and 
H. Clay, for the l j.ited States, clos- 
ing the " war of 1812," tut leavmg 
the orierinal dispute much as before - 
Ratified by the United States, Feb. 17, 
Treaty with the Choctaws and Chero- 
kees . - . . . 

Treaty with the republic of Colombia - 
Treaty with the Creeks, Osages, &c. - 
Treaty with Great Britain, indemnify- 
ing American citizens for spoliations 



180C 



1814 
1815 

1816 
1325 
1925 



TRi] 



DICTIONARY OP DATES. 



567 



Gushing ; ratified by the senate 

Jan. 16, 1845 

Treaty of peace with Mexico, signed at 
Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848 ; 
ratified by the senate (with modifica- 
tions) ; ratified at Queretaro by Ame- 
rican commissioners Sevier and Clif- 
ford, and Mexican minister Rosas 

May 30, 1848 

Treaty with Great Britain, respecting 
Nicaragua, on the Isthmus between 
North and South America; signed 
at Washington by Sir H. L. Bulwer 
and J. M. Clayton - June, 1850 



Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years. 

Cedars on Lebanon, 800 years. 

Olives, in the Garden of Olives, Jerusalem, 
800 years. 

Banian, in Hindostan, 3,000 years. 

Cypresses, at Grenada, 800 years. 

[For proofs and details see the article re- 
ferred to.] 



TREATIES, contimied. 

during the war with Napoleon 

Nov. 13, 1826 

Treaty with Brazil - March 18, 1829 

Treaty with Turkey - May 7, 1830 

Treaty with Mexico (commercial) Ap.5, 1831 

Treaty with do. - - April 5, 1832 

Treaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832 

Treaty with Russia (commercial) 

Dec. 18, 1832 

Treaty with Great Britain, respecting 
the N. E. boundary, signed at Wash- 
ington by Lord Ashburton and Mr. 
Webster ; ratified by the senate (39 
to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1842 

Treaty with China, negotiated by C. 

TREES, Age of. Among others mentioned in an article in the American Al 
manac for 1838, p. 102, are, 

The Wallace oak at EUerslie, Scotland, 

700 years. 
(Some oaks are supposd to have lived 1,500 

years.) 
Oak on estate of James Wads worth, Gene- 

seo. New York, 500 years. 
Yew trees at Fountam's Abbey, England, 

1,200 years ; and in Scotland, said to be 

2,500 years. i 

TRENT, Council of. This celebrated council is reckoned in the Catholic 
church as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are impli- 
citly received as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that church. 
The first council assembled a. d. 1545, and continued (but with interrup- 
tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV., to 1563, when the last 
council was held. 

TRIALS. Alfred is said to have been the contriver of trial by jury ; but there 
is good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at 
Hawarden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a 
list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants of 
one of them, of the name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name 
and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. — Phillips. 

TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE. Tribuni Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first 
chosen from among the commons to represent the people, 492 b. c, at the 
time the people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired to Mons Sa- 
cer. The first two were C. Licinius, and L. Albinus ; but their number was 
soon after raised to five, and 87 years after to ten, which remained fixed. 
Their office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th of the 
ides of December, that day was ever after chosen for the election. 

TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken 
from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it 
from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the 
line, and a military force under command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to whom 
the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797 ; they captured two, and burnt three 
Spanish ships of war in the harbor. This possession was confirmed to Eng- 
land by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes 
occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Colonies. 

TRINITY AND TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by 
all Christian sects except those called Unitarians {which see). Theophilus, 
bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the second century, the first who used 
the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His 
Defence of Christianity was edited by Gesner, at Zm-ich, in 1546. — Waikins. 



568 THE world's progress. [ TRO 

An order of the Trinity was founded, a. d. 1198, by John de Matha and Felix 
de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was insti- 
tuted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. An act to exempt from penal- 
ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in 
1813. 

TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between 
the States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the 
Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known 
as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28, 1668. 

TRIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after 
they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with great 
magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two 
sorts — the great, that was called simply the triumph ; and the little, styled 
the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs, 
accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovation. 

TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed ec^ually to govern the Roman state 
with absolute power. These oflScers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde- 
pendence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their difierent 
pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate, 
B. c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the 
expiration of their ofiice kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvi- 
rate, B. c. 43, was under Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through 
whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed with his 
colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in 
Rome. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See 
RoTtie. 

TROUBADOURS or JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century, 
and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and by 
several powerful princes, that thej' spread in process of time throughout 
Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in 
their steps, greatly improving the taste and temper of the times. To the 
troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry. 

TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor, is at best but obscure, and 
more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came 
hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 b. c, and married the 
daughter of Teucer, prince of the country, Avhom he succeeded. Dardanus 
built a city, and named it, after himself, Dardania : Troas, the second in 
succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy ; and Ilus, his succes- 
sor, converted it into Ilium. 

Arrival of Soamander in Phrygia Mi- • War of Hercules and Laodemon B.C. 1224 

noY.— Blair ■ - B.C. 1546 ' Reign of Priam or Podarces - -1224 

Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, 

Dardanus succeeds Teucer, and builds ; son of Priam, 20 years before the 



the city of Dardania 

Reign of Ericthonius 

Reign of Troas, from whom the peo- 
ple are called Trojans 

The rape of Ganymede 

Ilus, son of Troas, reigns 

Reign of I.aomedon 

Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia; He 
sione delivered from the sea-monster. 
— Blair, Usher 



sacking of Troy. — Homer's Iliad, 
1449 i book xxiv., line 964, Pope's edit. - 1204 

I Commencement of the invasion of the 
1374 ! Greeks to recover Helen - - 1193 

1.341 I Troy taken and burned in the night of 
1314 ; the 11th of .lune, i. e. 23d of the 
1260 , month Thargelion. — Parian Mar- 
bles. 408 years before the first 
Olympiad. — ApoVodorus ■ - 1184 

1225 I ^neas arrives in Italy. — Lenglet - 1183 



Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about 
thirty stadia distant from the old site ; but though it bore the same name, 
and received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expe- 



TUN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 569 

dition, it never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo was 
nearly in ruins. — Priestley. 
TROY WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in 
Britain. — Arbuthnot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from 
Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, a. d. 1095. It 
was first adopted at Troj'es, a city of France, whence the name ; and is used 
to weigh gold, silver and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was es- 
tablished by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. 

TROYES, Treaty of, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it 
was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles 
VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should 
inherit the crown. May 24, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by 
the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23 ; and was 
finally reoccupied by the allies, March 4, 1814. 

TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trum- 
pet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egj='ptians. It was in use in the 
time of Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then 
shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the signals of primitive wars. — ■ 
Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the 
Great in 335 b. c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time 
of Offa, king of Mercia, a. d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by 
Kircher in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Pliilosophically explained by 
Moreland, 1671. 

TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from Tit- 
isco, or Tltv, a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day. 
Tuesday, in Latin Dies Martis, was called the third day among the Jews. 
See Week Days. 

rUILERIES, Paris. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by 
Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, a. d. 1564 ; con- 
tinued by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the 
scene of great events during the three memorable revolutions, ^particularly 
those of 1789 and 1848. 

TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, a. d. 1578, and have always 
been among our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of com- 
merce in the 16th century ; and it is recorded in the register of the city of 
Alcmaer, in Holland, that in the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold 
for 90,000 florins ; and in particular, that one of ' them, called the viceroy, 
sold for- 4203 guilders ! The States at last put a stop to this extravagant 
and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was 
carried to England from America, about 1663. 

TUNBRIDGE-WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by 
Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage 
of consumption, and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its 
waters, a. d. 1606. 

TUNIS AND TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The 
territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and 
were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 b. c. 
Besieged by Louis IX. of France, 1270. It remained under African kings 
till taken by Barbarossa, under Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was 
expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by the Turks, under 
Selim II. Taken, with great slaughter, by the emperor Charles V., when 
10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was 
first appointed in 1570. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bey 
refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656. 



57C 



THE world's progress. 



[Tua 



TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting of two 
parts, a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about the head. The 
sash of the Turk's turban is white linen ; that of the Persians, red woollen. 
These are the distinguishing marks of their different religions. Sophi, king 
of Persia, being of the sect of Ali, was the first who assumed the red color, 
to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar. 

TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated 
their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798, the French 
republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and 
arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the 
island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians 
and Russians ; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered 
to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, when they restor- 
ed it to the king of Sardinia. 

TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by 
reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they 
became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of 
many races of men. 



Birlh of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca 

(see Mecca) - ■ - ad. .571 

His imposture commenced (see Malio- 

metanisvi) .... 604 
The Koran written (see Koran) - 610 

Flight to Medina (sea Medina) - 622 

.Slra of the Hegira (see Hegira) - C22 

Death of Mahomet - - - 631 

Holy wars beghi (see Crusades) • 1095 
The Turkish empire fii-st formed under 

Othman at Bythinia - - . 1298 

The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and 

take Adrianople - - - 1360 

Amurath I. institutes the Janizaries, a 
guard composed of Christian slaves 
hred Mahometans - - - 1362 

Bajazet I. overruns the provinces of the 

Eastern empire - - 1389, et seq. 

He lays siege to Constantinople ; but is 
at length taken by Tamerlane (see 
Tamerlane) .... 1403 
The Turks invading Hungary, are re- 
pelled by Huniades . - - 1450 
Constantinople taken by the Turks un- 
der Mahomet II,, which ends the 
Eastern Roman empire - - 1453 
Greece made subject to the Mahome- 
tans (see Greece) - - - 1458 
The Turks penetrate into Italy, and 
take Otranto, which diffuses terror 
throughout Europe - - - 1480 
Selim I. raised to the throne by the Ja- 
nizaries ; he murders his father, bro- 
thers, and their sons - - - 1512 
He takes the islands of the Arcliipelago 

from the Christians - - - 1514 

He overruns Syria - - - 1515 

Adds Egypt to his empire - - 1516 

Solyman II. takes Belgrade - - 1521 

Rhodes taken froin the knights of St. 

John, who go to Malta - - 1522 

Solyman II., with 2.50,000 men, is repuls- 
ed before Vienna - - - 1529 
Cyprus taken from the Venetians - 1571 
Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an 
end to the fears of Eiu-ope from Turk- 
ish power (see Lepanlo) - - 1571 
Amurath II. ascends the throne ; stran- 
gles his five brothers • - - 1574 



[Dreadful persecutions of the Christians 

during this reign] 
The Turks driven out of Persia by the 

famous Schah Abbas - - a. d. 1585 

Bloody reign of Mahomet HI. - - 1595 

Great fire in Constantinople - - 1606 

Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles 

his father and four brothers - - 1624 

The Turks defeat the Persians, and take 

the city of Bagdad - - - 1639 

The island of Candia, or Crete, taken 

after a 25 years' siege - - 1669 

Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., but 

relieved by John of Poland - - 1683 

Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman - 1687 
Peace of Carlovitz - - - 1699 

Mustapha III. deposed ... 1703 
The Morea retaken by the Turks - 1715 
Belgrade taken from Austria; and Rus- 
sia relinquishes AzotT - - 1739 
Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; 
the English and Russian fleets defeat 
the Turkish - - - - 1770 
The Crimea falls to Russia - Jan. 1783 
[This ends the disastrous war with Rus- 
sia and Austria (begun in 1787), the 
Turks having lost more than 200,000 
men. — Ashe^] 
War against Russia - - Dec. 30, 1806 
Passage and repassage of the Darda- 
nelles efl^ected by the British fleet, but 
with great loss (see Dardanelles) 

Feb. 19, 1807 
The sultan Selim is deposed and mur- 
dered, and Mustapha IV. called to 
the throne - . May 29, IGCT 

Treaty of Bucharest iwhich see) May 

28, ■ 812 
A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, re- 
turning from Mecca, destroyed by a 
pestilential wind in the deserts of 
Arabia ; 20 only were saved Aug. 9, 1812 
Subjection of the Wachabees - .1819 

Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares 

himself independent - - - 1820 

Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia 

March 6, 1821 
The Greek Patriarch put to death at 
Constantinople - . April 23, 1821 



TUE. J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



571 



TURKEY, continue i. 

Horrible massa :re at Scio ; the most 
dreadful in modern history (see note 
to Greece) - ■ - April 23, 1822 

Sea-fight near Mitylene - Oct. 6, 1824 

New Mahometan army announced to be 
organized - - - May 29, 1826 

Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con- 
stantinople - - - June 14, 1826 

Firman of the s jLtan abolishing the Ja- 
nizaries .... 1826 

Fire at Consta- itinople ; 6000 houses re- 
duced to ashes - - August 30, 1826 

Battle of Navarino; the Turkish fleet 
destroyed by the fleets of England, 
France, and Russia (see Navarino) 

Oct. 20. 1827 

Banishment of 132 French, ] 20 English, 
and 85 Russian settlers, from the 
Turkish empire - January 5, 1828 

War with Russia - - AprirSo, 1828 

The emperor Nicholas takes the field 
against the Turks - May 20, 1828 

The Russian emperor arrives before 
Varna .... Aug. 5, 1828 

Battle of Akhalzic - - Aug. 24, 1828 

Fortress of Bajazet taken - Sept. 9, 1828 

The sultan leaves his capital for the 
camp, bearing with him the sacred 
standard - - - Sept. 26, 1828 

Dardanelles blockaded - Oct. 1, 1828 

Suii-ender of Varna - - Oct. 15, 1828 



Russians retreat from before Schumla, 

October 16, 1828 

Surrender of the castle of the Morea to 
the French - - - Oct. 30, 1828 

Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians 

Nov. 10, 1828 

Victory of the Russians at Kulertsaa 
near Schumla - - June 11, 1829 

Adrianople is entered by the Russian 
troops - - - Aug. 20, 1829 

Armistice between the Russian and 
Turkish armies - - Aug. 29, 1&49 

Treaty of peace - - Sept. 14, 1829 

Treaty with the U. States - May 7, 1830 

St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pa- 
cha son of Mehemet Ali - July 2, 1832 

He defeats the army of tl. e sultan in Sy- 
ria, with great loss - - July 30. 1832 

A series of successes brings the ar; ny of 
Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leagues 
of Constantinople, and the sultan has 
recourse to the aid of Russia - Jan. 1833 

A Russian force enters the Turkish ca- 
pital .... April 3, 1833 

Treaty with Russia, offensive ijid de- 
fensive - - • July S, 1&33 

Office of grand vizier abolished by the 
sultan - - - March 30, 1838 

Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 1848 

Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug. 2, 1849 



1296 Ossraan, or Ottoman I. 
1325 Orcham, his youngest son. 
1359 Amurath I., his son; assassinated. 
1388 Bajazet 1., his son ; died in prison. 
1397 Isa Belis ; killed by his brotiier. 
1403 Solyman ; killed by his brother. 
1410 Musa ; strangled by his brother. 
1413 Mahomet I. ; succeeded by his son. 
1421 Amurath II. ; succeeded by his son. 
1451 Mahomet II. ; left the empire to his 

two sons. 
1481 C(? -tacus, his grandson ; succeeded by 

his father. 
1481 Xemin; obliged to abdicate in favor of 

his brother. 
1481 Bajazet II. ; deposed by his son. 
1520 Solyman, the Magnificent. 
1566 Selim II. ; succeeded by his son. 
1512 Selim ; succeeded by his son. 
1574 Amurath III. ; succeeded by his son. 
1595 Mahomet III. . succeeded by his son. 
1604 Achmet ; succeeded by his brother. 
1617 Mustaphal.; succeeded by his nephew, 
1617 Osman I. ; strangled by the Janizaries, 



TtJEKISH EMPEROES. 

and his uncle restored. 

1622 Mustapha I. ; again deposed and suc- 
ceeded by his grandson. 

1623 Amurath IV., succeeded by his brother. 
1640 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries, 

succeeded by his son. 

1655 Mahomet IV., deposed; succeeded by 
his brother. 

1687 Solyman III. ; succeeded by his bro- 
ther. 

1691 Achmet II. ; succeeded by his nephew. 

1695 Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet 
IV., deposed and succeeded by his 
brother. 

1703 Achmet III. ; deposed. 

1730 Mahomet v.; succeeded by his brother. 

1754 Osman II. ; succeeded by his brother. 

1757 Mustapha III. ; succeeded by his bro- 
ther. 

1774 Abelhamet, or Achmet IV. 

1789 Selim III. 

1807 Mustapha IV. 

1808 Mah. Khan II. 
1839 Abdul-Medjid, June 27. 



TURKEYS AND GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England a. d. 1524, and 
to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequent- 
ly, unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by vari- 
ous particulars in the history of these birds ; evincing that they are natives 
neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since placed beyond 
controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met 
with in flocks of some thousands in parts of the new world, and except be- 
ing larger do not differ from om-s. — Smyth. 

TURNING. According to Pliny this art Avas known to the ancients, by whom 
articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed. The precious vases, 



S72 THE world's progress. [ TYR 

enriched with figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cahinets of 
the antiquary and curious, were produced by turning. The lathes made for 
turnery in England are, many of them, wonderful in their machinery ; and 
in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war 
are now produced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces of 
oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunei. 

TURNPIBIES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were other- 
wise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II., 1663. — 
Chalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous. 

TUSCANY. This country was created into a dukedom, a. d. 1530. It came 
into the Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French in March 
1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his 
dominions given to Louis, son of the king of Spain, with the title of king 
of Etruria, February 26, 1801. He died June 80, 1803 ; and soon after- 
wards this state was transformed into an appendage to the crown of Italy ; 
but was restored to Austria in 1814. The present grand- iuke Leopold 11. 
(cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824. 



Disturbances and i-evolutions of 1847-8 
began at Leghorn - - Sept. 2, 1847 

Grand-duke grants a national militia. 

The grand-duke granted a liberal con- 
stitution - - - - Feb. 1848 

Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848 

The grand-duke flees from Florence 



The chambers meet. 

Provisional government proclaimed, 

Feb. 9, iai9 

Leghorn attacked and carried by Tus- 
can troops - - - May 10, 1849 

Tlie grand-duke re-enters Florence and 
resumes his authority - July 27, 1849 



TWELFTH-DAY. The church-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation 
of Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king 
and queen on this daj^ was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on 
the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece 
of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as 
king. 

TYLER, WAT, his Insurrection. It arose in the opposition of the people to 
the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness of 
one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of suffi- 
cient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the ofience), 
the provoked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 
men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfleld, where 
the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and 
again lifting up his sword." His insolence raised the indignation of the 
mayor, Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of 
the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leader 
awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charted, and they dis- 
persed, 1381. 

TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built 
1257 B. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 b. c, and they retired from 
before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 b. c. Taken by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, 572 B. c, and the city demolished, when the Tyreans removed 
to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken 
by Alexander with much difficulty, and only after he had joined the island 
to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 b. c. 
— Strabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human crimes 
were the tiege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by 
Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the 
flames. — Phillips. 

17RE, Era of. Began on the 19th of October, 125 b. c, with the month Hy- 
perberetteus. The month was the same as those used in the Grecian era, 
and the year is similar to the Julian j^ear. To reduce this era to ours, sub- 



dot] dictionary of dates. 575 

tract 124 ; and ii tlie given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and 
the remainder will be the year before Christ. 

U. 

UBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread through Ger- 
many and other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to 
be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about a. d. 1540. 

UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia and 
Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west 
side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the whole country (the bor- 
ders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned to Russia by the 
treaty of Partition in 1795. 

ULM, Peace op, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from 
it previously), July 3, 1620. Ulm was taken by the French in 1776. Great 
battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, imdcr gen- 
eral Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose vic- 
tory was consummated by the surrender of Ulm, and 36,000 men, the flower 
of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the 
confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date. 

UMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to 
carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrel- 
las are very ancient : it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrel- 
las were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who 
visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw a great prince 
of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by some hundreds of 
soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused 
a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pan- 
tries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said 
that the first person who used an umbrella in the streets of London was 
the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.* 

UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their 
feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole 
body, and at other times their head or feet only : their kings and high 
priests were anointed at their inauguration ; they also anointed the vessels 
of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were 
anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1, a. d. 527. As a religious rite, extreme 
unction was in common use, a. d. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received 
unction from the pope, 590. — Bayle. It is administered in dying cases as 
extreme unction. See Anointing. 

UNIFORMS. Militar} imiforms were first used in France, " in a regular man- 

* For a long while it was not usual for men to carry them without incurring the hrand of effe- 
minacy. At first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary 
occasions — lent as a coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers. 
The Female Tattler advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in 
fear of rain, borrowed the umbrella from Wilks's Coffee-house, shall the next time be welcome to 
the maid's pattens." As late as 1778, one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, 
informs us, that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain ; but he could not 
with any comfort to himself use it, the people calling out ' Frenchman ! why don't you get a 
coach V " The fact was, the hackney-coachmen and chairmen, joining with the true esprit de corps, 
were clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther 
information. "At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and 
gentlemen's houses, where there was a large one hung in the hall to hold over a lady if it rained, 
between the door and her carriage." This man's sister was compelled to quit his arm one day 
from the abuse he drew down on himself and his umbrella. But he adds, that "he persisted 
for three month.s, till they took notice of this novelty. Foreigners began to use theirs, and then 
tlie English. Now it is become a great trade-in London." — Neic Monthly Magazine. 



574 THE world's progress, [ JNl 

ner," by Louis XIV., 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards 
adopted. For an account of naval uniforms, see Naval Unifor-ms. 

UNIFORMITY, Act of. An Act of Uniformity passed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But 
the statute known as the Act of Uniformity was passed 13 and 14 Charles 
IT., 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all 
clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form of 
worship, and same book ol common i^rayer. This act caused upwards of 
2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their 
lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their 
numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest. 

I'NION OF THE CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united 
by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 
24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604, 
but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In 
the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better suc- 
cess. Commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwith- 
standing great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union 
was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons, and af- 
terwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parlia- 
ment, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law. May 1, same year. 

UNION WITH IRELAND. The Union of Great Britain and Ireland, propos- 
ed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British 
parliament, July 2, 1800. 

UNITARIANS. This sect began a. d. 1550. The Unitarians believe in and 
woi'ship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who, besides the 
Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learned 
man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scrip- 
tures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he printed a 
tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1533, 
proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to 
arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy : and refusing to retract 
his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried 
into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those ana- 
tomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation 
of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States, 
especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and in- 
fluential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist and 
eloquent writer, Dr. W. E. Channing, was a Unitarian. 

UNITED KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. The British 
realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new 
imperial standard was hoisted on the Tower of London and Castle of Dub- 
lin. See Union. 

UNITED PROVINCES, the SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Span- 
ish yoke, a. d. 1579. The revolted states, with William, prince of Orange, 
at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict ex- 
cluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the Ne- 
therlands. Tlie deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, 
Friesland, Groningen, Overyssell, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, Jan. 28, 
1579 ; signed a treaty for their mutual defence ; appointed the prince of 
Orange as tlieir stadtholder ; and formed the alliance ever since known as 
the " Union of Utrecht," the basis of the commonwealth so renowned by 
the appellation of tlie '■ Seven United Provinces." Their independence was 
acknowledged in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte was 
crowned king bythe authority of Napoleon, June 5. 18^",;. Louis abdicated. 



UNl] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



575 



July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed 
Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of Sase- 
Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Bdgmm. 

UNITED STATES of AMERICA. See America; and the separate States, 
3Iaine, &c. The first colonial Congress, for the redress of grievances, con. 
sisting of delegates from the several colonies, met at New York, June 7, 
1765. The Continental Congress at Philadelphia adojjts Declaration of 
Rights, 1774 ; revolutionary war commenced at Lexington, April 19, 1775. 
See War. Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July 4, 
1776. The title of " United States " adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 1776, 
Independence acknowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, 
Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great 
Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treaty of peace signed at 
Ghent, Dec. 3, 1814. War with Mexico commenced April, 1846. Treaty 
of peace signed May 30, 1848. See Wars of the United States, &c. ; also 
Naval Battles ; also Administrations, Exports, National Debt, Treaties, Po- 
pulation, &c. [The various occurrences in the history of the United States 
are given more at large under that head in the Tabular Views in this 
vol., page 122, et. seq.'\ 
UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects 
of Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and 
celebrated Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted 
the opinion of this universal salvation. — Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691, 
he entertained a design for forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon 
which he preached before the queen (Mary) against the absolute eternity 
of hell torments, involved this doctrine. 
UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the convents of regular clergy, and from 
the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome. The most ancient uni- 
versities in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and 
Bologna. The British universities were vested with the lands of ex-Catho- 
lics, and permitted to send members to Parliament by James I. The fol- 
lowing are the principal universities in Europe : 

Aberdeen founded 

Abo, Finland 

Aix, 1409 ; re-established 

Alba Julia, Transylvania - 

Altorf, Franconia 

Andrew's, St., Scotland 

Angers, chiefly law 

Anjou, 1349 ; enlarged 

Avignon. France 

Bamberg .... 

Baale, Switzerland 

Berlin - ' - 

Besancon, Burgundy 

Bologna, Italy 

Bruges, French Flanders 

Caen, Normandy 

Cambridge, began, 626 — according t 
others, 900. See Cambridge. 

Cambridge, New England, projected 

Cologne, in Germany, re-founded 

Compostella, Spain 

Coirabra, Portugal 

Copenhagen. 1497 ; enlarged 

Cordova, Spain - 

Cracow, Poland, 700 ; enlarged 

Dijon, France 

Dillingin, Sv^abia - 

Dole, Burgundy - 

Douay, French Flanders - 

Dresden, Si.xony 



- 1494 


Dublin - . . . 


-1591 


- 1640 


Edinburgh, founded by .lames VI. 


-1582 


-1603 


Erfurt, Thuringia ; enlarged 


-1390 


-1629 


Florence, Italy ; enlarged 


-1438 


-1581 


Frankfort-on-the-Oder 


-1506 


-1411 


Fribourg, Germany 


-1460 


-1398 


Geneva 


-1365 


-1364 


Glasgow - - - - 


-1450 


-1388 


Gottingen - 


-1734 


-1585 


Granada, Spain - 


-1537 


-1458 


Gripswald - 


-1547 


- 1812 


Groningen, Friesland - 


-1614 


-1540 


Halle, Saxony 


-1694 


- 423 


Heidelberg - - .- 


■ 1346 


- 1665 


Ingoldstadt, Bavaria 


-1573 


-1417 


Jena, or Sala, Thuringia 


-1548 





Kiel, Holsteiu 


-1665 




King's College, London 


-1829 


- 16.30 


Konigsberg, Prussia 


-1544 


-1389 


Leips'ic, Saxony - - • 


-1409 


-1517 


Leyden, Holland 


■ - 1575 


-1391 


Lima, in Peru - 


-1614 


-1539 


Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to Coimbr 


1 - 1391 


- 968 


London University 


-1826 


- 1402 


Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; enlargec 


- 1427 


- 1722 


Lyons, France - 


- 830 


-1565 


Mechlin, Flanders - 


- - 1440 


- 1426 


Mentz .... 


-1482 


• \mz 


Montpelier - 


-1195 


- 1694 


Moscow - - - • 


■1754 



576 



THE world's progress. 



[UXR 



Saltzburg 1623 

Saragossa, Arragon 1474 

Seville 1631 

Sienna 1387 

Siguenza, Spain 1517 

Sorbonne, Paris 1253 

Strasburg 1538 

Toledo, Spain 1518 

Treves, Germany .... 1473 

Tubingen, Wirtemberg - - • - 1477 

Turin 1405 

llpsal, Sweden 1477 

Uirecht, Holland 1636 

Valence, Dauphine 1475 

Valencia in the thirteenth century. 

Valladolid 1346 

Venice - 1592 

Vienna 1236 

Wirtemberg - - .... 1502 

Wittenberg ... . . ^02 

Wurtzburg . . - - 1403 



UNIVERSITIES, continued. 

Munster 1491 

Naples 1216 

Orleans, France 1312 

Oxford (see Oxford) - - - - 886 

Paderborn 1592 

Padua, Italy 1179 

Palenza, 1209 ; removed to Salamanca 1249 
Paris, 792; renovated - - - -1100 

Parma 1599 

Pavia, 791 ; enlarged .... 1361 

Perpignan 1349 

Perugia, Italy 1307 

Petersburgh 1747 

Pisa, 1339; enlarged ■ • • -1552 

Poictiers - - " 1430 

Prague 1348 

Rheims, 1145; enlarged - - - -1560 
Rome Sapienza - . - - - - 1303 
Rostock, Mecklenburgh - - - - 1419 

Salamanca 1240 

Salerno 1233 

UNIVERSITIES in UNITED STATES. See Colleges. 

UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev. Mr. IrvinjL,s chapel, in 
London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy, 
by holding forth in what was denominated the " Unknown Tongue." She 
was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and 
commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the 
same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the 
whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, and the females 
screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to 
the ravings of the inspired teacher, October 16, 1831. From this period, 
much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhap- 
sody, was played ofi'; and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, but 
as early as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edi- 
fied by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics. — 
Ann. Register. 

URANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by 
whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George III. 
The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious 
discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain ; but by foreigners it is 
asually called Uranus. It is about twice as distant from the sun as the 
planet Saturn; and was discovered on the 13th March, 1781. 

USURY. Forbidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given 
for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 43Z. 6s. 8d. per 
annum for 100^., which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jews. 
Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest 
of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished 
and persecuted (see Jews). Bj^the 37th of Henry VIII.. the rate of interest 
was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute confirmed by the 13th Eliza- 
beth, 1570. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623, when the word in- 
terest was first used for the Avord usury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne, 
1714. See Interest. 

f JTRECHT, Treaty of, &c. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began 
here (see United Provinces), a.d. 1579. The celebrated Treaty of Utrecht, 
which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of 
Great Britain and France, as well as of all the other allies, except the minis- 
ters of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were 
the security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting the 



VAL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 577 

French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement 
of the British colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction 
for the claims of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to the 
Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795. 



VACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vacdiia, discovered by Dr. Jenner. He 
made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring the fus from 
the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, to 
a healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. Jenner subsequently published the result 
to the world, and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was intro-. 
duced Jan. 21, in that year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of 
vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received 10,000Z. for the dis- 
covery from parliament in 1802 ; and the first national institution for the 
promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded 
Jan. 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously 
to 1816. 

VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return 
to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Henry 
VIII., 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of 
the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VIII., 1535 ; and a third time convicted, 
death. By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a 
slave for two years. Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring 
the ears, and death for a second offence, 14 Elizabeth, 1571. The milder 
statutes were those of 17 George 11. ; 32, 35, and 59 George III. The laws 
against vagrancy are still very severe in England, and operate unequally as 
respects the character of the offender. 

VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and 
was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 
1705, but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the 
French, under Suchet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and im- 
mense stores, Jan. 9, 1812. 

VALENCIENNES, Siege op. This city was besieged from May 23 to July 14, 
when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke of York, 
1793. It was retaken, together with Conde, by the French, on capitulation, 
the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoaers, with immense stores, viz. 
— 300 pieces of cannon, one million pounds of gunpowder, eight millions 
of florins in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast 
quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30, 1794. 

VALENCAY, Treaty of, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VII. 
of Spain, whereby the latter was put in full possession of that kingdom, on 
agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed De- 
cember 8, 1813. 

VALENTINE'S DAY. The practice of "choosing a Valentine," as it is 
called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation. The origin of 
the custom has been miich controverted ; it is indisputably of very ancient 
date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered martyr- 
dom under Claudius II. at Rome, a. d. 271. It is said that on this day 
the birds choose their mates ; whence, probably, came the custom of 
young people choosing Valentines or particular friends on the feast of 
Valentine. 

VALENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opinions 
of one Valentine, a priest, who, upon being disappointed of a bishopric 

25 



578 THE world's progress. [vew 

forsook the Christian faith, and published that there were thirty gods and 
goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which he called ^ones, or Ages. He 
taught in the second century, and piibhshed a gospel and psalms : to 
these his followers added several other errors, declaring there was no ob- 
ligation to suSer martyrdom ; some declared against baptism, and others 
practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licen- 
tiousness. 

VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman 
under captain Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence 
of any navigable communication between the Nortli Pacific and North 
Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to command 
it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 21, 1795. He compiled an 
account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and 
died in 1798. 

VANDALS. The Vandal nations began their ravages in Germ Any and Gaul, 
A. D. 406-414. Their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded 
and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took 
Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were driven out, and attacked in turn by the 
Saracen Moors. The Vandalii oven-an a vast portion of Europe and spread 
devastation wherever they appeared. 

VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. This country Avas discovered by Tasman in 1633. 
It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was 
deemed the south extremity of New Holland until 1799. A British settle- 
ment was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Der- 
went, and named Hobart Town, which is the seat of government, 1804. 

VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Villanage. Vassalage was introduced 
by the Saxons, and its slavery increased under William I. Under the Nor- 
man princes there were vassal boors and free boors ; those who were sold 
with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day 
the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where 
the vassal boors are divided into classes ; as boors belonging to the sover- 
eign ; mining boors, who are sold with the property ; and private boors, who 
belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In ELgland, 
a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c., held of him in fee. 
Vassalage was abolished in Hungary in October 1785 ; in Holstein, in May 
1797 ; and Courland, in Sept. 1818. 

VATICAN. Tlie magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St. Peter's, 
said to contain 7000 rooms. In this .palace, the library, founded a. d. 1448, 
is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is compara- 
tively moderate. See libraries. The phrase " thunders of the Yatican," 
was first used by Voltaire, 1748. 

VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some 
huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them 
above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and this induced them to 
give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in a 
congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It sep- 
arated from the federal union and declared itself sole and independent in 
1830. See Colombia. 

VENI, VIDI, VICJ. — "I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sen- 
tence formed the whole of Caesar's dispatch to the Roman senate when he 
vanquished Pharnaces, king of Cimmerian Bosphorus, 47 b. c. See Zela, 
Battle of. 

VENICE. So called from the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made 
a kingdom by the Gauls. \\\\o conquered it about 356 b. c. Marcellus con- 



VEa 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



57& 



qnered it for the Roman republic, and slew tlie Gaulish king, 221 b. c. The 
islands on which the city is built began to be inhabited, a. d. 421, by Ital- 
ians, who fled here as a jjlace of safety from the Goths, and other barbar- 
ous nations, when they ravaged Italy. The first house was erected on the 
morass by Entinopus, by whom the people of Padua were assisted in build- 
ing the eighty houses which first formed the city. — Priestley. Venice was 
first governed by a doge (Anafesto Paululio), a. d. 697. The republic was 
not completely founded until 803. The city reduced to ashes, 1101. The 
ceremony of the doges of Venice marrying the Adriatic was instituted by 
pope Alexander III. in 1173. Venice carried on a vast commerce until the 
discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gave 
it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the ter- 
ritory to the north and west of the Adige were ceded to Austria, and the 
rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic, 
1797. This disposition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the 
whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice returned 
under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan. 24, 
1830. 

Venice, after a gallant resistance, capi- 
tulates to Marshal Radetzky, and is 
again in the power of Austria, 

Aug. 22, 1&13 



Venice declares herself an independent 
republic - - Aug. 18, I84S 

Provisional government decrees an as- 
sembly with full powers to be elected 
by universal suffrage, 1 to every 1,500 
inhabitants - - Dec. 29, 1848 



VENTRILOQUISM. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ven- 
triloqui, and by the Greeks, Engasti-imythoi, i. e. people that speak out of 
their bellies, or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordi- 
nary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various 
ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in the 
last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have been the first man whose 
experimental philosophy, shown in this line, excited great wonder, about 
1716. One of the most accomplished professors of ventriloquism that ever 
appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822. 

VRNUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in 
1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or 
rather calculated this passage, from which he deduced many useful obser- 
vations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan. 
1761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita, 
to observe a transit of Venus, in 1769. See note to article Cook's Voyages. 
The diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This 
planet will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874. 

VERMONT, one of the United States, first settled by colonists from Massachu- 
setts. 1723. The territory was claimed by New Hampshire, from 1741 to 
1764 : claimed also by New- York, and granted to that colony by parliament 
in 1664. Owing to these conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into 
the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in 
that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777. 
Claims of New- York withdrawn on payment of S30,000, in 1790. The state 
admitted into the Union. 1791. Population in 1790, was 85.589; in 1810, 
217,895 ; in 1830, 280,679 ; in 1840, 291,948. 

V'ERSAILLES, Palace of. In the reign of Louis XIII., Versailles was only a 
small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; and here this prince built a 
hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV., in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent 
palace, which was finished in 1708. and was the usual residence of the kings 
of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it 
to Paris. Louis Philipj)e appropriated the whole of the immense building 



580 THE world's progress. [ve* 

to a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated a tous lei 
gloires de France ; and freely opened to the public. 

VERSAILLES, Peace op. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Bri- 
tain and the United States, signed at Paris ; when the latter power was ad- 
mitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day, the definitive 
treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain, 
Sept. 3, 1783. In pursuance of the treaty of Versailles, Pondicherry and 
Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal, were restored to France. 
Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch. 

VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use for 
grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrey 
translated part of Virgil's JEneid into blank verse, which is the first compo.«' 
tion of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language ; and the 
other measure was but little affected till the reign of Charles II. The verse 
previously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of eight lines, the 
ottava rima, as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his 
Faery Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso, the Italian 
language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into 
Italy in his heroic poem L,a Tcselde, having copied it from the old French 
chansons. — JMetropoUtan. Trissino is said to have been the first introducer of 
blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. — Vossius. See Poetry. 

VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bre- 
men, on March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude. — 
Annual Register. 

VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual 
fire, consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mother 
of Romulus was one of the vestals. -lEneas is supposed to have first chosen 
the Vestals. Numa, in 710 e. c, first appointed four, to which number Tar- 
quin added two. They were always chosen by the monarchs ; but after the 
expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was intrusted with the care 
of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, from 
the age of six to ten; and if there was not a sufficient number that 
presented themselves as candidates for the office, twenty virgins were 
selected; and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses. 
The vestal Minutia was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 b. c. 
The vestal Sextilia was buried alive for incontinence, 274 b. c. ; and the ves- 
tal Cornelia Maximiliana on the same charge, a. d. 92. — Bibliotheqiie Uni- 
verselle. 
TESUViUS, MOFNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it 
emitted such a qnantitj'' of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, and 
the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were ovei'whelmed by the burning 
lava, A. D. 79. More than 250,000 persons perished by the destruction of 
those cities ; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days throughout 
Naples ; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were carried not 
only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa ; birds were 
suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perished 
in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it : this 
eruption proved fatal to Plinj'- the naturalist. Herculaneum was discovered 
in 1737, and many curious articles have been dug from the ruins since that 
time ; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned by 
fire. Numei'ous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation and 
loss of lives. In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and 
a great part of the surrounding country, were destroyed. One of the most 
dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly, Nov. 24, 1759. The 
violent burst in 1767 was the thirtv-fourth from the the time of Titus, when 



VIE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. • 581 

Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive : tlie lava flowed 
over 5000 acres of rich vinej'ards and cultivated lands, and the town oi 
Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain fell in, 
and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been 
several eruptions since. 

VETOES OP THE PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. The power of can- 
celling acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows : — by 
Washington, twice; Madison, four times; Monroe, once; Jackson, five 
times ; Tyler, three times ; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam-vessels in the 
navy vetoed by president Tyler, and afterwards passed by vote of two thirds 
of both houses, and became a law : the first instance of the kind, February 
20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk, August 3, 1846. 
French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, 1846. 

VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and from 1806 the ca- 
pital of the Austrian dominions onlj^ Vienna was made an imperial city 
in 1136, and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I. 
of England. 40,000Z., in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the 
Magnificent, with an army of 300,000 men : but he was forced to raise the 
siege with the loss of 70.000 of his best troops, 1529. Again besieged in 
1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who 
totallj' defeated the Turkish army of 100,000, which had cannonaded the 
city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by 
the French, under prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805 ; and evacuated January 12, 
following. They again captured it. May 13, 1809 ; but restored it once 
more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries, Oct. 14, same 
year. Conference of the ministers of the allies and France, September 28, 
1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Austria and Hungary. 
See next articles. 

VIENNA, Treaty op, with Spain. The celebrated treaty signed between the 
emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, by which they confirmed to 
each other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they were respectively 
possessed of, and by a private treat}' the emperor engaged to employ a force 
to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing 
the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Prag- 
matic Sanction, April 30, 1725. 

VIENNA, Treaty of Alliance, between the emperor of Germany, the king 
of Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was gua- 
ranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain 
acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July) ; signed March 16, 1731. 

VIENNA, Treaty of with France. A definitive treaty of peace between the 
emperor of Germany and king of France, by which the latter power agreed 
to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France ; 
signed Nov. 18, 1738. 

ViENNA, Peace op, between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Germany) 
I. of Austria. Bj this treaty Austria ceded to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, 
and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united 
to France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and engaging to adhere 
to the prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia, 
October 14, 1809. 

VIENNA, Treaties op. The treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had acted by 
the treaty of Chaumont, March 1, 1814; signed March 23, 1815. The 
treaty of Vienna between the king of the Low Countries on the one part, 
and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing to 



582 • THE world's progress. f VIN 

the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the 
house of Orange, May 31, 1815. The treaty of Vienna : Denmark cedes 
Swedish Pomerania and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg, 
June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germany signed at Vienna, 
June 8, 1815. 
VILLAIN. The name of a vassal under the Norman princes, his hard labor 
being the tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaining to 
the vill or lordship ; was a servant during life, and was devisable as chat- 
tels in the feudal times. Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to this 
kind of severe service, by ordering her bondsmen of the western counties 
to be made free at easy rates, a. d. 1574. — Sto2ve's Chroii. 

VIMEIRA, Battle op,, between the British, under sir Arthtr WeUesley, and 
the whole of the French and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshal 
Junot, duke of Abrantes, whom the British signally defeated, August 21, 
1808. For this victory the British hero and the officers and soldiers under 
his command were voted the thanks of parliament, the first of many si- 
milar honors that marked sir Arthur's (now duke of Wellington's) triumph- 
ant career. 

VINCENT'S, St. This was long a neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763, 
the French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. 
The latter, soon after, engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward 
side of the island, who were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they 
ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. The consequence of this 
was, that in 1779 they greatly contributed to the reduction of this island 
by the French, who, however, restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French 
landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which 
was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scouffrier 
mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. 

VINE. The vine was kno'wn to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocea, 
in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage, 
vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 b. c. Some think the vines are 
aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew sponta- 
neously on the Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The 
vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Germany, a. d. 279. The 
vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in 
England in 1552 ; and in the gardens of Hampton-court palace is an old and 
celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Europe. See Grapes, 
and Wi7ie.* 

VINEGAR. Known nearly as soon as wine. The ancients had several kinds 
of vinegar, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accus- 
tomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich ci- 
tizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers, into which they 
might dip their bread, and kindly invitmg Ruth to share with them in their 
repast : hence we may infer that the harvesters, at that period, partook of 
this liquid for their refreshment ; a custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy. 
It is conjectured that the vinegar which the Roman soldiers offered to our 
Saviour at his crucifixion was that which they used for their own drinking. 



* The following is a tradition in relation to the vine : — When Adam planted the first vine, an.l 
left it, Satan approached it, and said, "Lovely plant! I will cherish thee ;" and thereupon taking 
three animals, a lamb, a lion, and a hog, he slayed them at the root of the tree, and their blood has 
been imbibed by the fruit to this day. Thus, if you take one goblet of wine, yoti are cheered by its 
influence, yet are mild and docile as the lamb; if you take two goblets, you become furious, and 
rave and bellow like the lion ; and if you drink of the third goblet, your reason sink&. and, like tha 
hog, you wallow in the mire. — Ashe. 



VUt,] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 583 

There was, however, a kind of potent vinegar, which was not proper for 
drinking till diluted. 
VIOL AND VIOLIN. As the lyre of the Greeks was the harp of the moderns, 
so the viol and vielle of the middle ages became the modern violin. The 
viol was of various sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was anciently very 
much in use for chamber airs and songs. That of three strings was intro- 
duced into Europe by the jugglers of the thirteenth century. The violin 
was invented towards the close of the same century. — Abbe Lengiet. The 
fiddle, however, is mentioned as early as a. d. 1200, in the legendary life of 
St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II. 

VIRGIN. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin 
churches, in honor of the miraculous ascent of Mary into heaven, according 
to their belief, August 15, a. d. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin, is a 
feast celebrated November 21, said to have been instituted among the 
Greeks in the eleventh century; its institution in the West is ascribed to 
Gregory XI., 1372. A distinguished writer says : " The Indian incarnate 
god Chrishna, the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal race, 
and was sought to be destroyed in his infancy, about 900 years b. c. It 
appears that he passed his life in working miracles and preaching, and 
was so humble as to wash his friends' feet ; at length dying, but rising 
from the dead, he ascended into heaven in the presence of a multitude. 
The Cingalese relate nearly the same things of their Budda." — Sir William 
Jonci. 

VIRGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, the 
decemvir, became enamored of her, and attempted to remove her from the 
place where she resided. She was claimed by one of his favorites as the 
daughter of a slave, and Appius, in the capacity and with the authority of 
judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his 
friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent proceedings, arrived from 
the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and when this re- 
quest was granted, he snatched a knife and plunged it into Virginia's breast, 
exclaiming, " This is all, my daughter ! I can give thee, to preserve thee 
from the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius 
ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hand. The soldiers were as- 
tonished and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they 
immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed him- 
self in prison, and prevented the esecution of the law. Spurius Oppius, 
another of the decemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed 
himself also ; and Marcus Claudius, the favorite of Appius, was put to 
death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 b. c. 

VIRGINIA. One of the United States; sometimes called the " Old Dominion," 
having been settled, April, 1607, at Jamestown, on James river — the first 
white settlement in the United States. Named Virginia in honor of queen 
Elizabeth, who had granted the country to Sir Walter Raleigh. A settle- 
ment attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was vacated on his 
attainder and execution. The country granted by James I. to two compa- 
nies, the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former, and 
named in honor of their royal patron. The colony suffered much from the 
Indians, and by various disasters ; proved loyal during the English revolu- 
tion; was the first to proclaim Charles II. on his restoration; established 
the Church of England by law, 1662 ; took an early and prominent part in 
the struggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Corn- 
wallis, at Yorktown, October 19, 1782. Constitution of the United States 
adopted June 25, 1788, by 89 to 79. Virginia has given birth to six presi- 
dents of the United States, viz : Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, 



584 THE world's progress. [ lO 

Harrison, and Taylor ; and also, Patrick Henry, John Marshall, and : jdny 
distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747,610 ; in 1810, 974,622 ; 
in 1830, 1,211,272 ; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves. 

VTSIER OR VIZIER, GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed 
in 1370. Formerly this officer governed the whole empire immediately 
under the grand seignior ; he is sometimes called the grand seignior's lieu- 
tenant, or vicar of the empire ; at his creation, the prince's seal is put into 
his hand, upon which is engraven the emperor's name, which he places in 
his bosom, and carries away with him. — Knolles. 

VITTORIA, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in the 
annals of England, obtained by Wellington over the French army com- 
manded by Jerome Bonaparte and marshal Jourdan, June 21, 1818. Mar- 
shal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all his 
baggage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of 
France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, Wellington toti. Jourdan's 
only remaining gun ! 

VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth's surface, there are above 200 
volcanoes, which have been active in modern times. The eruptions of 
Mount Etna are recorded as early as 734 b. c. by authentic historians. See 
Etna. The first eruption of Vesuvius was in a. d. 79. See Vesuvius. 
The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred a. d. 1004. For an ac- 
count of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783. see Iceland. In Mexico, 
a plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height 
by the burning lava from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro 
broke out, Sept. 13, 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red 
water, that discolored the sea for several leagues. A new volcano appeared 
in one of the Azore islands. May 1, 1808. 

VOLUNTEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of 
the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. Besides their large 
army, and 85,000 men voted for the sea, England subsidized 40,000 Germans, 
raised the militia to 100,000 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. 
Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of greatest amount, 
it numbered 410,000 men, of which 70,000 were Irish. The English volun- 
teers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 on Jan. 1, 1804. In the 
United States, on the breaking out of the Mexican war. Congress authorized 
the enlistment of 50,000 volunteers. A much larger number responded, 
but less than 30,000 were actually needed or enrolled. 

VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, was by order 
of Necho, pharoah of Egypt, when some Phcenician pilots sailed from 
Egypt down the Arabic Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good 
Hope, entei-ed the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along 
the north of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of 
about three years, 604 b. c. — Blair, Herodotus. The first voyage round the 
world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been 
under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine Is- 
land in a skirmish) in 1519-20. The era of voyages of discovery was 
the end of the eighteenth century. See Circumn&vigators, and Norsk- Wesi- 
Passage. 

\ W. 

WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen in England were first 
fixed by act of parHament, 25 Edward III., 1350. Haymakers had but one 
penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tylera, and other coverers of 
hou.ses, had not more than Zd. per day (about 9^. of our money) ; and their 



wal] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 585 



servants, l^d. — Vinefs Statutes. By the the 23d Henry VI., 1441, the wages 
of a baiiift' of husbandry was 23s. M. per annum, and clothing of the price 
of 6s. with meat and drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s., clothing 
4s. ; common servant of husbandry, 15s., clothing 40^. ; woman-servant, 10s., 
clothing 4s. By the 11th Henry VII., 1495, there was a like rate of wages, 
only with a little advance ; as, for instance, a free mason, master carpenter, 
rough mason, bricklayer, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner, 
was allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take &d. a day, without meat and 
drink ; or with meat and drink M. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate 
\d. A master having under him sis men was allowed Id. a day extra. The 
following were the 

WAGES OP HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 



Year. 




s. 


d. 


Year. 




In 1350 


per diem. 





1 


In 1688 


per diem 


In 1460 


ditto 





2 


In 1716 


ditto 


In 1568 


ditto 





4 


In 1740 


ditto 


In 1632 


ditto 





6 


In 1760 


ditto 



s. d. 


Year. 




s. d. 


S 


In 1788 


per diem. 


I 4 


9 


In 1794 


ditto 


1 6 


10 


In ISOO 


ditto 


2 


1 


In 1840 


ditto 


3 



WAGRAM, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, in which the 
latter was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The 
slaughter on both sides was dreadful ; 20,000 Austrians were taken i y the 
French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This 
battle led to an armistice, signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty 
of peace, by which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France, and the 
kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense. The em- 
peror was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gallicia 
to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of 
Spain. 

WAKEFIELD, Battle of, in England, between Margaret, the queen of Henry 
VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists 
fell upon the field. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown, 
seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret; but the earl of Warwick es- 
poused the cause of his son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and 
the civil war that was continued from that time devastated all England. 
This battle was fought December 31, 1460. 

WAKES. Every church at its consecration received the name of some par- 
ticular saint; this practice existed among the Romans and Britons, and 
was continued among the Saxons. — Wliitaker. Women were hired among 
the ancient Romans to weep at funerals : they were called Carina. The 
Irish howl originated from this Roman outcry at the decease of their 
friends. They hoped thus to awaken the soul, which they supposed might 
lie inactive. 

WALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth 
century led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Pope 
Innocent III. had commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies 
of the Waldenses in Narbonne and Provence; but the Catholic bishops 
were at first jealous of this mission, armed as it was with great power, and 
the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, a. d. 1203-4. 
One of the monks, the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf, having been as- 
sassinated, the aspiring pontiff called on all the neighboring powers to 
ma .'ch into the heretical district. All obstinate heretics were placed at 
the disposal of Simon de Montfort, commander of this crusade, and the 
whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses M^ere ordered to be pursued 
with fire and sword. Neither sex, age, nor condition was spared ; the coun- 
try became a wilderness, and the towns heaps of smoking ruins. Such was 
the era of the Inquisition. Doiuinic de Guzman was constituted first inqui- 
sitor-general, 1208 



586 THE WOKLD's progress [ WAN 

WALES. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vortigern was 
elected king of South Britain, and he invited over the Saxons to defend his 
counti-y against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent for 
reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they 
made themselves masters of South Britain, and most of the ancient Britons 
retired to "Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons, in its inac- 
cessible moimtains, about a. d. 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- 
quered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 : and in 1282 Edward I. 
entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independency by 
the death of Llewellyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not 
entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought 
to bed of a son at Carnarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled him 
prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has 
borne almost ever since. Wales Avas united and incorporated with England 
by act of parliament, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. See Britam. 

WALES, PRINCE of. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son of 
Edward I., who was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th April, 1284, Im- 
mediately after his birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh cnief- 
tains as their future sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant in his 
arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich Dyn," literally in English, 
"This is your man," but signifying, "This is your countryman and king." 
These words were afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some historians 
assert, to " Ich Dien," Avhich is the motto attached to the arms of the prince 
of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother, this 
prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II., in 
1307. — Myvijrian Archczology. Hist. Wales. For another and very different 
account of the origin of the motto " Ich Dkn" see the article under that 
head. 

WALLOONS. The people who fled to England from the persecution of the 
cruel duke of Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of 
Spain. On account of the duke's religious proscriptions, those countries 
revolted from Philip, 1566. — Mariana's Hist, of Spain. The Walloons were 
Avell received in England. A large Protestant church was given to them by 
queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their posterity still remain in 
this part of England. — Pardon. 

WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, 
and earl of Orford) became first lord of the treasury in 1715. He resigned, 
on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking fund bill 
on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on 
the earl of Sunderland retiring, in 1721 ; and continued as premier until 
1742, Avhen his administration was finally shaken by its unpopular endeavors 
for some time previously to maintain peace with Spain. 

WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this per- 
sonage : — His original name was Calaphilus, Pontius Pilate's porter. When 
they were dragging Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-hall, he struck 
him on the back, saying, "Go faster, Jesus ! go faster; why dost thou lin- 
ger V Upon which Jesus looked on him with a frown, and said, "I am in- 
deed going ; but thou shalt tarry till I come." Soon after he was converted, 
and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever ; but at the end of every 
hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which when he recovers, he 
returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered, 
being about thirty years of age. He always preserves the utmost gravity 
of deportment. He was never seen to smile. He perfectly remembers the 
death and resurrection of Christ. — Calmet's Hist, of the Bible. 



WAR ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



587 



WARS. War is called by Erasmus " the malady of princes." Scriptural wri- 
ters date the first war as having been begun by the impious son of Cain 
3563 B.C. Osymandyas of Egypt was the first warlike king ; he passed 
into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 b. c. — Usher. He is supposed 
by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most famous siege recorded 
in the annals of antiquity was that of Troy, 1193 — 1184 b. c. The longest 
siege was that of Azoth, 647 b. c. The most famous sortie was that of the 
Platseans from their city, 428 b. c. It is computed that from the beginning 
of the world to the present time, no less than 6,860;000,000 of men have 
perished in the field of battle, being about seven times as many of the hu- 
man species as now inhabit our whole earth. 

WARS, Civil, op Great Britain. The most remarkable civil wars of Great 
Britain are the following : — That of a. d. 1215-16. The war of the barons 
against Henry III., 1565; of the usurpation of Henry IV., 1400; of the 
White and Red Roses, or houses of York and Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471. 
The war between Richard III. and Henry VII., 1485. The war against 
Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the Pretender, 
1715-16 ; that under the Young Pretender, 1745. In Ireland, that under Ty- 
rone, 1599 ; under O'Neill, 1641 ; and that produced by the great rebellion, 
1798. 

WARS, Foreign, of Great Britain. The wars in France, in which England 
was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy 
being kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of 
France ; and when William I. conquered England, it became an English 
province, but was lost in the reign of king John, 1204. The wars with 
France were many ; the English princes gained bloody victories at Cressy, 
Poictiers, and Agincourt ; but they were finally driven out of France in the 
reign of Henry VI., and lost Calais, by surprise, in the reign of Mary. It 
w-as to the English people a fortunate loss ; but the rival policy and interests 
of the two governments have, ever since then, caused half as many years 
of war as peace. See the countries respectively. Battles, &c. 





FOREIGN 


WARS 


OP GREAT 


BRITAIN SINCE 


THE CONanEST. 






War with Scotland 


]0G8 


Peace 


1092 


War with Scotland, 


1542 Pt 


ace. 


1546 




France, 


1116 


" 


ins 




Scotland, 


1547 




1550 




Scotland, 


1138 


" 


1139 




France, 


1549 




1550 




France, 


1161 


" 


1186 




France, 


1557 




1559 




France, 


1194 


" 


1195 




Scotland, 


1557 




1560 




France, 


1201 


" 


1216 




France, 


1562 




1564 




France, 


1224 


" 


1234 




Spain, 


1588 




1604 




France, 


1294 


" 


1299 




Spain, 


i6-;4 




1629 




Scotland, 


1296 


" 


1323 




France, 


1627 




1629 




Scotland 


1327 


" 


1328 


a 


Holland, 


1651 




1654 




France, 


1339 


" 


1360 




Spain, 


1655 




1660 




France, 


1368 


" 


1420 




France, 


1666 




1668 




France, 


1422 


" 


1471 




Denmark, 1666 




1668 




France, 


1492 


" same year 




Holland, 


1666 




1668 




France, 


1512 


" 


1514 




Algiers, 


1669 




1671 




France, 


1.522 


" 


1527 




Holland, 


1672 




1674 




Scotland, 


1522 


" 


1542 




France, 


1689 




1697 


The general peace of Ryswick between 


j^nglanc 


, Germai 


ly, Hollanc 


l,Fr 


ance. 


and Spain 


was sig 


ned by the minister 


3 of these powers, at the 


palace of 


Ryswick, Sept. 20, 


1697. 


It concluded 1 


his last 


war. 









THE GREAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WARS OP GREAT BRITAIN, 



War of the Succeasioyi, commenced May 4, 
1702. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. 

War with Spain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con- 
cluded 1721. 

War; the Spanish War, Oct. 23, 1730. 
Peace of Ai.\'-la-ChaDeIle, April 30, 1748. 



War with France, ]\Iarch 31, 1744. Closed 

also on April 30, 1748. 
War ; the Seven years' tear, June 9, 1756. 

Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 
War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. General 

peace of Feb. 10, 1763. 



588 



THE world's progress. 



[ WAK 



WARS, Foreign, of Great Britain — continued. 



War with the United States, July 14, 1774. 

Peace of Paris, Nov. 30, 1782. 
War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of 

Paris. Jan. 20, 1783. 
War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed 

same time, Jan 20, 1783. 
War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace 

signed Sept. 2, 1783. 



War of the Revolution, Feb. 1, 1793. Peac« 
of Amiens, March 27, 1802. 

War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Fi- 
nally closed, June 18, 1815. 

War with the United States, June 18, 1812. 
Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. 

For the wars with India and China, see three 
countries respectively. 



In the war against Bonaparte, the great powers of Europe leagued sometimes 
with, and sometimes against Great Britain. England spent 65 years in war, 
and 62 in peace, in the 127 years previous to the close of the last war in 
1815. In the war of 1688, she spent 36 millions sterling ; in the war of the 
Spanish Succession, 62 millions ; in the Spanish war, 54 millions ; in the 
Seven Years' war, 112 millions ; in the American war, 136 millions ; in the 
war of the French Revohition,.464: millions ; and in the war against Bona- 
parte, 1159 millions ; thus forming a total expenditure for war, in 127 years 
(from the Revolution in 1688 to the downfall of Napoleon in 1815), of 2023 
millions of pounds sterling. M. de Pradt estimates the loss of life sustained 
by the French forces in the six campaigns of the Peninsular war at six 
hundred thousand men. The loss sustained by the Spaniards and their 
allies was probably as great. During the war many districts of the Penin- 
sula were from time to time laid waste by the contending armies, and the 
inhabitants Avere victims to all the calamities and horrors thus produced. 
The total desti-uction of human beings in this last war must have amounted 
to one million two hundred thousand. 

WAR. Revolutionary, ending in the independence of the United States, com- 
menced by the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775. See Battles. Ended 
by the Treaty of Paris, 1783. This war cost $135,193,700. 

WAR, The, op 1812, between the United States and Great Britain : 



First difficulty respecting the search of 

American vessels - - - 1806 

Chesapeake United States frigate fired 

on 1807 

Non-intercourse act passed - • 1809 

United States frigate President, ent^ag- 

ed the British sloop-of-war Little Belt 

May 16, 1811 
President Madison's war message to 

congress - - - June 1, 1812 



War declared - - - June 19, 1812 

Gen. II. Dearborn appointed comman- 
der-in-chief 
[See Battles and Naval Battles.] 
The war opposed in New England, and 
levies of troops refused by Mass., 
Conn., and R. 1. 
Treaty of peace ratified - Feb. 17, 1815 



WAR AGAINST Algiers, to punish piracies, &c., declared by the United States, 
1815. Commodores Decatur and Bainbridge captured two Algerine vessels 
and " conquered a peace," July 4, 

WAR between the UNITED STATES and MEXICO. [The annexation of 
Texas to the United States having been completed by the vote of the senate 
of Texas, Dec. 22, 1845.] 



American army of occupation, (3500) 
under Gen. Taylor took post on the 
Rio Grande opposite Matamoras, 

March 28, 1846 

First collision — a reconnoitring party 
of 70 from American army under Col. 
Thornton, fired upon and taken pri- 
soners by the Mexicans - April 24, 1846 

Gen. Taylor defeats the Mexicans at 
Palo Alto, loses 48 killed and 126 
wounded. Mexicans, 262 killed and 
355 wounded - - May 8-9, 1846 

Bill passed both houses of Congress U. 
S., declaring that war with Mexico 



already existed, by act of that power, 
and authorizing 50,000 volunteers 

May 12, 1846 

Monterey taken by Com. Sloaf, July 6, 1847 
Santa Fe occupied by Gen. Kearney 

Aug. 18, 1846 

Mexican ports on the Pacific blockaded 
by Com. Stockton - - Aug. 19, laiG 

Battle of Monterey, 4700 Americans 
under Taylor, 10,000 Mexicans under 
Ampudia. Monterey surrendered. A- 
merican loss, 120 killed 368 wounded, 
Mexican much greater - Sept. 21-23, 1846 



WAR ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



m9 



WAR WITH MEXICO, continioed. 

Stevenson's California regiment sailed 

from New-York - - Sept. 26, 1846 

Tobasco bombarded by com. Peny, 

Oct. 25, 1846 
Tampico occupied by com. Connor, 

Nov. 14, 1846 
Col. Doniphan with 450 Missouri volun- 
teers defeated 1100 Mexicans atBari- 

to, the latter losing 63 killed and 150 

wounded. American loss 6 wounded. 
Gen. Kearney defeats the " revolted " 

Califomians, at San Gabriel, &c. 

Jan. 8, 1847 
Major Borland, Cassius M. Clay, Major 

Gaines, and 80 men, taken prisoners 

by the Mexicans at Encarnacion, 

Jan. 23, 1847 
Revolt against Americans in N. Mex- 
. ico, American governor Bent and five 

others murdered - - Jan 14, 1847 

15C0 N. Mexican Indians and Mexicans 

defeated by col. Price - Jan. 24, 1847 
Battle of Buena Vista : Americans 4759 

mostly volunteers, under gen. Taylor 

and gen. Wool ; and Mexicans 22,000 

imder Santa Anna; latter defeated and 

loss 6000 killed and wounded ; Ameri- 
can loss 267 killed and 456 wounded, 

Feb. 22-23, 1847 
Battle of Sacramento ; American col. 

Doniphan, 924 men, defeated 4000 

Mexicans under Herriilea, latter loss 

300 killed, 300 wounded and 40 pri- 
soners ; American loss, 1 killed and 8 

wounded - - - Feb. 28, 1847 

Vera Cruz surrendered to gen. Scott 

and com. Perry; American loss 65 

killed and wounded - March 29, 1847 
Alvarado surrendered to lieut. Hunter, 

April 2, 1847 
Battle of Cerro-Gordo ; Americans 8500 

under gen. Scott, defeat 12,000 Mex- 
icans under Santa Anna; 5 generals 

and 3000 men, taken prisoners by 

Scott: American loss 250, Mexican 

350. 
Taspan taken by com. Perry, April 18, 1847 

WARSAW. Late the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this 
city from Cracow, in 1556. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII. in 1703. 
It has been a great prey to war of late j'ears. In the beginning of 1794, the 
empress of Russia put a garrison into this city, in order to compel the Poles 
to acquiesce in the usurpations she had in view ; but this garrison was ex- 
pelled by the citizens, with the loss of 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 
pieces of cannon, April 17, 1794. The king of Prussia besieged Warsaw in 
July 1794, but was compelled to raise the siege in September, same year. 
It was taken by the Russians in the November following. See next article. 
Warsaw was constituted a duchy and annexed to the house of Saxony 
in August, 1807 ; but the duchy was overrun bj' the Russians in 1813, 
and soon afterwards Warsaw again became the residence of a Russian vice- 
roy. Tlie late Polish revolution commenced here, November 29, 1830. See 
Poland. 

WARSAW, B.iTTLEs OP. The Poles suffered a great defeat in a battle with 
the Russians, Oct. 10, 12, 1794 ; and Snwarrow, the Russian general, after 
the siege and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles, of all 
ages and conditions, in cold blood, Nov. 8, 1794. The battle preceding the 



Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, 
American gen. Smith drives the Mexi- 
cans from these fortified posts towards 
Mexico, losing 1066 killed and wound- 
ed ; Mexican loss 6000 - Aug. 20, 1847 

Armistice agreed upon ; broken by the 
Mexicans^ Hostilities recommenced 

Sept. 7, 1S47 

Battle of Molino del Rey ; American 
gen. Worth carried the fortifications 
defended by 14,000 Mexicans under 
Santa Anna. American loss, 787 kil- 
led and wounded ; Mexican loss 3000, 

Sept. 8, 1847 

Battle of Chepultepec, a height near 
-Mexico, carried by American gene- 
rals Worth, Quitman, and Pillow, 
(under gen. Scott) after a loss of 862 

Sept. 12-13, 1847 

This was followed by the surrender of 
the city of Mexico - - Sept. 14, 1817 

Col. Childs with 400 men and 180O 
sick in hospitals besieged 28 days at 
Puebla, but compelled the Mexicans 
to raise the siege - - Oct. 12, 1847 

Contribution of $600,000 levied in Mex- 
ico for protecting public property in 
the city - - - Sept. 17, 1847 

City of Huamantla captured by Ame- 
rican gen. Lane, who defeats Santa 
Anna. American loss, 24 killed and 
wounded ; Mexican loss 150, Oct. 9, 1847 

Port of Guayamas bombarded and cap- 
tured by American frigate Congress, 
and sloop Portsmouth - Oct. 20, 1847 

A tax levied upon the states of Mexico, 
and duties &c. laid to the amount of 
about $3,000,000 - - Dec. 31, 1847 

Gen. Scott superseded by Gen. Butler, 

Feb. 18, 1848 

Treaty of peace ratified at Queretaro, 
by the Hon. A. H. Sevier and N. 
Clifford, for the United States, and 
the foreign Mexican minister, Signor 
De la Rosa - " - - May 30, 1848 

American troops finally withdrawn 
from the city of Mexico, - June 12, 1848 



590 THE world's PKOGRESS. [ \TA1 

surrender was very bloody ; of 26,000 men, moi-e than 10,000 were killed, 
nearly 10,000 were made prisoners, and 2000 only escaped the fury of the 
merciless conqueror. Battle of Growchow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus- 
sians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the loss of 7000 men, Feb. 
20, 1831. Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard fighting, the city 
capitulated, and was taken possession of by the Russians. Great part of 
the Polish army i-etired towards Plock and Modlin. This last battle was 
fought Sept. 7 and 8, 1831. 

WARSAW, Treaties of. The treaty of alliance of Warsaw, between Austria 
and Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted 
in raising the siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September following), signed 
March 31, 1683. Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, February 

24, 1768. 

WASHINGTON. The capita, of the United States, founded in 1791, and first 
made the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was 
opened for the first time. May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late 
war by the British forces under general Ross, when the Capitol and the 
President's house were consumed by a general conflagration, the troops not 
sparing even the national library, August 24, 1814. General Ross was soon 
afterwards killed in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, follow- 
ing. See United States. 

WASHINGTON, GEORGE. Born Feb. 22, 1732 ; in the expedition of Brad- 
dock against fort Du Quesne 1755 ; appointed commander-in-chief of the 
American army 1775 ; elected president of Convention for forming Consti- 
tution 1787 ; elected President of the United States 1789 ; again in 1793 ; 
died 1799. Washington monument at New York, corner-stone laid, Oct. 19, 
1847. National monument to Washington, corner-stone laid July 4, 1848 ; 
oration by Robt. C. Winthrop. Virginia monument to Washington, corner- 
stone laid by President Taylor, Feb. 22, 1849. 

WATCHES. They are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, a. d. 
1477 ; although it is affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch 
about A. D. 1310. Watches were first used in astronomical observations by 
Purbach, 1500. Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was the first 
who had anything that might be called a watch, though some call it a small 
table-clock, 1530. Watches were first brought to England from Germany in 
1577. — Hume. Spring jjocket-watches (watches properly so called) have 
had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke by the English, and to m.. Huy- 
gens by the Dutc^, Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Clockmaker, says that Dr. 
Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears certainly to have produced what 
is called the pendulum watch. The time of this invention was about 1658 ; 
as is manifest, among other evidences, from an inscription on one of the 
double-balance watches presented to Charles II., viz., " Rob. Hooke in- 
ven. 1658. T. Tompion fecit, 1675." Rei^eatiug watches were invented 
by Barlowe, 1676. Harrison's time-piece was invented in 1735 ; improved 
1739, 1749, 1753. In 1759, he made the time-piece which procured him 
the reward of 20,000/., offered by the Board of Longitude, 1763. Watches 
and clocks were taxed in 1797. The tax was repealed in 1798. See 
Clocks. 

WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, looked upon water 
(as also did Homer, and sevei'al of the ancient philosophers) as being the 
original principle of every thing besides, about 594 b. c. — ■Stanley. It is the 
universal drink of man. The ancients usually diluted their wines with 
much water ; and Hesiod prescribes three measures of water to one of wine 
in summer. — Madame Dacier. lu the Roman cliurch water was first mixed 



WAT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 591 

with the sacramental wine, a. d. 122. — Lenglet. " Honest M^ater is too weak 
to bo a sinner ; it never left a man in the mire." — Shakspeare. 

WATER-CLOCKS. The first instruments used to measure the lapse of time, 
independently of the sunshine, were clepsydrcB or water-clocks. These were 
most probably vessels of water, with a small hole through the bottom ; 
through this hole the water ran out in a certain time, possibly an hour ; 
after which the vessel was again filled to be emptied as before. This in- 
vention was a manifest improvement on the old sun-dials, whose perpendi- 
cular gnomon gave hours of different length at the various seasons of the 
year. Something similar to the hour-glass was occasionally used; and 
Alfred the Great, probably ignorant of these methods, adopted the burning 
of a taper as a measure of time. 

WATER-MILLS. Used for grinding corn, invented by Belisarius, the general 
of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, a. d. 555. The ancients 
parched their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were in- 
vented, which were turned by men and beasts with great labor ; and yet 
Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 

WATER TOE ANA, or Wives' Poison. See article Poisoning. The poison so 
freely administered by Italians in the 17th century, called aqua tofana, from 
the name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in small flat vials. 
She carried on this traffic for half a century, and eluded the police ; but on 
being taken, confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 people. 
Numerous persons Avere implicated by her, and many of them were publicly 
executed. All Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some 
persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled in prison. It appeared 
to have been chiefly used bj^ married women who were tired of their hus- 
bands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was not sudden, 
and therefore not suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists 
have not agreed about its real composition. A proclamation of the pope de- 
scribed it as aqviafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a 
solution of crystallized arsenic. The secret of its preparation was conveyed 
to Paris, where the marchioness de Brinvilliers poisoned her father and two 
brothers ; and she with many others was executed, and the preparers burnt 
alive. — Phillips. 

WATERLOO, Battle of. The greatest victory ever won by British arms, and 
the most decisive and happy in its consequences. In this great battle the 
French army, with Napoleon as its chief, was signally overthrown by the 
British and allies under the duke of Wellington, June 18, 1815. Napoleon 
attacked the British, whom he expected to overwhelm by superior num- 
bers, but they maintained their ground, and repiilsed the enemy from about 
nine in the morning till seven at night, when the French line began to waver. 
The commander then gave orders to charge ; a total rout ensued, and Blu- 
cher, who oi:)portunely came up at this juncture, joined in the pursuit. 
On both sides the carnage was immense ; but that of the French was double 
the amount of the British. Napoleon quitted the wreck of his flying army, 
and returned to Paris, where he attempted, after the destruction of three 
great armies, to raise a fourth ; but finding this impossible, his abdication 
followed. See Bonaparte and France. 

WATER-SPOUl'. Whirlwinds and water-spouts proceed from the same cause, 
the only difference being that water-spouts pass over the water, and whirl- 
winds over the land. — Dr. Franklin. Two water-spouts fell on the Glatx 
mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful devastation to Hautenbach, and 
many other villages ; a prodigious number of houses were destroyed, and 
many persons perished, July 13, 1827. A water-spout at Glanflesk, near Kil- 



592 THE world's progress. [ WED 

lamey, in Ireland, passed over a farm of Mr. John Macarthy, and destroyed 
his cottage, two other farmhouses, and other buildings, of which not a ves- 
tige remained. In this catastrophe seventeen persons perished. August 4, 
1831. 
WAX. This substance came into use for candles in the twelfth century ; and 
wax candles were esteemed a luxury in 1300, being but little used. In China, 
candles of vegetable wax have been in use for centuries. See Candleberry. 
Wax candles are made very cheap in America, from the berry of a particu- 
lar species of myrtle, which yields excellent wax, of a green color. Sealing- 
wax was not brought into use in England until about 1556. The wax-tree, 
Ligusirum lucidum, was brought from China before 1794. 

WE. The common language of kings is 7oe, which plural style was begun with 
king John, a. d. 1199. — Cokeys Instib. Before this time sovereigns used the 
singular person in all their edicts. — Idem. The German emperors and French 
kings used the plural about a. d. 1200. — Henault. It is now the style royal 
of all monarchs. In the articles of public journals they also adopt the plu- 
ral, indicating that what they write proceeds from a plurality of pens. 

WEALTH. This is a relative term ; for as there is only a certain amount of 
property in a country, so the possession of a large share by one man is the 
poverty of others. The wealth of individuals is therefore no benefit to the 
country, while as to others it is the cause of their poverty. The instances 
of wealth in the early ages are many and most extraordinary. The mighti- 
est conflagration of wealth on record is that of Sardanapalus, where riches 
amounting to one thousand four hundred millions sterling were destroyed. 
— Alhenaus. Cascilius Isidorus died at Rome possessed of 4116 slaves, 3600 
oxen, 200,000 head of other cattle, and three millions of our money in coin, 
8 B. c. — U)iw. Hist. 

WEAVING. The art of weaving appears to have been practised in China from 
the earliest antiquity — more than a thousand years before it was known in 
Europe or Asia. Poets assign the art to the spider. Women originally 
spun, wove, and dj^ed ; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by ancient 
nations, to different women as women's arts. The Egyptians ascribed it to 
Isis ; the Greeks, to Minerva ; and the Peruvians, to the wife of Manco Ca- 
pac. In most easterr. countries, the employment of weaving is still per- 
formed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being 
woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says Dr. Dodd- 
ridge, this cirrious garment might be the work and present of some pious 
women Avho attended him, and ministered unto him of their substance, Luke 
viii. 3. The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in Calmet's 
Dictionary^ under the word Veslvients. 

WEAVING IN ENGLAND. Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where 
thej'^ manufactured woollens, which, says king Edward, "may prove of 
great benefit to us and our subjects," 1331. Flemish dyers, cloth-drapers, 
linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c. settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colches- 
ter, Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's perse- 
cution, 1567. 

WEDGWOOD WARE. A fine species of pottery and porcelain, produced by 
Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Staffordshire, 1762. The manufactories for this 
ware employed 10,000 families in England. Previously to 1763, most of the 
superirr kinds of earthenwares were imported from France. 

WEDNESDAY. The fourth day of the week, so called from a Saxon idol, call- 
ed Woden, supposed to be Mars, worshipped on this day. The name given 
to our Wednesday by the Saxons was Woden's day, which was afterwards 
corrupted to Wednesda\'. See next article. 



WES ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 593 

WEEK. The space of seven days, supposed to be first used among the Jews, 
who observed the sabbath every seventh day ; they had three sorts of weeks, 
the first the common one of seven days, the second of j'^ears, which was 
seven years, the third of seven times seven years, at tlie end of whicli was 
the jubilee. All the present English names are derived from the Saxon: — 

Latin. English. Saxon. Presided over by 

Dies Saturni, Saturday, Saterne's day, Satum. 

Dies Solis, Sunday, Sun's day, Tlie sun. 

Dies Lunae, Blonday, Moon's day, The moon. 

Dies Martis, Tuesday, Tiw's day. Mars. 

Dies Mercurii, Wednesday, Woden's day. Mercury. 

Dies .Tovis, Thursday, Thor's day, Jupiter. 

Dies Veneris, Friday, Friga's day, Venus. 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. These, and the stamping of gold and silver 
money, were invented by Phydon, tyrant of Argos, 895 b. c. et seq. — Arunde- 
lian Marbles. Weights were originally taken from grains of wheat, the 
lowest being still called a grain. — Chalmers. The standard measure was 
originally kept at Winchester by the law of king Edgar, a d. 972. Stand- 
ards of weights and measures were provided for the whole kingdom of Eng- 
land by the^ sheriffs of London, 8 Richard I., 1197. A public Aveighing- 
machine was set up in London, and all commodities ordered to be weighed 
by the city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice between 
buyer and seller, statute 3d Edward II., 1309. — Stowe. The first statute, 
directing the use of avordupois weight, is that of 24 Henry VIII., 1532. — 
Philosophical Transactions, vol. 65, art. 3. The French adopt the metre of 
3.28084, or the 10 millionth part of the distance from the Pole to the Equa- 
tor, as the standai'd of measure; and the kilogramme, equal to 2,255 pounds 
avoirdupois, as the standard of weight. 

WESLEYAN METHODISTS. A large body of Christians, whose sect was 
founded by an excellent and pious man, John Wesley. In 1730 he and his 
brother, with a few other students, formed themselves into a small society 
for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. So singular an 
association excited considerable notice, and among other names bestowed 
upon the members, that of Methodists was applied to them. Mr. Wesley 
went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the Indians. 
On his return to England, he commenced itinerant preacher, and gathered 
many followers ; but the churches being shut against him, he built spacious 
meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time he 
was united with Mr. Whitefield ; but differences arising on account of the 
doctrine of election, they separated, and the Methodists were denominated 
according to their respective leaders. Mr. Wesley was indefatigable in his 
labors, and almost continually engaged in travelling over England, Wales, 
Scotland, and Ireland. His society was well organized, and he preserved his 
influence over it to the last. He died in London in 1791. 

WEST INDIES. Discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he 
made in the new world, and first seen by him in the night between the 11th 
and 12th Oct., 1492. See the Islands respectively. 

WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire was divided into Eastern and 
Western by Valentinian and Valens, of whom the former had the western 
portion, or Rome, properly so called, a. d. 364. Odoacer, a chief of the 
Heruli, entered Italy, defeated Orestes, took Rome and Ravenna, deposed 
Augustulus, and assumed the title of king of Italy, August 23, which ended 
the Western empire, 507 years after the battle of Actium, a. d. 476. See 
Eastern Empire. 

WESTMINSTER ABBEY. As regards this magnificent cathedral, the miraci* 
lous stories of monkish writers and of ancient historians have been que«- 



594 THE world's progress. [ wm 

tioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was employed to survey the present 
edifice, and who, upon the nicest examination, found nothing to coimtenance 
the general belief that it was erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. His- 
torians, agreeably to the legend, have fixed the era of the first abbey in the 
sixth century, and ascribed to Sebert the honor of erecting it. This church 
becoming ruinous, it was splendidly rebuilt by Edward the Confessor, be- 
tween A. D. 1055 and 1065 ; and he stored it with monks from Exeter. Pope 
Nicholas II. about this time constituted it the place for the inauguration of 
the kings of England. The church was once more built in a magnificent 
and beautiful style by Henry III. In the reigns of Edward H., Edward III., 
and Richard II., the great cloisters, abbot's house, and the principal mo- 
nastic buildings were erected. The western parts of the nave and aisles 
were rebuilt by successive monarchs, between the years 1340 and 1483. The 
west front and the great window were built by those rival princes, Richard 
III. and Henry VII. ; and it was the latter monarch who commenced the 
magnificent chapel which bears his name, and the first stone of which was 
laid Jan. 24, 1502-3. The abbey was dissolved, and made a bishopric, 1541 ; 
and was finally made a collegiate church by Elizabeth, 1560. 

WESTMINSTER HALL. One of the most venerable remains of English ar- 
chitecture, first built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall ; and 
here in 1099, on his return from Normandy, " he kept his feast of Whit- 
suntide very royallj'." Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when 
the number of the guests each day the feast lasted was 10,000. — Slowe. 
The courts of law were established here by king John. — Idevi. Westmin- 
ster-hall is universally allowed to be the largest room in Europe imsupported 
by pillars : it is 270 feet in length, and 74 broad. The hall underwent a 
general repair in 1802. 

WESTPHALIA. This duchy belonged, in former times, to the duke of Sax- 
ony. On the secularization of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt ; 
and in 1814, was ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom of 
Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of 
conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to 
the west of the Elbe, created December 1, 1807, and Jerome appointed 
king. Hanover was annexed March 1, 1810. This kingdom was overturned 
in 1813. 

WESTPHALIA, Peace of, signed at Munster and at Osnaburgh, between 
France, the emperor, and Sweden; Spain continuing the war against 
France. By this peace the principle of a balance of power in Europe was 
first recognised : Alsace given to France, and part of Pomerania and some 
other districts to Sweden ; the Elector Palatine restored to the Lower Pala- 
tinate ; the civil and political rights of the German States established ; and 
the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, Oc- 
tober 24, 1648. 

WHALE FISHERY of the UNITED STATES. In 1845 this trade employed 
650 vessels, aggregate tonnage 200,000 tons,— cost, $20,000,000 ; manned by 
17,500 olEcers and seamen. ''■ Commercial history furnishes no parallel to 
this whaling fleet — it is larger than those of all other nations combined.' — 
Speech of Mr. Grinnell. 

WHEAT AND FLOUR. The amount exported by the United States, from 
1790 to 1838, was 10.283,471 bushels.— average, 209,666 bushels per annum. 
In 1845 the amount exported was valued at S-5,735,372 ; in 1846, $13,350,644. 
This was exclusive of Corn, Rye, &c. The amount was greatly increased 
by the scarcity in Europe, especially in Ireland. 

WHITE FRIARS. These were an order of Carmelite mendicants, who took 



WIL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 595 

their name from Mount Carmel, lying southwest of Mount Tabor, in tha 
Holy Land. They pretended that Elijah and Elisha were the founders of 
their order, and that Pythagoras and the ancient Druids were professors of 
it. At first they were very rigid in their discipline, but afterwards it was 
moderated, and about the year 1540 divided into two sorts, one following 
and restoring the ancient severities, and the other the milder regimen. 
They had numerous monasteries throughout England : and a precinct in 
London without the Temple and west of Blackfriars, is called Whitefriars to 
this day, after a community of their order, founded there in 1245. 

WHITEHALL, London. Originally built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, 
before the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards devolved to the arch- 
bishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued 
to be the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Hemy VIII. of 
cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the 
court. Queen Elizabeth, who died at Greenwich, was brought from thence 
to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It was on this occasion, 
Camden informs us, that the following quaint panegyric on her majesty was 
written : — 

" The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, 
At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 
More clung about the barge ; fish under water 
Wept outiheir eyes of pearl, and swam blind after. 
I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, 
Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ; 
For howsoe'er, thus much my thoughts have scann'd, 
She had come by water, had she come by land." 

In 1697, the whole was destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banquet- 
ing-house, which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I., 
according to a design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehalj 
Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. George I. converted the hall into a 
chapel, 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent repair between 1829 
and 1833. 

WHITSUNTIDE. The festival of Whitsunday is appointed by the church to 
commemorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles : in the pri- 
mitive church, the newly-baptized persons, or catechumens, used to wear 
white garments on Whi'sunday. This feast is movable, and sometimes falls 
in May and sometimes in June ; but is always exactly seven weeks after 
Easter. Rogation week is the week before Whitsunday; it is said to 
have been first instituted by the bishop of Vienne in France, and called 
Rogation week upon account of the many extraordinary prayers and pre- 
paratory petitions made for the devotion of Holy Thursday for a blessing 
on the fruits of the earth, and for averting the dismal effects of war and 
other evils. 

WICKLIFFITES. The followers of John WickliflTe, a professor of divinity 
in the university of Oxford. He was the father of the Reformation of the 
English church from popery, being the first who opposed the autho- 
rity of the pope, the jurisdiction of the bishops, and the temporalities of 
the church, in 1377. Wicklifie was protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's 
son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted by the church, and res- 
cued from martyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his death, Dec. 
31, 1384, in his 60th jea.v.— Mortimer. 

WILDFIRE. An artificial fire, which burns under water. The French call it 
feu Grecquois, because it was discovered by the Greeks, by whom it was 
first used, about a. d. 660. Its invention is ascribed to Callinicus of Hclio- 
polis. — Nouv. Diet. See article Greek Fire. 



696 THE world's progress. [ WIN 

WILKES' NUMBER. The designation given to the 45th number of a paper 
styled the North Briton, published by John Wilkes, an alderman of London. 
He commenced a paper warfare against the earl of Bute and his adminis- 
tration, and in this particular copy, printed April 23, 1763, made so free a 
use of royalty itself, that a general warrant was issued against him by the 
earl of Halifax, then secretai-y of state, and he was committed to the Tower. 
His warfare not only deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels ; 
but he obtained .£1,000 damages and full costs of suit for the illegal seizure 
of his papers. He further experienced the vengeance of the court of King's 
Bench, and both houses of parliament, for the libel, and for his obscene 
poem "An Essay on Woman;" and was expelled the commons and out- 
lawed; he was, however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in October 
1774, and the same year served the ofiSce of lord mayor ; but was over- 
looked in a subsequent general election, and died in 1797. 

WILLS, LAST, AND TESTAMENTS. Wills are of very high antiquity. See 
Genesis, c. 48. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 b. c. There are 
many regulations respecting wills in the Koran. The Romans had this 
power, and so had the native Mexicans ; so that it prevailed at least in 
three parts of the globe. Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person 
who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 b. c. The power of bequeath- 
ing lands by the last will or testament of the OAvner, was confirmed to En- 
glish subjects, 1 Henry I., 1100 ; but with great restrictions and limitations 
respecting the feudal system ; which were taken off by the statute of Henry 
VIII., 1541. — Blackstone's Comtnentaries. The first will of a sovereign on 
record is stated (but in error) to be that of Richard II., 1399. Edward the 
Confessor made a will, 1066. 

WIND-MILLS. They are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to 
be of Roman invention ; but certainly we are indebted for the wind-mill to 
the Saracens. They are said to have been originally introduced into Europe 
by the knights of St. John, who took the hint from what they had seen in 
the crusades. — Baker. Wind-mills were first known in Spain, France, and 
Germany, in 1299. — Anderson. Wind saw-mills were invented by a Dutch- 
man, in 1633. when one was erected near the Strand, in London. 

WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, a. d. 79, as is evi- 
dent from its ruins. It is certain that Avindows of some kind were glazed 
so early as the third centurj^ if not before, though the fashion was not in- 
troduced until it was done by Bennet, a. d. 633. Windows of glass were 
used in private houses, but the glass was imported 1177. — Anderson. In 
England about 6000 houses now have fifty windows and upwards in each ; 
about 275,000 have ten windows and upwards ; and 725,000 have seven win- 
dows, or less than seven. The window-tax was first enacted in order to 
defray the expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of gold, 7 William 
m., 1695. 

WINDSOR CASTLE. A royal residence of the British sovereigns, originally 
built by William the Conqueror, but enlarged by Henry I. The monarchs 
who succeeded him likewise resided in it, till Edward III., who was born 
here, caused the old building, with the exception of three towers at the 
west end, to be taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the di- 
rection of William of Wykeham. He likewise built St. George's chapel. 
Instead of alluring workmen by contracts and wages, Edward assessed 
every county in England to send him so many masons, tilers, and carpen- 
ters, as if he had been levying an army. Several additions were made to 
this edifice by succeeding sovereigns ; the last by George IV. 

AVJNES. The invention of wine is given to Noah. — Abhe Lengleb. The art of 



WIT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 597 

making wine from rice is ascribed by the Chinese to their king, Ching 
Noung, about 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hist. The art of making wine was brought 
from India by Bacchus, as other authorities have it. Hosea spealcs of the 
wine of Lebanon as being very fragrant. — Hosea, xiv. 7. Our Saviour 
changed water into wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee. — Joh7i ii. 3, 10. 

" The conscious waters saw their God, and \i\.vs!D.'&."— Addison. 

No wine was produced in France in the time of the Romans. — Bossuet. 
Spirits of wine were known to the alchymists. — Idem. Concerning the ac- 
quaintance which our progenitors had with wine, it has been conjectured 
that the Phoenicians might possibly have introduced a small quantity of it ; 
but this liquor was very little known in our island before it was conquered 
by the Romans. Wine was sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial in 
A. D. 1300, and so continued for some time after, although there is mention 
of '■ wine for the king " so eaiiy as 1249 ; and we are even sent to a much 
earlier period for its introduction and use in Britain. In 1400 the price 
was twelve shillings the yjipe A hundred and fifty biitts and pipes con- 
demned for being adulterated, were staved and emptied into tlie channels 
of the streets by Rainwell, mayor of London, in the 6th of Henry VI., 1427. 
— Siowe's Chron. The first importation of claret wine into Ireland was on 
June 17, 1490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passed 
April 25, 1661. In 1800 England imported 3,807,460 gallons of all kinds of 
wine. In 1815, the United Kingdom imported 4,806,528 gallons. In 1880 
were imported 6,879 558 gallons ; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, were 
imported 9,909,056 gallons, of which 7,000,486 were for home consumption. 
—Pari. Ret. 

WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, 
A. D. 1410. Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in 1563. 
The first wire-mill in England was erected at Mortlake in 1663. — Morttmer. 
The astonishing ductility which is one of the distinguishing qualities of 
gold, is no way more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 ounces 
of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing only one ounce, is usually 
drawn into a wire two yards of which only weigh one grain ; so that 98 
yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single grain of 
gold covers the whole 98 yards ; and the thousandth part of a grain is above 
one-eighth of an inch long. — Halley. Eight grains of gold covering a cy- 
linder of silver are coramonh'' drawn into a wire 13,000 feet long ; yet so 
jjerfectly does it cover the silver, that even a microscope does not discover 
any appearance of the silver underneath. — Boyle. 

WIRTEMBERG. One of the most ancient states of Germany, and most popu- 
lous for its extent. The dukes were Protestant until 1772, when ihe reign- 
ing prince became a Catholic. Wirtemberg has been repeatedly traversed 
by hostile armies, particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau 
made his celebrated retreat Oct. 28, 1796. Tlie prince of Wirtemberg mar- 
ried the princess royal of England, daughter of George III., May 17, 1797. 
This state obtained now acquisitions in territory in 1802 and 1805. The 
elector assumed the title of king Dec. 12, 1805, and was proclaimed Jan. 1, 
. 1806. His majesty, as an ally of France, lost the flower of his army in Rus- 
sia, in 1812. The kingdom obtained a free constitution in 1819. The king 
granted hberty of the press, March 2, 1848. 

WISCONSIN. One of the western United States was organized out of the 
North West Territory, and received a territorial government in 1836 ; ad- 
mitted into the Union as a state Feb. 9, 1847. Population in 1830, 30,945 : 
cliietly emigrants from the northern and middle states. 

WFJ'CHCRAFT. The pimi.shnient of witchcraft was first countenanced by the 



598 THE world's progress. [ WIT 

churcli of Rome ; and persons suspected of the crime have been subjected 
to the most cniel and uni-elenting punishments. In tens of thousands of 
cases, the victims, often innocent, were burnt alive, while others were 
drowned by the test applied ; for if, on being thrown into a pond, they did 
not sink, they were presumed witches, and either killed on the spot, or re- 
served for burning at the stake. Five hundred witches were burnt in Gene- 
va, in three months, in 1515. One thousand were burnt in the diocese of 
Como in a year. An incredible number in France, about 1520, when one 
sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. Nine hundred were burnt in 
Lorraine, between 1580 and 1595. One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt 
at Wurtzburg, between 1627 and 1629, old and young, clerical, learned, and 
ignorant. At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, out of a popu.ittion 
of 600; and more than 100,000 perished, mostly by the flames, in Germany. 
Grandier, the parish priest of Loudun, was burnt on a charge of having be- 
witched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. In Bretagne, twenty poor women 
were put to death as witches, 1654. Disturbances commenced on charges 
of witchcraft in Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions raged dreadfully 
in Pennsylvania in 1683. Maria Renata was tjurnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. 
At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged with having bewitched, 
and rendered unfruitful, the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were 
burnt Jan. 17, 1775. — Aim. Meg. Five women were condemned to death by 
the Bramins, at Patna, for sorcery, and executed Dec. 16, 1802. — Idem. 

WITCHCRAFT and CONJURATION in ENGLAND. Absurd and wicked 
laws were in force against them in Great Britain in former times, by which 
death was the punishment, and thousands of persons suffered both by the 
public executioners and the hands of the people. A statute was enacted 
declaring all witchcraft and sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy, 
33 Henry VIII., 1541. Again, 5 Elizabeth, 1562, and 1 James, 1603. Bar- 
rington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft in England in 200 years 
at 30,000. The English condemned and burnt the beautiful and heroic Joan 
of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, as a sorceress, a. d. 1431. See Joan of Arc. 
• Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 1664. Three thousand 
were executed in England under the long parliament. Northamptonshire 
and Huntingdon preserved the superstition about witchcraft later than any 
other counties. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in 
1705, while *he Spectator was in course of publication in London, and five 
others sevei. years afterwards. In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged 
nine, were hanged at Huntingdon. In Scotland, thousands of persons were 
burnt in the period of about a hundred years. Among the victims were per- 
sons of the highest rank, while all orders in the state concurred. James I. 
even caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. This king pub- 
lished his Dialogues of Dccmonologie first in Edinburgh, and afterwards in 
London.* The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The laws 



- ' All persons at court who sought the favor of James, praised his Damonologie ; and parlia- 
ment, to flatter him, made its twelfth law against witchcral't in 1603. By this statute deatli was 
iiiMicted on sorcerers in these words: "If any person shall use any invocation or conjuration of any 
evil or wicked spirit— shall entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil or cursed spirit — take up 
Hiiy dead body to employ in witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment — or shall practise, or shall exor 
cise, any sort of witchcraft, sorcery, &c., whereby any person shall be killed, wasted, consumed, 
phied, or lamed." This being the law of the land, no person presumed to doubt the existence ot 
witchcraft; hence Shakspeave gave countenance to the error, and the learned bishop Hall mentions 
a place where, he said, there were more witches than houses. Allaying of ghosts, driving ou' evfi 
spirits, and abjuring wiiches became in consequence, tor a century, a profitable employment to the 
clergy of all denominations.. Witch- tinders e.xisted, too. as public officers; and, besides the public 
executions, which disgraced every assizes, muUiiudes of accused were destroyed by popular re- 
sentment. — Phillips. 



woo ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 599 

against witclicraft had lain dormant for many years, when an ignorant person, 
attempting to revive them, by finding a bill against a poor old woman in Snr- 
I'ey for the practice of witchcraft, they were repealed, 10 George II., 1736. — 

Viner's Abridgment. 

WITENA-MOT, or WITENA-GEMOT. Among our Saxon ancestors, this was 
the term which Avas applied to their deliberations, and which literally sig- 
nified the assembling of the wise men in the great council of the nation. A 
witena-mot was called in London, a. d. 833, to consult on the proper means 
to repel the Danes. This name was dropped about the period of the Norman 
conquest, and that of parliament adopted. See Parliament. 

V\''OLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were 
demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 
A. D. 961, by which step they were totally destroyed. — Carte. Edward I. 
issued his mandate for the destruction of wolves in several counties of Eng- 
land, A. D. 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for mar^y centuries after 
their extirpation in England ; for there are accounts of some being found 
there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing wolves was 
made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom 
834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. When wolves cross a river, they 
follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first 
in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure 
was, on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the j'ear, composed of 
twelve months following one another, M'hich they denominated Lycabas, that 
is, the march of the wolves. — Abbe Pluche. 

WOMAN. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women seem to have been 
considered merely as objects of sensuality and domestic convenience, and 
were commonly devoted to seclusion and obscurity ; it was not until the 
northern nations had settled themselves in the provinces of the Roman em- 
pire that the female character assumed new consequence. They brought 
with them the respectful gallantry of the North, and a complaisance towards 
females which inspired generous sentiments hitherto little known to the 

■ polished nations of antiquity, and which ultimately led to the institution of 
chivahy. England is called the paradise of women; Spain, their purgatory ; 
and Turkejs their hell. The following lines beautifully describe Adam's 
first sight of Eve : 

" He laid him down and slept — and from his side 
A woman in her magic beauty rose ; 
Dazzled and charmed, he called that woman ' bride.' 
And Iris first sleep became his last repose." — Eesser, tranilated by Bowring. 

The following distinguished men, though married, were unhappy in that 
state : Arist* tie, Socrates, Pittacus, Periander, Euripides, and Aristophanes. 
Among the moderns : Boccaccio, Dante, Milton, Steele, Addison, Dryden, 
Moliere, Racine, Sterne, Garrick, and lord Bacon. — Woman ; as she is, and 
as she should be. Among the most beautiful eulogies on woman is the fol- 
lowing, addressed to a lovely Italian nun by an English nobleman : 

" Die when you will, you need not wear, 
At heaven's court, a form more fair 

Than beauty at your birth has given ; 
Keep but the lips, the eyes we see, 
The voice we hear, and you will be 

An angel ready-made for heaven !" — Lord Herbert. 

WOOD-CUTS, OR WOOD-ENGRAVING. See article Engraving on Wood. 
The invention is ascribed by some to a gun-smith of Florence ; by others, to 
Reuss, a German, a.d. 1460; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in the 
article referred to. Brought to i)erfection by Durer and Lucas. Brought 



600 THE world's progress. [ WOH 

to great perfection by Bewick, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., in 1789-1799; and 
more recently by Cruikshank, and others. 

WOOL. Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the "Report of the Com- 
mittee of the Highland Society," proves, from indisputable records, that 
from the earliest times down to the reign of queen Ehzabeth, the wool of 
Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the 
finest in the universe ; and that even in the times of the Romans, a manu- 
facture of woollen cloths was established at Winchester for the use of the 
emperors. In later times, wool was manufactured in England, and is men- 
tioned in A. D. 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of 
it was introduced by John Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. This 
was the real origin of the English wool manufactures, Edward III., 1331. — 
Rymer^s Fadera. The exportation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of 
English wool, and the importation of Irish wool into England, prohibited, 
1696. The non-exportation law repealed, 1824. 

WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in 
all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also. 
Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of Julius Cae- 
sar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. They were made in England be- 
fore A. D. 1200, and the manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edward 
III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See 
preceding article. Blankets were first made in England about a. d. 1340. — 
Camden. No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into England, 
1463. The art of dyeing brought into England, 1608. See article Dyeing. 
Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth 
begun at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of cardinal Mazarine, 1646. 
British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged 
to bo buried in woollen, or the persons directing the burial otherwise to for- 
feit 51, 29 Charles II., 1678. The manufacture of cloth greatly improved 
in England by Flemish settlers, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 
11 William III., 1698. The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, ex- 
cept to certain ports of England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged 
by 10 Anne, 1712, and 2 George 1., 1715. Greater in Yorkshire in 1785, 
than in all England at the Revolution. — Clialmers. 

Q,nANT .TY and declared VALUE OP CLOTHS EXPORTED PROM GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOL- 
LOWING YEARS : — 



Quantity. 

Pieces - 
Yards - - 
Declared value 


18(T0. 

1,022,8.3.9 

4,213.677 

je3,914;661 


1825. 

1,741,933 

7,798,610 

£6,194,926 


1830. 

1,747,036 

5,561,877 

£4,608,592 


1840. 

2,143,796 

8,170,642 

£5,921,116 



WORCESTER, Batti^k op, in the Civil War, fought between the Royalist army 
and the forces of the parliament, the latter commanded by Ci'omwell. A 
large body of Scots had marched into England with a view to reinstate 
Charles II., but Cromwell signally defeated them ; the streets of the city 
were strewed with the dead, the whole Scots army having been either killed 
or taken prisoners. This famous battle aff'orded Cromwell what he called his 
crowning m.ercy. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. Of 8000 pri- 
soners, most were sent to bond-service in the American colonies. September 
3, 1651. 

WORLD. According to Julius Africanus, as quoted bj^ Gibbon, the world was 
created September 1, 5508 b. c. Most chronologers, however, mention the 
year 4004 b. c. as the period of its first existence. The Jews celebrate the 
19th of September as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it was 
created in spring. Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Mile- 
tus, about 610 B. c. The fir.'^t geographical table and map of the world was 



WOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 601 

made by Anaximander, about 560 b. c. — Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagoras 
and his system, about 539 b. c. — Stanley. The magnitude of the earth cal- 
culated by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The system of Copernicus promulgated, 
A. D. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, in which the earth 
is taken as a plane, 1556. The notion of the magnetism of the earth started 
by Gilberd, 1583. Magnitude of the earth determiaed by Picart, 1669. 

WORMS, Diet op. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin Luther 
was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther 
was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a 
league from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, 
that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answer- 
ed, " If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs 
of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, 
six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and pre- 
lates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared, 
April 17th, in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions, 
and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised him 
to seclude himself to save his life, which he did for about ten months, and 
his triumph was afterwards complete. 

WORSHIP. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Eg5Tpt, is said to have been 
the author of religious worship: he is supposed to be the Co'pt of the 
Egyptians, and the Totli or Hermes of the Greeks ; the Mercury of the 
Latins, and the Teutates of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Religious 
worship had an origin in most tribes and nations, in their ignorance of the 
causes of natural phenomena. Benefits were ascribed to a good spirit, and 
evils to a bad one. This primary idea was enlarged and diversified by 
dreaming during imperfect sleep, or thinking while the volition was torpid, 
and by illusions of the senses, which led to belief in ghosts, signs, and omens, 
and these causes were augmented by enthusiasts. — PJiilUps. In all nations, 
whether civilized or barbarous, worship prevails, but is purest in Protestant 
states. — Sherlock. 

WORSHIP IN ENGLAND. In England were many forms of worship at the 
period of the Roman invasion. The first Saxons were idolaters, and de- 
dicated to their gods groves of the tallest trees and thickest forests, and 
there worshipped them without building any temples to them, or represent- 
ing them by any figures or images. Our days of the week are named after 
Saxon divinities — the Sun, Moon, Tuesco, Woden, Thor, Friga, and Saturn. 
Easter is named from their goddess Eostre ; and Christmas was from their 
great festival Geoli. Faul, or Fola, was their dreaded enemy ; and they be- 
lieved in elves and fairies, sorcery and witchcraft. The Saxon religion was 
afterwards mingled with the Christian ; but the former was in time wholly 
superseded by the latter, and in the end, the Reformation introduced our 
present pure and simple mode of worship. In Scotland, the benign influence 
of the Reformation soon put aside all other forms. The following is a re- 
markable document, given in M'Crie's Life of John Knox, (Blackwood, 
Edinburgh, 1831,) relating to the removal of images from Catholic places 
of worship in Scotland, at the period of the Reformation : — 



" To our traistfriendis, the Lairds ofArn- 
tiUy and Kinvaid. 
" Traist friends, after maist harty com- 
mendacion, we pray you faill not to pass 
incontinent to the kyrk of Diinkeld, arid tak 
doun the haill itnages thereof, and bring 
furth to the kyrkzard, and burn thaym op- 
pinly. And siclyk cast down the altaris, 
and purge the kyrk of all kynd of monu- 
ments of idolatrye. And this ye faill not to 
do, as ze will do us singular prupleseur ; 

26 



and so committis vow to the protection of 
God. From Edinburgh, the xii of August. 
1560. 

" Faill not, bot ze tak guid heyd that nei- 
ther the dasks, windocks, nor durris, be ony 

ways hurt or broken either glassin wark 

or iron wark. 

" Ar. Ersyll, 
"James Stewart 

" RUTHVEN." 



G02 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[WKi 



WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, which obtained its 
name from having been first spmi in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, in 
which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still exten- 
sively carried on, 14 Edward III., 1340. — Anderson. Worsted-stocking 
knave is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare. 

WRECKS OF SHIPPING. The wreckers of Cornwall are the inhabitants of a 
few parishes, on the rocky coast, between Mount's Bay and the Lizard. 
When a wreck takes place, thousands assemble with axes, hatchets, crow- 
bars, &c. ; and many women and children fight, by habit, for the plunder, 
utterly regardless of the sufferers. — Phillips. The loss of merchant and 
other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters in the open sea, 
was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 ships a 
year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's List, that 677 British vessels were 
totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. The annual loss 
varies ; but it is always many hundreds. 

SOME OP THE MOST REMARKABLE SHIPWRECKS. 

Of the Thunderer, 74 guns; Stirling 
Castle, 64 ; Phcenix, 44 ; La Blanche, 
42 ; Laurel, 28 ; Andromeda, 28 ; 
Deal Castle, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ; 
Barbadoes, 14 ; Cameleon, 14 ; En- 
deavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns ; 
British vessels of war, alllostinthe 
same storm, in ihe West Indies, in 

October, 1780 

Of the Roual George, capsized in Ports- 
mouth harbor, England, when 1,000 
persons perished - June 28, 1782 

Of the steamer Home, from New York 
to Charleston ; 100 lives lost, Oct. 9, 1837 

Of the Forfarshire steamer, from Hull 
to Dundee ; 38 persons drowned. 
Owing to the courage of Grace Dar- 
ling and her fether, 15 persons were 
saved. See Forfarshire - Sept. 5, 1838 

Of the Pennsylvaiiia, Oxford, and St. 
Andrew, packet ships, ma great gale 
off Liverpool - - Jan. 6, 1839 

Of the Poland from New York to 
Havre, struck by lightning. May 16, 1840 

Of the President steamer, from New 
York to Liverpool, with fifty pas- 
sengers on board ; sailed on March 
11, encountered a terrific storm two 

It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annu- 
ally lost ; 360 are annually rendered unfit for service ; and 1100 experience 
serious damage, requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary 
wear and tear. 

WRITING. Pictures M-ere undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The 
most ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon 
hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, 
and matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have writ- 
ten a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hierogly- 
phics, 2112 B. c. — Usher. Writing is said to have been taught to the Latins 
by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 b. c. — Thucydides. 
Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought the Phcenician letters 
into Greece. — Vossius. The commandments were written on two tables of 
stone, 1491 b. c. — Usher. The Greeks and Romans used waxed table-books, 
and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. See Papy- 
rus, Parchment, Paper. "I would check the petty vanity of those who 
slight good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, bj reminding 



days afterwards, and has never since 
been heard of - March 13, 1841 

Of the Peacock, one of the United States 
exploring expedition, at the mouth 
of the Columbia river, Oregon, mid- 
day and smooth water - July 18, 1841 

Of the Missouri United States steam- 
frigate, by fire, at Gibraltar, Aug. 27, 1843 

Of the United States schooner Shark, 
wrecked at same place - Sept. 10, 1816 

Of the Great Britain iron steam-ship. 
This stupendous vessel grounded in 
Dundrum bay, on the east coast of 
Ireland - - Sept. ?2, 1846 

Of the United States sloop of war Bos- 
ton, on the Bahamas - Nov. 16, 1846 

Of the United States brig Somers, cap- 
sized in a squall, off Vera Cruz ; 39 
drowned - - Dec. 8, 1846 

Of the West India mail packet Tweed ; 
about 90 souls perished - Feb. 19, 1847 

Of the ship Ocean Mo7iarch, of Boston, 
burnt near Liverpool ; 170 lives lost, 

Aug. 24, 1848 

Of the barque Charles Bartlett, run 
down at sea by steamer Europa ; 134 
lives lost - - June 27, 1849 

See Fires, and Steam Vessels. 



xer] dictionary of dates. 603 

tliem that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmness, Mr. 
professor Person by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by 
the ease and beauty, of the characters they respectively employed." — Dk. 
Parr. 



XANTHUS, SiKGE OF, by the Romans under Brutus. After a great struggle, 
and the endurance of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able 
to sustain themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the 
loss of their liberty, set fire to their city, destroyed their wives and chil- 
dren, and then themselves perished in the conflagration. The conqueror 
wished to spare them, but though he offered rewards to his soldiers if they 
brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved, 
much against their will ; 42 b. c. — Plutarch. 

XENOPHON, Retreat of. Xenophon surnamed the Attic Muse, led in the 
memorable retreat of the Greeks, one of the most celebrated events in 
ancient history. The Greeks were mercenaries of the younger Cyrus, after 
whose defeat and fall at the battle of Cunaxa, they were obliged to retreat ; 
but Xenophon kept them in a compact body, and retreated through Asia 
into Thrace. The Greeks proceeded through various fierce and barbarous 
nations, surmounted all the obstacles and dangers that arose at every step, 
and accomplished their arduous enterprise, after repeated triumphs over 
toils, fraud, and force. This retreat is esteemed the boldest and best-con- 
ducted exploit on record ; 401 b. c. — Vossiux. 

XERXES' CAMPAIGN in GREECE. Xerxes entered Greece in the spring 
of 480 B. 0. with an army, which, together with the numerous retinue of 
servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted, according to some 
historians, to 5,283.220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have 
coasisted of 3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the 
mariners, and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at 
Thermopylae, by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, aston- 
ished that such a handful of men should oppose his progress, ordered some 
of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence ; but for three succes- 
sive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were defeated, and the 
courage of the Spartans might pei-haps have triumphed longer if a base 
Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of the 
mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band. The battle of Ther- 
mopylae {which see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes, Aug. 7, 
480 B. c. The more he advanced, the more he experienced new disasters. 
His fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, and he hastened back to 
Persia, leaving Mardpnius, the best of his generals, behind, with an army of 
300,000 men. The rest that had survived the ravages of war, famine, and 
pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home. 

XERXES' BRIDGE. The famous bridge of Xerxes across the Hellespont, 
the strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marmora. It was 
formed by connecting together ships of different kinds, some long vessels of 
fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side 
towards the sea, and 318 on that of the Archipelago ; the former were 
placed transversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain on their cables, in 
the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great 
strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping were laid fast- 
bound rafters, over these a layer of unwrought wood, and over the latter 
was thrown earth : on each side was a fence, tfl prevent the horses and 



604 THE world's progress. [ YEA 

beasts of burthen from being terrified by the sea, in the passage from shore 
to shore. This wonderful work was completed, it is said, in one week, 480 

B.C. 



YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the 
year. The Roman year was introduced by Romulus 738 b. c. ; and it was 
-corrected by Numa 713 b. c, and again by Julius Ctesar, 45 b. c. See Calen- 
dar. The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 days, 5 hours, 
48 minutes, 51 seconds and 6 decimals, 265 b. c. The siderial year, or return 
of the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. A consid- 
erable variation prevailed generally among the nations of antiquity, and still 
partially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. The Jews 
dated the beginning of the sacred year in the month of March ; the Athe- 
nians in the month of June ; the Macedonians on the 24th Sept. ; the Chris- 
tians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30tli of August ; and the Persians 
and Armenians on the 11th of that month. Nearly all the nations of the 
Christian world now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX. 
of France, in 1654, published an arr6fc, the last article of which ordered the 
year for the time to come to be constantly and universally begun, and written 
on and from January 1. See Neio Style, &c. , ^ 

YEAR, LUNAR. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar 
months, or 454 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chal- 
deans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added 
another lunar month, so as to make the solar and lunar year nearly agree. 
But though the months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the first 
month was of thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so alternately ; 
and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews 
afterwards followed the Roman manner of computation. 

YEAR OF OUR LORD. The first sovereign who adopted this distinction was 
Charles IIL, emperor of Germany: he added "In the year of our Lord " to 
his reign, a. d. 879. It was followed by the French kings, and afterwards by 
the English ; and is the mode of designating the year from the birth of the 
Redeemer in aU Christian countries. See Eras. 

YEAR, Platonic. The doctrine of the Platonic year was believed among the 
Chaldeans, and in the earliest ages. It is that space of time at the end 
whereof all the planets are to return to the same point from whence they 
set out, and have the same aspects and configurations one upon another. 
Some afiirm this return to be in 15,000 common years, others in 36,000. The 
ancient heathens were of opinion, that when this period was completed, the 
world would be renewed again, and the departed souls re-enter their bodies 
and go through a second course of being. 

YEAR, Sabbatical. This was every seventh year, atiiong the Jews. In this 
year the people were enjoined by the law to let the ground lie fallow and 

• have rest. Every seventh Sabbatical year, or every forty-ninth year was 
called the Jubilee Year, when was joy and rejoicing ; all debts were forgiven. 
and slaves set at liberty, and it was usual to return to the original families 
all estates and property that had been sold or mortgaged. — Hist. Jews. 

YEAR, Siberian, and in Lapland. The year in the northern regions of Siberia 
and Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given by a recent 
traveller : — 

June 23, Snow melts. 1 July 25, Plants in flower. 

July 1, Snow gone. Aug. 2, Fruits ripe. 

July 9, Field quite green. 1 Aug. 10, Plants shed their seed. 

July 17, Plants at full growth ( Aug. 18, Snow. 



YOK, ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 605 

The snow then continues upon the ground for about ten months, from Au- 
gust 18th of one year, to June 23d of the year following, being 309 days out 
of 365; so that while the three seasons of spring, summer, and autumn, are 
together only fifty six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks' 
duration in these countries. 

YEAR AND A DAY. A space of time, in law, that in many cases establishes 
and fixes a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner 
does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the 
Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on another's land, if unclaim- 
ed for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a 
legal space of time. 

YELLOW FEVER, thS, visited the city of New York in the years 1741, 1742, 
1791, 1795, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1803, 1805, 1819, and 1822. The deaths by that 
disease were as follows : 732 in 1795 ; 2086 in 1798 (population, 55,000) ; 
670 in 1803 ; 280 in 1805 ; 23 in 1819 ; 366 in 1822. In 1805, 37,000 of the 
inhabitants (out of 76,000, the whole population) fled from the city. In 1804, 
40 persons died with it at Brooklyn, but New York escaped. Philadelphia 
was nearly desolated by it in 1793, and again in 1798. 4041 persons died in 
1793, and 17,000 fled from the city (population, 50,000). In 1798, the morta- 
lity was great, and 50,000, out of 70,000 inhabitants, fled. Several thousand 
died, and the greatest number of deaths in one day was 117. Baltimore 
sufiered from this disease in 1798, 1819, and 1821. New Orleans and Ha- 
vana have it annually. In several of the islands of the West Indies in 1732, 
1739, and 1745. It broke out in Spain in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was 
very violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814 ; in the Mauritius, July 1815 ; at 
Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz, 
and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. The yellow fever rages more or less 
every year or two at Charleston, New Orleans, and other southern cities of 
the United States. It first appeared at Rio Janeiro in 1849-50, where it 
proved fatal to many thousands, 

YOKE. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised 
by the Samnites towards the Romans, 321 b. c. This disgrace was afterwards 
inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enemies. — Abbe Lenglei, 
Dufresnoy. 

YORK. The Eboracum of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of 
England. Here Severus held an imperial court, a. d. 207 ; and here also 
Constantius kept a court, and his son Constantine the Great was born, in 
274. York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069. York 
received its charter from Richard H., and the city is the only one in the 
British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the prefix 
of lord has been granted. 

YORK, Archbishopric op, the most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, 
it is said, so made by king Lucius, about a. d. 180, when Christianity 
was first, although partially, established in England. But this establishment 
was overturned by the Saxons driving out the Britons. When the former 
were converted, pope Gregory determined that the same dignity should be 
restored to York, and Paulinus was made archbishop of this see, about a. d. 
622. York and Durham were the only two sees in the north of England for 
a large space of time, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and 
Henry VIII. another at Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scot- 
tish bishops ; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew 
their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose 
between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as, by pope Gre- 
gory's institutions, it was thought he meant, that which ever of them was 



606 THE world's progress. [ ZAN 

first confirmed, should be superior ; appeal was made to the court of Rome 
by both parties, and it was determined in favor of Canterbury ; but York 
was allowed to style himself primate of England, while Canterbury styles 
himself primate of all England. York has yielded to the church of Rome 
eight saints, and three cardinals ; and to the civil state of England, twelve 
lord chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. 
It is rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIII., 1546, at 1609Z. 19s. 2d. per 
annum. — Beatson. 

YOE.K CATHEDRAL, England. This majestic fabric was erected at difierent 
periods, and on the site of former buildings, which have again and again 
been destroyed by fire. The first Christian church erected here, which ap- 
pears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, king 
of Northumbria, about the year 630. It was burnt for the third time in 
1137, along with St. Mary's Abby, and 89 parish churches in York. Arch- 
bishop Roger began to build the choir in 1171, but it was by many hands, 
and with the contributions of many families, and of multitudes who were 
promised indulgences for their liberality, that this magnificent fabric was 
completed, about 1361. It was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, 
and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829 ; 
the damage estimated at 60,000/., was repaired in 1832. 

YORK AND LANCASTER, WARS of the HOUSES op. The first battle be- 
tween these houses was that of St. Albans, fought May 22, 1455. The last 
was that of Tewkesbury, fought May 4, 1471. In these battles the Yorkists, 
or WliUe Roses, were victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Red 
Roses. But in the sixteen years between these two dates, more than thirty 
great battles were fought with difierent success, and half the country was 
depopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobility exterminated. See 
Roses. 

YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the Bri- 
tish army under lord Cornwallis, consisting of 7000 men, to the Americans 
and their allies under Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781. 
This event decided the contest for independence in favor of the Americans. 

YUCATAN, adopted a constitution as a republic (having declared its indepen- 
dence of Mexico), May 16, 1841. 



ZAMA, Battle of, between the two greatest commanders in the world at the 
time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. It was won by Scipio, and was deci- 
sive of the fate of Carthage ; it led to an ignominious peace which was 
granted the year after, and closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost 
but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost, in killed 
and prisoners, more than 40,000 ; some historians make the loss greater ; 
B. c. 202. 

ZANTE. This island, with the rest of the islands now forming the Ionian re- 
public, was subject to Venice prior to the French Revolution ; but the whole 
group were ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio (which see), 
October 17, 1797. They were taken by a Russian and Turkish fleet, and 
were erected into an independent republic by the name of the Seven Islands, 
in 1799. They fell into different hands in the course of the succeeding 
year, and were surrendered to the French by the Russians, together with 
Ragusa, August 14, 1807. They submitted to the British army, October 3, 
1809. In the arrangements at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, they were 
put under the protection of Great Britain. The treaty was rati fled at 



zin] dictionary of dates. 607 

Paris for that purpose, between Great Britain and Russia, November 5, 
1815. The new constitution was ratified by the prince regent, February 
22, 1817. 

ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee, a. d. 535 ; he taught 
that water by baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be 
baptized with fire, by the application of a red-hot iron. The sect was at 
one time very numerous. — Ashe. 

ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, you, and yours. The letter z was retained in 
Scotland, and was commonly written, for the letter y, so late as the reign of 
queen Mary, up to which period many books in the Scottish language were 
printed in Edinburgh with these words, a. d. 1543. 

ZEALAND, NEW, in the Pacific. Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He tra- 
versed the eastern coast, and entered a strait where, being attacked by the 
natives soon after he came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time 
of Tasman, the whole country, except that part of the coast which was 
seen by him, remained altogether unknown, and was by many supposed to 
make part of a southern continent, till 1770. when it was circumnavigated 
by captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, separated by 
the strait. The introduction of potatoes into New Zealand has saved many 
lives, for the natives give this root a decided preference to human flesh, 
under every circumstance, except that of wreaking vengeance on a chief of 
the foe whom they have taken in battle. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted 
several spots of ground on this island with European garden-seeds ; and in 
1777, he found a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soil. 

ZELA, Battle op, in which Julius Csesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, 
son of Mithridates. Caesar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous 
dispatch to the senate of Rome, in three words: ^' Veni, vidi, vici" — "I 
came, I saw, I conquered," so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained. 
This battle concluded the war ; Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where 
he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander ; and Pontus was made a province 
of Rome, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 b. c. — 
Sue. Cms. 

ZELICHOW, Battle of, between the Polish and Russian armies, one of the 
most desperate and bloody battles fought by the Poles in their late struggle 
for the freedom of their country. The Russians, who were commanded by 
general Diebitch, were defeated, losing 12,000 men in killed, wounded, and 
prisoners ; and Diebitch narrowly escaped being taken in the pursuit of his 
flying army, April 6, 1881. 

ZENO, Sect o ?, founded by Zeno. This sect also took the name of Stoic, from 
a public portico, so called, from which the philosopher delivered his ha- 
rangues. It was the most famous portico in Athens, and was called by way 
of eminence, Eroa, the porch. See Stoics. In order to form his own school 
of philosophy, and to collect materials for a new system, Zeno had attended 
the schools of various masters, and among others he- offered himself as a 
disciple of Polemo. This philosopher, aware of Zeno's object, said, " I am 
no stranger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts. I perceive that your design is 
to creep slily into my garden, and steal away my fruit." He taught about 
312 B. c. 

ZINC. The discovery of this metal, so far as the fact is known, is due to the 
moderns. It is said to have been long known in China, however, and is no- 
ticed by European Avriters as early as a. d. 1231; though the method of 
extracting it from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred years 
after. A mine of zinc was discovered on lord Ribbledale's estate. Craven, 
Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly after 



608 THE world's progress. [" ZUR 

the invention of lithography became known in England, in 1817. See Li- 
thography. 

ZODIAC. The obliquity of the zodiac was discovered, its twelve signs named, 
and their situations assigned them in the heavens, by Anaximander, about 
560 B. c. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos, 
to whom it has been known from time immemorial. — Sir William Jones. 
The invention of geographical maps, and of sun-dials, belongs also to Anax- 
imander. — Pliny. 

ZOE, Reign of. This extraordinary woman, daughter of the emperor Con- 
stantine IX., married Romanus, who, in consequence, succeeded to the 
throne of the Eastern empire, a. d. 1028. Zoe, after intriguing with a Pa- 
phlagonian money-lender, caused her husband Romanus to be poisoned, 
and afterwards married her favorite, who ascended the throne under the 
name of Michael IV., 1034. Zoe adopted for her son Michael the Fifth, 
the trade of whose father (careening vessels) had procured him the surname 
of Calaphates, 1041. Zoe and her sister, Theodora, were made sole em- 
presses by the populace ; but after two months, Zoe, although she was sixty 
years of age, took for her third husband Constantine X., who succeeded to 
the empire in 1042. See Eastern Empire. 

ZOOLOGY. The animal kingdom was divided by Linnseus into six classes, 
viz : — Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle their young ; Aves, 
or birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious animals ; Pisces, or fishes ; Insecta, or 
insects ; Vermes, or worms ; a. d. 1741. From this period the science of 
zoology has had many distinguished professors, the most illustrious of whom 
was the baron Cuvier, who died in Paris, May 13, 1882. The Zoological 
Gardens of London were opened in April 1827 ; the society was chartered 
March 27, 1829. 

ZUINGLIANS. The followers of Ulricus Zuinglius. This zealous reformer, 
while he officiated at Zurich, declaimed against the church of Rome and 
its indulgences, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the 
papal dominion, which Luther had for Saxony. He procured two assem- 
blies to be called ; by the first he was authorized to proceed, and by the 
second the ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished, 1519. Zuin- 
glius, who began as a preacher, died in arms as a soldier : he was slain in a 
skirmish against the Popish opponents of his reformed doctrines, in 1531. 
The reformers who adhered entirely to Zuinglius were called after his name 
and also Sacramentarians. 

ZURICH. It was..admitted to be a member of the Swiss confederacy, of which 
this canton was made the head, a. d. 1851. Cession of Utznach, 1436. This 
was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome, 
in consequence of the opposition given by Zuinglius to a Franciscan monk 
sent by Leo X., to publish indulgences here, 1519, et sea. A grave-digger 
of Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their 
lives, and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French 
were defeated here, losing 4000 men, June 4, 1799. The Imperialists were 
defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded, 
Sept. 24, 1799. See Switzerland. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. 

[i^roffi the Co7npamon to the British Almanac, with additions.] 

The following Chronological List of Authors is in extejision of the Catalogue 
fxirnished in the Companion of 1831, diflfering from it by adding to the name 
of each author the title of his most important production, or some word 
expressive of the nature of his works. 

In order to show the various literary character of each age the catalogue is 
divided into three columns : the first containing those authors who have drawn 
chiefly from their own sources, as poets and novelists; the second those who 
treat on matters of fact, as history and geography ; and the third, the philo- 
sophic and scientific writers. Where an author has written in different styles, 
his name wiU be found in the column to which his most distinguished pro- 
ductions appertain. The Hebrews having, almost without exception, treated 
on speculative subjects, the triple division does not extend to them. 

The dates of birth and death are appended to each name, where they could 
be ascertained. In other cases, the situation of the name will show nearly the 
time when each author has flourished. 



HEBREW. 

[The words in italics between parentheses are the familiar appellations of the preceding persons ; 
they are formed from the first letters of each word composing their names. For example, the 
Jews call Maimonides Rambam, from the four initial letters of his full name, Rabbi Moses ben 
Maimon. J %tn Tof, in like marmer, is called Ritba, from the words Rabbi Yom Tof bai 
Abraham.] 



1500 Moses, 1572—1452. 

Phinehas, supposed author of the book 
Joshua. 
1100 David, 1085—10815. 
1000 Solomon, 1033—975. 
800 Jonah, d. 761. 

Amos. 

Hosea. 

Joel. 

Obadiah. 

Micah. 

Isaiah, d. 681. 

Nahum. 
700 Habakkuk. 

Zephaniah. 

Jeremiah. 
600 Baruch. 

Ezekiel. 

Daniel. 

Zechariah. 

Haggai. 
50O Ezra. 

Nehemiah, d. 430. 

Malachi. 
300 Jesus, son of Sirach. 

26* 



B. C. 

100 Nechoniah ben HakUanah, 'Seplier hab- 
bahir,' the illustrious book. The most 
ancient of Rabbinical books. Cabbalistic. 

Jonathan, ' Targum,' or Chaldee paraphrase 
of the Bible. 
A. D. 

Onkelos, 'Targum.' 

Josephus, b. 35. 
100 Akiba, d. 120. The Mishna has been in- 
correctly attributed to him. 

ShimeonbenJochai(i2asA60. The 'Zohfir,' 
a celebrated cabbalistic Commentary 
on the Pentateuch is usually attributed 
to him, but was composed by his dis- 
ciples. 

Jose ben Chilpheta, 'A History of the 
World.' 

Nathan of Babylon, ' Pirke aboth,' the say- 
ings of the fathers. Ethics. 

Elieser, 'Pirke Eliezer,' the sayings of 
Eliezer, a History of the World. 

Judah Hakkadosh, ' Mishna,' the oral tradi- 
tions of the Jews, which, with the 
Cemai'a or Commentary, constitutes the 
Babylonian Talmud. 



610 



THE world's progress. 



Raf, supposed author of the 'Siphm,' a 
commentary on Leviticus, and of the 
'Siphre,' a commentary on Numbers 
and Deuteronomy. 
200 Ushaya, ' Bereshith Rabba,' a Commentary 
on the Mishna. 
Author of the 'MecWlta,' a Commentary 

on Exodus. 
Jochanan, 'Talmud of Jerusalem.' 
300 Rabba bar Nachmon, ' Rabboth,' Commen- 
taries on the Bible. 
40C Rabasha, began the ' Gemara,' a Commen- 
tary on the Mishna. 
Martemar, continued the ' Gemara.' 
500 Abina, completed the ' Gemara.' 
800 Simeon Hejara, 'Great decisions,' jurid. 
Judah bar Nachman (,Riban), Compendium 
of the preceding. 
980 Saadia Gaon, ' Philosopher's Stone,' ' Book 
of Faith,' ' Grammar,' &c. 
Sherira, ' The Book of Answers,' history. 
1000 Samuel Haccohen, d. 1034. 
Joseph Ching, Grammarian. 
Judah Barzelloni, 'Rights of Women,' ju 

ridic. 
Joseph ben Gorion (Ribag), ' Compendium 

of Hebrew History.' 
Moses Aben Ezra, d. 1080. Grammarian, 
Isaac of Cordova, d. 1094. ' Chest of Spices.' 
1100 Alphes, (/. 1103. ' Compendiimi of the 
Talmud.' 
Nathan, d. 1106. 'Talmudic and Chaldee 

Lexicon.' 
Solomon Jarchi (Rashi), Grammarian, d. 

1105. ' Tongue of the Learned.' 
Joseph ben Meir (Ribam), d. 1141. ' Com- 
mentary on Talmud.' 
Juda the Levite, 'Sepher Cosri,' philoso- 
phical. 
Abraham Aben Ezra, very learned Com- 
mentaries on the Bible. 
Tam. d. 117. 'Sepher Hajashar,' the Book 

of Righteousness. 
Samuel ben Meir {Rashbani), d. 1171 

' Commentary on the Talmud.' 
Benjamin of Tudela, d. 1173. 'Travels.' 
Samuel, ' Book of Piety,' Ethics and Theo- 
logy. 
Isaac bar Abba, Grammarian. 
Moses Kimhi, Grammarian. 
David Kimhi (Rada/e), Grammarian. 
Abraham bar Dior (_Rabad), d. 1 199. Cab- 

balist. 
Abraham ben David {Rabad), Jurist. 
Moses ben Maimon (^Rambmn), 1131-1205. 
'Yad Hazaka,' the iM-ong hand, a very 
celebrated Commentary on the Talmud, 
&c. (This author is better known by 
his Latinized name, Maimonides.) 
1200 Abraham bar Chasdai, Ethics. 
Eliakim, Ceremonies. 
Baruch Miggarmisa, Laws, Cereinonies. 
Eliezer Miggarmisa, Ethics, Commentaries. 
Asher, Compendia of Talmud. 
Perez Haccohen {Haraph), Cabbalist. 
Moses ben Nachman {Rambari), d. 1260. 
'Law of Man,' a celebrated book on 
Ceremonies, &c. 



Moses Mikkotsi, ' Great Book of Piucepts,' 

' Compendium of Talmud.' 
Isaac ben Solomon, d. 1268. ' Proverbs and 

Fables.' 
Nissim, d. 1268. ' Book of Homilies.' 
Isaac ben Joseph, tf. 1270. 'Book of Precepts.' 
Moses Aben Tybon, Translator of Mathe- 
matical and Philosophical works from 
the Greek and Arabic. 
Solomon ben Adras iRashba). Theology. 
Meir, Meditations, on ' Maimonides.' 
Menachem Rekanat, d. 1290. ' Reason for 

the enactment of the Laws of Moses.' 
Bechai, ' Commentary on Pentateuch.' 
1300 Shimson, d. 1312. ' Intro, to the Talmud.' 
Isaac Israeli, 'Foundation of the World,' 

Histoiy. 
Judah, son of Benjamin, Ritial. 
Mordechai, ' Compendium of Talmud.' 
Isaac Dura, ' On Forbidden and Permitted 

Food.' 
Aaron Haccohen, ' The Way of Life.' 
Jerucham, ' Book of Rectitude.' 
Jacob ben Asher, 'The Four Orders,' a 

Ritual of much authority. 
David Abudraham, astronomy. 
Levi ben Gerson QRalbag), d. 1370. ' Com- 
mentary on the Law.' 
Menachen Aben Serach, d. 1375. Ritual. 
Isaac ben Sheshat iRibasK), 'Questions 

and Answers on Various Subjects.' 
Moses Haccohen, ' Help of Faith.' 
Isaac Sprot, 'Aben Bochan,' a polemic work 

against Christianity. 
Jom Tof bar Abraham (Ritba), Commen- 
tary on Maimonides.' 
Chasdai, d. 1396. 'Light of the Lord.' 

Ethics and Theology. 
Simeon bar Zemach, ' Shield of the Fathers.' 
1400 Jacob Levi, d. UZT. A Ritual. 

Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher,— 

' Foundation of Faith.' 
Israel Germanus, ' Questions and Answer* 

on the Law.' 
Joshua Levita, ' Introd. to the Talmud.' 
David Vital, ' Golden Verses.' 
Samuel Sirsa, Grammar. 
Isaac ben Arama, ' Com. on the Law.' 
Elias Misrachi (.Ram), Arithmetic. 
Abarbinel, ' Commentary on the Bible.' 
Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics. 
1500 Abraham Seba, ' Bundle of Myrrh,' a Com- 
mentary. 
Isaac tarro, ' Explanations of the Bible. 
Elias Levi, Grammar. 
Solomon ben Virga, ' History of the Jews.' 
Benjamin Zeef, ' Questions and Answers.' 
Abraham Zaccoth, ' Juchasin,' Sacred and 

Jewish History. 
Moses Iserle, Astrology. 
Joseph Karro, ' Com. on Maimonides.' 
Azarias Edomceus, History and Philology. 
Gadaliah, ' Cabbalistic Chain,' History and 

Chronology. 
Leo, d. 1592. ' Lion's Whelp,' Grammar. 
David Gans, History. 
1600 Moses of Trana, ' Book of God.' 
1700 Moses Mendelssohn, 1729-1785, Philosophy. 



AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT. 
.. D. 

St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelists. 
St. Paul, St. Peter, St. .Tames, St. Jude, Epistlers. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — GREEK. 



611 



GREEK. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO, 


B.C. 

900 Homer, ' Iliad,' ' Odyssey,' 
&c. 
Hesiod, ' Works and Days,' 
&c. 


B.C. 

900 


B.C. 

900 


700 Tyrtffius, Elegies (fragm'ts.) 
Arciiilochus, Satires, Ele- 
gies (fragments). 


700 


700 


600 Alcaeus, Lyrics (fragments). 

Sappho, Lyrics (fragments). 

Solon, d. 558. 

Epimenides. 

Stesichorus, 633-553 Lyrics 
(fragments). 

Mimnermus, Elegies (frag- 
ments.) 

Anacreon, Lyrics. 


600 


600 

Pythagoras, Philosophy. 


500 Simonides, 556-467, Lyrics, 
^scliylus, 525-456, Trage- 
dies. 
Pindar, 518-439, Odes. 
Bacchylides, Lyrics. 

Sophocles, 495-405, Trage- 
dies. 

Euripides, 480-486, Trage- 
dies. 

Aristophanes, d. 338, Come- 
dies. 


500 

Gorgias, Orations (frgts.) 

Hecatseus, Hist, (fragmn'ts.) 
Herodotus, d. 484, History. 
Thucydides, 471-391, Histo- 
ry of Peloponnesian War. 
Antiphon, Orations. 
Andorides, Orations. 
Lysias, 458-378, Orations. 


500 Zeno of Elea, Philosohy. 
Ocellus Lucanus, Philoso- 
phy. 

Anaxagoras, 500-428, Philo- 
sophy. 

Socrates, 468-399, Philoso- 
phy. 


400 

Diphilus, Comedy (frgts.) 
Menander, 243-291, Come- 
dies (fragments.) 


400 Ctesias, History (fragm'ts.) 
Xenophon, 444-359, History, 

Philosophy, &c. 
Isasus, Orations. 

Isocrates, 536-338, Orations. 
Dinarchus, Orations. 
Lycurgus, Orations. 
Demosthenes, 382-322, Ora- 
tions, 
.aischines, 389-314, Orations. 


400 

Hippocrates, 460-357, Medi- 
cme. 

Democritus, 450-357, Philo- 
sophy. 

Plato, 429-347, Philosophy. 

Aristotle, 384-322, Philoso- 
phy, Criticism. 

Theophrastus,d. 288, Ethics. 

Epicurus, 341-270, Philoso- 
phy. 


300 Bion, Idyls. 

Moschus, Idyls. 

Lycophron, ' Cassandra.' 

Callimachus, Hymns and 
Epigrams. 

Theocritus, Idyls. 

Aratus, Poem on Astrono- 
my. 

Cleanthes, Hymns. 

Apollonius Rhodius, Argo- 
nautics.' 


300 

Manetho, History (fragm'ts.) 


300 Euclid, Geometry. 

Zento of Citium, d. 263, Phi- 
losophy. 

Apollonius, Conic Sections. 

Archimedes, d. 212, ' Sphere 

and Cylinder,' &c. 
Eratosthenes, Philosophy. 



612 



THE world's progress. 



nuaiNATioK. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIBNTIFIO. 


200 Nicander, Theriaca. 


200 Polybius, 206-124, Universal 
History. 
ApoUodorus, ' Bibliotheca,' 
Mythology. 


200 


100 Meleager, Epigrams. 


100 Conon, Mythology. 

Scymnus, Poetical Geogr. 

Dionysius Halicamassus, 
'Roman Antiquities.' 

Dionysius Periegetes, Ge- 
ography? 

Diodorus Siculus, General 
History. 


100 

• 





Strabo, Geography. 

Pausanias, Description of 

Plutarch, Biography, Morals 

&c. 
Dion Chrysostom, Orations. 




Dioscorides, Botany and Me- 
dicine. 

Epictetns, ' Enchiridion,' 
Philosophy. 


A. S. 

100 

lamblichus, ' Rhodis and Si- 
nonides, a novel. 

Lucian, Dialogues. 
Oppian, Poems on Hunting 

and Fishing. 
Athenaeus, d. 194, ' Deipno- 

sophistae, anecdotes. 


A. D. 

100 iEIian, d. 140. Varieties. 
Appian, History. 
Ptolemy, Geog., Astron. 

Arrian, ' Expedition of Alex- 
ander.' 


A. D. 

100 

Justin Martyr, d. 163, Theo- 
logy. 
Polycarp, d. 167, Theology. 
Galen, 103-193, Medicine. 

Athenagoras, d. 172, ' On the 
Resurrection.' 

Phavorinus, Lexicon. 

Hermogenes, d. 161, Rhe- 
toric. 

Polyaenus, Strategy. 

M. Aurelius Antoninus, Phi- 
losophy. 

NephEestion, ' On Metres.' 

Max. Tyrius, Philosophy. 

Julius Pollux, 'Onomasti- 
con,' Rhetoric. 


200 


200 Diogenes Laertius, d. 222, 
' Lives of Philosophers.' 

Philostratus, d. 244, Life of 
Apollonius. 

Dion Cassias, History of 
Rome. 

Herodian, History of Rome. 

Porphyrius, 233-304, Life of 
Pythagoras, Philosophy. 


200 

Ammonius, Philos'jphy. 
Origan, d. 254, Theology 
Hesychius, Lexicon, 
lamblichus. Philosophy. 
Longinus, d. 273, 'On the 
Sublime.' 


aoo 

Achilles Tatius, ' Clitophon 
and Leucippe,' novel. 

Xenophon, 'Anthea and Ab- 
rocome,' iMVel. 


300 Eusebius, d. 340, Ecclesias- 
tical History. 

Liabanius, Orations and 
Epistles. 


300 

Julian, d. 363, Philosophy. 

Athanasius, 298-371, Theo- 
logy. 

Greg. Nazianzen, 318-389, 
Theology. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. — GREEli. 



613 



UIAOIMATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO. 


300 


300 

Ennapius, 'Lives of Philo- 
sophers.' 


Gregory Nyssseus, d. 396, 

Theology. 
Cyril, 315-386, Theology. 
Diophantus, Mathematics. 


30C Aristaenetus, 'Erotic Let- 
ters.' 

Heliodorus, ' Theagenes & 
Chariclasa,' novel. 

Chariton, ' Chaereus and 
Calirrhoe,' novel. 


300 


300 

Chrysostom, 354-407, The- 
ology. 


400 Longus, 'Daphnis and 
Cnloe,' novel. 

Nonnus, ' Conquest of India 
by Bacchus.' 

Stobseus, ' Literary Collec- 
tions.' 

Quintus Smymseus (com- 
monly called) Calabar, 
'Contin. of Homer.' 

Musffius, Poem of Hero and 
Leander? 

Eumathius, 'Ismenseus & 
Ismenaea,' novel. 

Coluthus, Poem on ' Rape 

of Helen.' 
Tryphindorus, Poem on 

' Destruction of Troy.' 


400 Synesius, Orations & Epis- 
tles. 

Zosimus, ' Hist, of Roman 
Emperors.' 

Socrates, 389-446, Ecclesi- 
astical History. 

Sozomen, d. 450, Ecclesias- 
tical History. 

Theodoret, d. 450, Ecclesi- 
astical History. 


400 Nemesius, ' Nature of 
Man,' Philosophy. 

Cyril, d. 443, Homilies. 
Proclus, d. 445, Theology. 

Proclua, d. 500, Platonist. 


600 


500 .Stephanus, Geography. 

Procopius, ' Hist, of Reign 
of Justinian.' 

Olympiodorus, 'Hist, of 
Honorius.' 

Cos. Indicopleustes, Topo- 
graphy. 

Evagrius, Ecclesiast. Hist 

Agathias, Byzantine Hist. 


500 Simplicius, ' Comments on 
Aristotle.' 
Tribonianus, Jurist. 


600 


600 Menan, Protector, Chron. 
Theophanes, Byzant.Hist. 

Theophylactus Simocatta, 
Byzantine History. 


600 

Philoponus, Grammarian. 


700 


700 


700 Damascenus, d. 750, The- 
ology. 


800 


800 Nicephorus, 758-828, Hist. 
Syncellus, History. 

John Malalas, History. 


800 Theodorus Studiles, 759- 
826, Sermons. 
Photius, d. 891, 'Biblio- 
theca.' 


900 


900 

Leontius, History. 
Genesius, History. 


900 Leo VI., d. 911, ' On Chris, 
tian Faith.' 



614 



THE world's progress. 



IMA6IHATI0N. 



1000 



1100 



C. Theo. Prodromus, ' Rho- 
danthe and Doaicles,' 
novel. 



laoo 



1300 Manuel Philes, 1275-1340, 
Poems. 



Maximus Planudes, Anth- 

olo]Sfy. 
Leo Pilatus, Literature. 



90O Const. Porphyrogenneta, 
905-959, Hist. Selections. 
Sim. Metaphrastes, Lives 
of Saints. 



1000 George Cedrenus, History. 
John Xiphilinus, d. 1080, 
Abridg. of Dion Cassius. 

John Scylitza, History. 



SPECDLAIVIVB AND SCIEMTinCL 



900 



1000 



Theophylactus, Theology. 
Michael PseUus, Mathema- 
tics. 



1100 1100 Euthymius Zygabenus, 

Nicephorus Bryennius, d. Theology. 

1137, Byzant. Affairs. 
Anna Comnena, Reign of 

her father Alexius. 



Const. Manasses, History. 
Zonaras, History of Ro- 
mans, History of Jews. 

Will, of Tyre, 1100-1184, 

History. 
John Tzetzes, History in 

Verse. 
Cinnamus, History. 



1200 Joel, History. 

Michael Glycas, History. 
George Acropolita, Hist. 
Nicetas Acominatus, Hist. 
George Pachymer, Hist. 



Suidas, Lexicon. 
Eustathias, Commentariea 
on Homer. 



Isaac Tzetzes,Commentary 
on Lycophron. 



1200 



Nicephorus 
Theology. 



Blemmidas, 



1300 Theod. Metochita, d. 1312, 1300 
History. 

Callistus Xantopulus, Ec- 
clesiastical History. 

Niceph. Gregoras, History. 



John Cantacuzenus, Hist. 
George Codinus, Hist. 
Michael Ducas, History. 



1400 



1400 



Demet. Pamperes, Tales. 
MaruUus Tarchoniota d. 
1500, Poems. 



1500 



Theodore Gaza, d. 1478. 

Origin of Turks. 
Laonicus Chalcondyles, 

History of Turks. 
George Phranza, History. 



1500 



1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d. 
1415, Grammar. 

Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho, 
d. 1450, Philosophy. 

Eman. Moscopulus, Notes 
on Hesiod. 

Bessarion, 1395-1472, The- 
ology. 

Geo. of Trebizond, 1396- 
1468, Aristotelian. 



John Argyrophilus, Aristo 
telian. 



1500 Demetrius Chalcondyles, 
1453-1513, Philology. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN ARD ITALIAN. 



615 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1600 


1600 


1600 Panagioti, d. 1763, The- 
ology. 


1700 Kallinikus, Poems. 


1700 


1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian. 


Nicholas Caradza, Trans- 
lation of Voltaire. 


History of the Jews. 
Meletius, Geography. 


Marcus Tharboures, Me- 
chanics. 


1700 

Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics, Nat- 
ural Philosophy. 


1700 

Ducas, Translation of Thu- 
cydides. 


1700 Bulgaria, Mathematics. 


1800 N. Piccolo, Tragedy. 

Christopulus, Anacreon- 
tics, Opera. 
Calvos, Lyrics. 
Ilarion, Translation of So- 
phocles. 


1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827, 
Hist, of Wallachia, &c. 

Paliuris, Hist, of Greece. 

Perrevos, History of Suli 
and Parga. 

Gr. Demetrius, Geography. 


1800 Psalidas, Metaphysics. 
Coray, Commentaries, Lex- 
icon. 
Cumas, Dictionary. 
Neophitus, Bamba, Ethics. 



LATIN AND ITALIAN. 

[The Latin ceased to be a spoken language about the sixth century, but was in almost universal 
use throughout Europe as the language of composition until the thirteenth century, when the 
modern languages began to appear. 

As long as the literature of the West was almost exclusively confined to Italy we have arranged 
all authors who wrote in Latin under the same head ; but about the sixth century they will be 
foxmd under those countries where their works were published, whatever the language in which 
they wrote.] 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECHLATIVB AND SCIENTIFIC. 


B. C. 


B. C. 


B. C. 


200 M. A. Plautus, Comedies. 


200 


200 


Q. Ennius, Epics (Fragts). 






P. Terentius, Comedies. 




M. P. Cato, De Re Rustica. 


100 


100 T. Pomponius Atticus, 110- 


100 Varro, 115-28, De Re Rusti- 




33, Letters. 


ca Lingua Latina. 
Vitruvius, Architecture. 
Verrius Flaccus, d. 4, Fasti 

Capitolini. 


T. Lucretius, h. 95, De Re- 


M. T. Ciftero, 107-43, Orator 


rum Natura. 


and Philosopher. 




Catullus, 86-10, Lyrics. 


Julius Caesar, 98-i6, Com- 
mentaries. 

Hirtius Pansa, Gallic War. 

C. Sallustius, 85-35, Jugur- 
thine War. 

Corn. Nepos, Biography. 




P. Virgihus, 70-19, Eneid. 






Q. Horatius, 65-8, Odes, Sat- 






ires. 






Propertius, 59-16, Elegies. 


T. Livius, 59 b. c— 19 a. d., 




A. Tibullus, 43 b. c— 17 


History of Rome. 




A. D., Elegies. 






Ovid, 43 B. c— 17 a. d., Me- 






tamorph. Fasti, &c. 






Hyginus, Poeticon Astro- 






nomicon. 







616 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SOIBNTIK*. 


A. O. 


A. D. 


A. D. 





Vel Paterculus, 19 b. c— 30 
A. D., Hist, of Rome. 

Pomp. Mela, Geography. 

Valerius Maximus, Anec- 
dotes of Great Men. 





Phaedrus, Fables. 




C. Celsus, De Medicina. 




Quintus Curtius, History of 
Alexander. 


Columella, Agriculture. 


Persius, 34-62, Satires. 


L. A, Seneca, 12-65, Philos- 


Lucan, 38-65, ' Pharsalia.' 




opher, Tragic Poet. 


Petronius Arbiter, d. 67, Sa- 




Pliny the Elder, 23-79, Nat- 


tyricon. 
Valerius Flaccus, Argonau- 




ral History. 




Quintilian Criticism. 


tics. 
Silius Italicus, ' Punic 






War.' 






Sulpicia, Satires, &c. 






Statius, d. 99, 'Thebais,' 






'Achilleis.' 






Martial, 29-104, Epigrams. 






Juvenal, 48-128, Satires. 






Pliny the Younger, 61-113, 






Epistles. 






100 


100 Tacitus, Histoiy. 


100 Valer, Probus, Grammar. 




Suetonius, Biography. 
Florus, History of Rome. 


Frontmus, Strategy. 




Aulus Gellius, Noctes At- 


Terentianus Maurus, De Ar- 
te Metrica. 


L. Apuleis, Golien Ass. 


ticas. 
C. Jul. Solinus, Polyhistor. 






Justin, History. 


Pompei. Festus, Grammar. 


200 


200 


200 Ulpian, d. 228, Law. 

Tertullian, d. 220, ' Apology 

for Christianity.' 
Minutius Fellxj Dialogue in 

favor of Chnstianity. 
Julius Obsequens, ' De Pro- 

digiis.' 
Censorinua, 'De Die N»- 

tali.' 
Cyprian, d. 258, Theology. 


Nemesianus, Cynegetica. 






Jul. Calpumius, Eclogues. 






300 


300 El Spartianus, History. - 


300 Arnobius, ' Adversus gen- 




Jul. Capitolinus, History. 


tes.' 




Ml. Lampridus, History. 


Laotantius, d. 325, Defence 




Vul. Galllcanus, History. 


of Claristianity.' 




Trebellius, PoUio, History. 




Aquilinus Juvencus, Gospel 


F. Vopiscus, History. 


M\. Donatus, Grammar. 


in Verse. 


Aurelius Victor, History. 


F. Matemus, Astronomy 
Theology. 


M. Victorinus, Hymns. 


F. Butropius, History of 


Ambrosius, Theology. 


Festus Avienus, Geographi- 


Rome. 




cal Poem. 


Amm. Marcellinus, History 


Jerom. 329^420, Version of 


D. M. Ausonius, Idyls. 


of Rome. 


Bible. 

Rufinus, d. 410, Ecclesiasti- 
cal History. 

T. Vegetius Renatus, De Re 
Militari. 


A. T. Macrobius, Satur- 




Augustin, 354—430, Theol- 


nalia. 




ogy. 


Symmachus, Epistles. 







LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 



617 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SOIENTIFIO 


300 C. Claudianus, Poems. 
A. Prudentius Clemens, 
Christian Poems. 


300 


300 


400 

Sedulius, Poetical Life of 

Christ. 
Martianus Capella, De Nup- 

tius Phil, et Merc. 
Paulin. Pretocorius, Poem, on 

Martin of Tours. 
Sidonius Apollinaris, d. 488, 
Poems. 

Ennodius, d. 521, Christian 
Poems. 


400 Vib. Sequester, Geography. 
Sulpitius, Severus, d. 420, 

Sacred History. 
Orosius, Hist, of World. 

Victorius, History of Church 

in Africa. 
Idacius, Chronicles to 468. 


400 


500 Boethius, Poet and Philo- 
sopher. 

Arator, 490-556, Acts of 
Apostles in Verse. 


500 Cassiodorus, 481-562, His- 
tory. 

Jornandes, Hist, of Goths. 
Evagrius, Eccl. History. 


500 Priscianus, Grammar. 
Fulgentius, 468-533, The- 
ology. 
Dionysius Exiguus, d. 536, 

Christian Era. 
Non. Marcellus, Grammar, 


600 


600 Secundus, d. 615, Histoiy 
of Lombards. 


600 


700 


700 

Paul Wamefrid, History 
of Lombards. 


700 Cresconius, Collection 
Canons, Verses, 


800 


800 Erchempert, History of 
Lombards. 
Anastasius, Lives of Popes. 


800 


900 


900 Luitprand, History of his 
Times. 


900 


1000 


1000 


1000 Papias, Grammar. 

Lanfranc, d. 1089, Theol. 


1100 Donizo, Latin Poe'ry. 

CiuUod' Alcamo, Sicilian 
Poetry. 


1100 

Falcandus, Hist, of Sicily. 


1100 

Gratian, Canonist. 
Campanus, Mathematics. 


1200 

Guido of Colonna, Poetry, 
History. 

Brunetto Latina, d. 1294, 
' 11 Tesora.' 

Guido Cavalcanti, d. 1300, 
Poems. 

John XXU., Poem on Me- 
dicine, 


1200 Pietro dalle Vigne, d. 1249, 
History. 

Marco Polo, Travels, 

G. de Voragine, d. 1298, 
Legends of Saints. 


1200 Accursius, 1182-1260, Law 
Thomas Aquinas, 1224- 

1274, Theology. 
Bonaventura, Scholastic. 

G. Durand, Law. 

Pietro d'Albano, 1250-1» \ 

Astrology, Physics. 
Torregiano Rustechelli, 
Commentaries. 



618 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO. 


130C Dante, 1265-1321, La Di- 


1300 


1300 Mon. de Luzzi, Anatomy. 


vina Commedia. 




Am. Villanovan, d. 1313, 

Alchemy. 
Cecco d'Ascoli, d. 1327, 


F. Barberino, 1264-1348, 




Astronomy. 


Poems. 




G. Andreas, d. 1348, Ca- 


Petrarca, 1304-1374, Son- 




nons. 


nets, Epic, Literature. 




Bartolus, Law. 


Boccacio, 1313-1375, 'D- 






Decamerone.' 


Ferreti, 1356-1429, History 
of his Times. 




1400 


1400 Leonardo Bruni, History of 


1400 Leonard of Pisa, Algebra. 




Florence. 


Nicholas Tedeschi, Law. 


A. Beccadelli, 1374-1471, 






'Hermaphroditus.' 


Guarino, 1370-1460, Trans- 




Poggio, 1380-1459, Litera- 


lation of Plutarch. 




ture. 




Mich. Savonarola, d. 1462, 


Lorenzo Valla, 1407-1457, 




Medicine. 


Literature. 




Bar. Montagnana, d. 1460 


D. Burchiello, Sonnets. 


B. Accolti, 1415-1466, His- 


Baraterius, Law. 




tory of Holy War. 


Gianozzo, Manetti, 1396' 




Flav. Blondus, 13SS-1463, 


1479, Orier.talist. 




Historv of Venice, cfec. 


Paul Toscanello, d. 1482, 




^n. Sylvius, 140-1464, His- 


Astronomy. 




tory, Poetry, &c. 






John Gobelin, History. 






Beccat. Panormita, 1393- 




Pulci, 1432-1487, 'Mor- 


1471, Biography. 




gante Maggiore.' 


Bart. Platina, 1421-1481, 




Franc. Pliilelphus, 1398- 


Lives of Popes. 




1481, Poetry and Ethics. 


F. Buonaccorsi, 1437-1496, 




Loren. de'Medici, d. 1492, 


Biography. 




Poetry, Literature. 


Pomp. Lstus, 1425-1495, 




Angelo Poliziano, 1454- 


Lives of Ca3sars, &c. 




1494, Poetry, Drama. 


Franc. Berlinghieri, Geo- 




Marsilius Ficinus, 1433- 


graphy. 


Pico ie Mirandola, 1463- 


1499, Translat. Plato. 


G. Pontano,1426-1563,Wars 


1494, Metaphysics. ■ 




of Ferdinand I. 


Luca di Burgo, Mathem. 




Bonfinius, d. 1502, History 






of Hungary. 




1500 


1500 R. Accolti, 1455-1532, His- 


1500 Ant. della Torre, d. 1512, 




tory. 


Anatomy. 
L. da Vinci, 1452-1520, 

'Treatise on Painting.' 
G. Abrosi, Astronomy. 


6. Ruccellai, 1475-1526, ' Le 




A. Acchillini, 1472-1512, 


Apt.' 




Medicine. 


Alexander ab Alexandro, 




B. Castigiione, 1478-1529, 


1461-1523, Dies Geni- 




' The Courtier.' 


tales. 






M- Boiardo, ' Orlando inna- 






morato.' 






Sanazar, 1458-1530, Ar- 






cadia. 


Machiavelli, 1482-1528, His- 




Berni, d. 1530, Satires. 


tory of Florence, &c. 




Ariosto, 1474-1533, ' Or- 






lando Furioso.' 






F. M. Molza, d. 1544, Po- 


Guicciardini, 1482-1540, 




ems. 


History of Italy. 
Bembo, 1470-1547, History 




Trissino, 1478-1550, 'Italy 


of Venice. 


G. Fracastoro, 148a-!533, 


Delivered,' Epic Trage- 


L. Alberti, d. 1552, History 


Medicine. 


dy. 


of Bologna. 


And. Alciato, 1492-1550, 




Law. 




. 


Nic. Tartaglia, Mathem. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 



619 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1500 Hier. Vida, d. 1566, Latin 


1500 


1500 F. Commandido, 1509-1575, 


Poetry. 


B. Cellini, 1500-1570, Auto- 


Mathematics. 


Mic. Angelo Buonaroti, d. 


biography. 


Angelo Caninio, d. 1557, 


1564, Poems. 


B. Varclii, 1503-1566, His- 
toid of nis Times. 


Orientalist. 


Giovanni della Casa, 1503- 




1556, 11 Galateo, &c. 






G. Anguillara, b. 1517, Tra- 
gedy. 
L. Dolce, 1508-1568, Trage- 










dy, Epic, History. 
Bernardo Tasso, 1493-1575, 






V. Borgkni, 1515-1580, His- 


And. Vesalio, 1514-1564, 


'Amadis.' 


tory. 


Anatomy. 


Greg. Giraldi, 1504-1573, 


G. Vasari, 1514-1578, Lives 


Falopius, 1523-1563, Medi- 


Tragedy. 


of Painters, &c. 


cine. 




Sperone Speroni, 1500-1588, 


Eustachi, d. 1576, Do. 




Orations. 


P. Manut Aldus, 1512-1574, 




S. Ammirato, 1531-1600, 


Commentaries. 




History of Florence. 


Cardano, 1501-1576, Mathe- 




G. Adriani, 1511-1579, His- 


matics. 


A. F. Grazzini, d. 1583, 


tory of Iiis Times. 


P. Launcelloti, 1511-1591, 


Comedies. 


B. Davanzati, 1529-1606, 


Law. 


Torq. Tasso, 1544-1595, 


Hist. Eng. Reformation. 




'Gerusalemme Liberata.' 


C. Baronius, 1538-1607, Ec- 




G. Bagnioli, d. 1600, Tra- 


clesiastical Annals. 




gedy. 


P. Paruta, 1540-159S, Histo- 




Guarini,153S-1613,' 11 Pas- 


ry of Venice. 


Andrea Cassalpino, 1519- 


tor Fide' 


Possevini, 1533-1611, De- 


1603, Botany. 




scription of Muscovy,&c. 


U. Aldrovandi, 1528-1605, 




P. R. Sarpi, 1552-1623, His- 


Natural History. 




tory of Coun. of Trent. 


Orazio Torsellino, 1545- 
1609, Grammar. 


Ottavio Rinuccini, Opera. 






F. Braccilolini, 1566-1605, 






'La Croce Racquistata.' 






Oraz.Vecchi, Comic Opera 


E. C. Davila, 1576-1631, 




G.Marini,1569-1625, Poems. 


Hist. Civil Wars France. 




C. Achillini, 1577-1640, Po- 






ems. 
A.Tassoni,1561-1635, 'Sech- 






chia Rapita.' 






1600 G. Chiabrera, 1552-1637, 


1600 G. Bentivoglio, 1579-1644, 


1600 J. Fabricius, d. 1619, Com- 


Poems. 


History Civil Wars Flan- 


parative Anatomy. 




ders. 


Bellarmino, 1542-1621, Po- 
lemics. 

Galileo, 1564-1642, Astron. 

T. A. Campanella, 1568- 
1693, Philosophy. 

L. Vanini, 1585-1619, Theo- 
logy. 

B. Castelli, d. 1644, Mathe- 










matics. 






B. Cavalieri, d. 1647, Do. 






Fabio Colonna, 1567-1647, 






Botany, &c. 




P. della Valle, 1586-1652, 






Travels. 






F. Strada, 1571-1649, Hist. 




Laur.Lippi, 1506-1664, Co- 


of Wars of Flanders. 




mic Poems. 


G. B. Nani, 1616-1678, His- 




G. Marini, Romances. 


tory of Venice. 
Oderic Rainaldi, Ecclesias- 




Salvator Rosa, 1615-1673, 


tical Annals. 




Satires. 




F.Redi, 1626-1697, Natural 


0. M. Maggi, 1630-1699, 


Villani, Hist, of Florence. 


History. 


Poems. 




M. Malpighi, 1628-1694, 
Anatomy. 



620 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECtJLATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1600 Ben. Manzina, 1646-1704, 


1600 


V. Viviani, 1621-1703, Ma- 


Art of Poetry, Satires. 
V. Filicaja, l&t2-1707, Po- 




thematics. 




A. Magliabecchi, 1633-1714^ 


ems. 




Literature. 

G. D. Cassini, 1625-1712, 
Mathematics, Astron. 

D. Guglielmini, 1655-1710, 
Mathematics. 


1700 Aless.Guldi, 1650-1712, Ly- 


1700 


1700 G. Baglivi, 1668-1706, Me- 


rics. 




dicine. 


A. Marchetti, 1633-1714, Po- 




G. V. Gravina, 1564-1718, 


ems, Philosophy. 




Law. 


N. Forteguerra, 1674-1735, 






Ricciardetto. 






G. M. Crescembini, 1663- 






1728, Poetry. 


L. Muratori, 1672-1750, 




Apostolo Zeno, 1669-1750, 


Annals of Itality. 




Operas. 


B. Giannone, 1680-1748, 




S. Maffei, 1675-1755, Tra- 
gedy. 


History of Naples. 






G. Cassini, 1677-1756, 






Astronomy. 




F. X. Quadrio, 1695-1756, 


G. Morgagni, 1681-1771, 




Histoiy of the Valteline. 


Anatomy. 


M. Metastasio, 1698-1782, 






Dramas, Operas. 




A. Genovesi, 1732-1769, 
Metaphysics. 




B. Buonamici, 1710-1761, 


F. Algarotti,, 1712-1764, 




History. 


'Newtonianism.' 
G.R. Boscowich,17ll-1787, 

Mathematics, Philology. 
F. M. Zanotti, 1692-1777, 


C. Goldoni, 1707-1772, Co- 




Philosophy. 


medies. 




C. Beccaria, 1720-1795, 


C. 1. Frugoni, 1692-1768, 




'Crimes & Punishments.' 


Poems. 


A. Fabroni, 1732-1802, Bio- 




G. Gozzi, 1713-1786, Sa- 


graphy. 




tires, Odes. 


G. Tiraboschi, 1731-1794, 


L. Spallanzani, 1729-1799, 




Hist, of Italian Literature. 


Natural History. 
L. Galvani, 1737-1798, Gal- 


V. Alfieri, 1749-1803, Tra- 




vanism. 


gedies. 




Volta, 1745-1827, Do. 
G. Filangieri, 1751-1798, 
Legislation. 


1800 Pindemonte, Poems. 


1800 


1800 


Monti. Poems. 






Ugo Foscolo, Drama, Po- 






ems. 


Botta, History of Italy, &c. 






Denina, History of Italian 


Scarpa, Anatomy. 




Revolutions. 




I. da Ponte, Poems, Operas. 


Silvio Pellico, Memoirs. 




Manzoni, Novels. 




M. Gioja, 1767-1839, Polh. 
Economy. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — ^BRITISH. 



621 



BRITISH, &c. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECITLATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


A. D. 


A. D. 


A. D. 


500 


500 Gildas, Conquest of Britain 


500 


600 Cffldmon, Saxon Poems. 


60O Nennius, Origin of Britons 


600 


Aldhelme, d. 709, Latin Po 






ems. 






700 


700 Bede, 673—735, Eccl. Histo 


700 




ry of England, 


Alcum, d. 804, Theology, 
History, Poetry. 


800 Alfred, 849—901, Saxon Po 


soo 


800 J. Scot Erigena, d. 883, ' Of 
the Nature of Things.' 


ems. Translations, &c. 






Asser, d. 909, Life of Alfred, 






Histoiy of England. 




900 


900 Ethelwerd, History of Great 
Britain. 


900 


1000 


1000 Ingulphus, 1030— 1109, His- 
tory of Croyland. 
Eadmer, Chronicle. 


1000 


1100 


1100 Order. Vitalis, 1075-1132, 

History of England. 

Florence of Worcester, d. 

1118, Chron. of England. 

Geoffry of Monmouth, His- 


noo 




tory of Britain. 


Robert Pulleyn, d. 1150, 




William of Malmsbury, d. 


Theology. 




1143, Hist, of Britain. 






Henry of Huntingdon, 






Chronicles of England. 






Simeon of Durham, Chron- 






icles of England. 


Richard of St. Victor, d. 




John of Salisbury, d. 1181, 


1173, Theology. 




' Life of Becket,' &c, 




Layamon, Saxon Poetry. 




Ralph Glanville, Collection 
of Laws. 


• Nigellus, Speculum Stulto- 


G. Cambrensis, Conq. of 


rum. 


Ireland, Itin. of Wales. 




Walter Mapes, Satires, 


Wm. of Newbury, b. 1136, 




So.ig3. 


Chron. of England. 




Jos. of Exeter, Troj. War, 






War of Antioch, Epics. 






1200 


1200 Roger Hoveden, Chron. of 
England. 


1200 




Gervase of Canterbury, 


Alex. Neckham, d. 1227, 




History of England. 


Theology. 




Roger of Wendover, Hist. 






of England. 


Robert Grosteste, Natural 

Philosophy. 
Alexander Hales, d. 1345, 

Aristotelian. 
John Peckham, Theology. 
John Holiwood, d. 1268, 




Matthew Paris, d. 1259, 


Astron., Mathematics. 




History of England. 





62S 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SOIENTIPIO. 


Robert of Glocester, Chron- 


William Rishanger, His- 
tory of England. 


Roger Bacon, 1214—1292 


icle in verse. 


Chemistry, Optics, &c. 


T. Lermont, the Rhymer, 




Rich. Middleton, Theology, 


Sir Tristem, Romance. 






1300 


1300 


1300 Albricus, Theology. 

Duns Sootus, d. 1308, Phil- 
osophy. 

Walter Burleigh, Philoso- 
phy. 

Gilb. Anglicus, Medicine. 










Adam Davie, Metr. Ro- 


Nicholas Triveth, d. 1328, 


R. Aungervile, 1281—1345, 


mance, Life of Alex. 


Hist. Physic, Theology. 
Richard of Chichester, 


Philobiblion. 


Lawrence Minot, d. 1352, 


Chron. of England. 


J. Wicliffe, 1324-1384, 


Historical Poems. 


Ralph Higden, d. 1360, 


Theology, Translation of 




Chron. of England. 


Bible. 




Henry Knighton, d. 1370, 






Chron. of England. 






Matthew of Westminster, 




John Barbour, 1325-1396, 


'Flowers of Historv.' 




' The Bruce.' 


John Maundeville, d. 1372, 


H. de Bracton, Law. 


R. Langlande, ' Pierce 


Travels. 




Plowman,' a Satire. 


John Fordun, Chron. of 




Geof. Chaucer, 1328-1400, 


Scotland. 




' Canterbury Tales,' &c. 






John Gower, d. 1402, Ele- 






gies, Romances, &c. 






'400 


1400 Andrew of Wyntoun, 
Chron. of Scotland. 


1400 


John Lydgate, 1380-1440, 






Poems. 


T. Walsingham, d. 1440, 
History of Normandy. 




Jameo I. of Scotland, 1395- 




John Fortescue, Laws ol 


1437, 'King's auhair,' 




England. 


&c. 






Harry the Minstrel, 'Sir 






W. Wallace.' 


John Hardyng, Chron. of 


Thomas Littleton, d. 1487, 




England. 


Law. 




Lord Berners, Trans, of 






Froissart. 




Stephen Hawes, ' Passe- 


W. Caxton, Translations. 




tyme of Pleasure.' . 






John Skelton, d. 1529, 


Douglas of Glastonbury, 




Satires, Odes. 


Chron. of England. 




1500 Wm. Dunbar, 1465-1530, 


1500 R. Fabyan, d. 1512, Chron. 


1500 Thos. Linacre, 1460-1524, 


'Thistle and Rose.' 


of England and France. 


Philology, Medicine. 


Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522, 






Trans. Virgil. 






Thomas More, 1480-1535, 




Anth. Fitzherbert, Hus- 


' Utopia.' 




bandry. 


Thomas Wyatt, d. 1541, 






Sonnets. 


T. Halls, d. 1547, Hist, of 




John Heywood, d. 1565, 


Houses of York and Lan- 


Thomas Elyot, Philology. 


Drama. 


caster. 


H. Latimer, 1475—1555, 


Earl of Surrey, d. 1546-7, 


John Leland, d. 1552, Eng- 


Sermons. 


Poems. 


lish Antiquities. 




Geo. Gascoigne, d. 1577, 


W. Cavendish, 1505—1557, 




Drama. 


'Life of Wolsey.' 
J. Ball, 1495-1563, 'Lives 






Roger Ascham, 1515 — 1568, 




of British Writers.' 


' The Schoolmaster.' 




Ralph Hollingshed,d. 1581, 


Thomas Wilson, d. 1581 




Chronicles. 


Logic and Rhetoric. 




Geo. Buchanan, 1506-1582, 


Thomas Tusser, d. 1580, 




History of Scotland. 


Husbandry. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 



623 



IMAGINATION. 



Philip Sidney, 1554—1586, 

'Arcadia.' 
Christ. Marlowe, d. 1593, 

Drama. 
Edm. Spenser, 1553—1598, 

' Faery Queen." 
W. Shakspeare, 1564 — 

1616, Drama. 
Jolm Lylie, 1550—1600, 

'Euphues.' 



John Fletcher, 1576—1625, 

Drama. 
F. Beaumont, 1586—1615. 

Drama. 



1600 John Owen, d. 1612, Latin 
Epigrams. 
Sir H. VVotton, 1568—1639 
Poet. 



J. Fox, 1517—1587, Book 
of Martyrs. 



N. Fitzherbert, 1550—1612, 

Biography. 
John Stowe, 1527—1605, 

Chronicles, Topography. 
Sir T. North, Translations 

of Plutarch. 



J. Ford, b. 1586, Drama. 
Ben Jonson, 1574—1637, 

Drama. 
P. Massenger, 1585—1639, 

Drama. 
J. Harrington, 1561—1612, 

Trans. Ariosto. 
E. Fairfax, d. 1632, Trans. 

M. Drayton, 1563-1631, 

Poems. 
G. Sandys, 1577—1643, 

Translations, Poems. 
J. Daniel, 1562—1619, 

Poems. 
W. Drummond, 1585-1649, 

Poems. 
John Donne, 1573—1662, 

Satires, Essays. 
Geo. Wither, 1588-1667, 

James Shirley, 1594—1666, 

Drama. 
Sir J. Suckling, 1609—1841, 

Poems. 
John Denham, 1615—1668, 

Tragedies, Cooper's Hill! 
Samuel Butler, 1612—1688, 

Hudibras. 
John Milton, 1608—1674, 

' Paradise Lost.' 
Edm. Waller, 1605—1687, 

Poems. 
A.. Cowley, 1618—1667, 

Poems. 
A.Maxwell 1620—1678, 

Poems. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



J. Jewel, 1522—1570, Di- 
vinity. 

R. Hooker, 1553—1600, Ec- 
clesiastical Polity. 

W. Gilbert, 1540—1603, 
' On the Loadstone.' 

L. Andrews, 1565 — 1626, 
Sermons. 



J. Pitts, 1560—1616, Biog. 

of Kings, Bishops, &c. 
Richard Knolles, d. 1610, 

History of the Turks. 
Wm. Camden, 1551-1623, 

Antiquities. 
R. Hackluyt, 1553—1616, 

Naval Histories. 
W. Raleigh, 1552—1617, 

History of the World. 
Samuel Daniel, 1567—1619, 

History of England. 
John Hayward, d. 1627, 

English History. 
J. Speed, 1555—1629, Hist, 

ot Great Britain. 
Henry Spelman, 1562-1641, 

Antiquities. 
R. B. Cotton, 1570—1631, 

Antiquities. 
S. Purchas, 1577-1628, 

Collection of Voyages. 



Thomas Roe, 1580—1641, 
Travels in the East. 

E. (Lord) Herbert, 1581— 
1648, History of Henry 

vm. 

R. Baker, d. 1645, Chron. 
of England. 



Thomas Fuller, 1608—1661, 
History, Biography. 

Clarendon, 1608-1673, His- 
tory of Rebellion. 

Thomas May, d. 1650, His- 
tory of Parliament. 

Izaak Walton, 1593—1683, 
Biography. 

B. Whitlocke, 1605—1676, 
History. 

Mrs. Hutchinson, Biogra- 
phy. 

W. Prynne, 1660—1667, 
History, Politics. 



1600 Edward Coke, .550—1634, 
Law. 
John Napier, 1550—1617, 
Logarithms. 



Robert Buncr., 1576- 1639, 
'Anat. of Melancholy.' 

Francis Bacon, 1560 — 1626, 
Philosophy, History. 

Wm. Harvey, 1578—1657, 
Circulation of Blood. 



John Selden, 1584—1654, 

Antiquities, Law, Hist. 
J. Harrington, 1611-1677, 

' Oceana.' 
James Usher, 1580 — 1656, 

Divinity, Sermons, Hist. 
Thos. Hobbes, 1588—1679, 

Metaphysics 
W. Dugdale, 1605—1686, 

Antiquities, History. 
W. Chillingworth, 1602— 

1644, Theology. 
Isaac Barrow, lOSO— 1677, 

Divinity, Mathematics. 
J. Pearson, 1612—1686, 

Divinity. 
Brian Walton, 1600—1661, 

Polyglot Bible 
Jeremy Taylor, d. 1667, 

Divinity. 
Alger. Sydney, 1617—1683, 

' Discourse on Govern- 
ment.' 
Thos. Browne, 1605—1682, 

' On Vulgar Errors.' 
Edmund Castell, d. 1685, 

Lexicon Heptaglotton. 
R. Cudworth, 1617—1688, 
Metaphysics.' 



624 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMASINATIOM. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO. 


1600 


1600 


1600 J. Evelyn, 1620—1706, 
' Sylva.' 

H. More, 1614—1687, The- 
ology. 

T. Sydenham, 1624—1689, 






Rochester, 1648—1680, 


Wm. Temple, 1629-1710, 


Satires. 


History. 


Medicine. 


Roscommon, 1633—1684, 




W. Sherlock, d. 1689, Di- 


Poems. 




vinity. 


N. Lee, 1656—1691, Drama. 




J. Tillotson, 1630—1694, 


John Bunyan, 1628—1688, 




Sermons. 


'Pilgrim's Progress.' 




Archbishop Leighton, 


John Dryden, 1631-1701, 




1613—1684, Divinity. 


Tragedy, Satire, ' Virgil.' 




R. Baxter, 1615—1691, 


Thos. Otway, 1651—1685, 




'Saint's Everlasting 


Tragedy. 


R. Brady, d. 1700, History 


Rest.' 




of England. 


R.Boyle, 1627— 1691, 
Theology, Chemistry. 


1700 John Pomfret, 1667—1703, 


1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713, 


1700 


' The Choice.' 


Foedeca. 


John Ray, 162&-1705, Bot- 
any. Natural History. 

John Locke, 1632—1704, 
Metaphysics. 

R. South, 1633—1716, Di- 
vinity. 


John Philips, 1676— 1"08, 






' Splendid Slulling.' 
Thos. Pamell, 1679-1718, 






S. Ockley, 1678-1720, 




'The Hermit.' 


Oriental History. 


Isaac Newton, 1642—1719, 


Geo. Farquhar, 1678—1707, 


Thos. Heame, 1678—1735, 


' Principia.' 


Comedies. 


History and Antiquities. 


J. Flamsteed, 1642—1719, 




John Strype, 1613—1737, 


Astronomy. 
R. Hooke, 1635—1702, Phil- 




Eccl. History, Biog. 




Gilbert Burnet, 1643—1715, 


osophy. 




'History of his Times.' 


B. de Mandeville, 1670— 


Matthew Prior, 1664—1721, 


L. Echard, 1671—1730, 


1733, ' Fab. of the Bees.' 


Poems. 


History of England. 


Edm. Halley, 1656—1742, 


R. Steele, d. 1729, Drama, 


Thos. Carte, 1686—1754, 


Astronomy. 


Essays. 


History of England. 


Hans Sloane, 1660—1753, 


Daniel Defoe, 1660-1731, 


John Potter, 1674—1747, 


Natural History. 


'Robinson Crusoe.' 


Antiquities. 




Jos. Addison, 1672—1719, 


SirW. Petty, 162-3-1682, 




'Spectator,' 'Cato.' 


Statistics. 




Nich. Rowe, 1673—1718, 






Tragedy. 






J. Vanbrugh, d. 1726, Com- 






edy. 




A. Clark, 1696—1742, Dl 


W. "Congreve, 1672—1728, 




vinity. Philosophy. 


Comedy. 




D. Waterland, 1683—1740, 


John Gay, 1688—1733, 




Divinity. 


' Beggar's Opera,' Fab. 


Nathanael Hooke, d. 1763, 


R. Bentley, 1661—1740, 


M. W. Montague, 1690— 


History of Rome. 


Divinity, Philology. 


1762, Letters. 


C. Middleton, 1683—1750, 


A. Baxter, 1687—1750, Met- 


Robert Blair, 1699—1746, 


Life of Cicero, &c. 


aphysics. 


' The Grave.' 




Lord Bolingbroke, 1672— 


S. Richardson, 1689—1761, 




1751, Politics, Literature. 


' Clarissa,' ' Pamela,' &c. 


• 


G. Berkeley, 1684—1753. ' 

Metaphvsics, Ethics. 
P. DoddrSge, 1701-1751. 

Divinity. 
Jas. Bradley, 1692—1762, 

Astronomy. 
F. Hutcheson, 1694—1747, 

Moral Philosophy. 


D. Garrick, 1716-1779, 




T. Sherlock, 1678—1761, 


Drama. 




Divinity. 


S. Foote, 1720—1771, 




C. Maclaurin, 1696—1746, 


Drama. 




Mathematics. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 



625 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO. 


1700 R. Rodsley, 1703-1764, 


1700 John Swinton, 1703—1767, 


1700 Earl of Chesterfield, 1694- 


Drama. 


History, Antiquity. 


1773, Letters. 


Jona. Swift, 1667—1745, 




Eph. Chambers, d. 1740, 


Satires, Tales, &c. 




Cyclopaedia. 


L Watts, 1674-1748, 




B. Hoadley, 1676—1761, 


Hymns. 




Polemics. 


Edw. Young, 1681—1765, 




Bishop Butler, 1692—1752, 


' Night Thoughts.' 




Divinity. 


Alex. Pope, 1688—1744, 






Poetry. 






W. Somerville, 1692—1743, 






' The Chase.' 






AUan Ramsay, 1696 -1758, 






' The Gentle Shepherd.' 






Rich'd Savage, 1698—1743, 






Poems. 






Jas. Thomson, 1700-1748, 




J.Wesley, 1703-1791, Di- 


'Seasons.' 


Lord Lyttleton, 1709—1778, 


vinity. 


John Dyer, 1700-1758, 


History, Poems, Divin- 


D. Hartley, 1704—1757, 


Poems. 


ity. 


' Observations on Man.' 


H. Fielding, 1707—1754, 


James Granger, d. 1776, 


Soame Jenyns, 1704—1787, 


' Tom Jones,' &c. 


Biog. Hist, of England. 


Theology. 


James Hammond, 1710 — 




W. Warburton, 1709-1779, 


1742, Elegies. 




Theology, Criticism. 


Lawr. Sterne, 1713—1768, 




J. Jortin, 1698—1770, Di- 


'Tristram Shandy.' 




vinity, Criticism. 


W. Shenstone, 1714-1763, 


Sam. Johnson, 1709—1784, 


Lord Kaimes, 1696—1782, 


Pastorals, &c. 


Lives of Poets, Diet., &c. 


Elements of Criticism, 


W. Collins, 1720-1756, 


Jonas Hanway, 1712-1786, 


R. Lowth. 1710—1787, Di- 


Odes. 


Travels in the East. 


vinity, Philology. 


H. Brooke, 1706—1783, 


John Blair, d. 1782, Chro- 


W. Blackstone, 1723—1780, 


' Fool of Quality.' 


nology. 


Laws of England. 


M. Akenside, 1721—1770, 


David Hume, 1711—1776, 


"Junius." 


'Pleasures of Imagina- 


History of England, 




tion.' 


Essays, &c. 




Thos. Gray, 1716-1771, 






Odes, Elegies. 


W. Robertson, 1721-1793, 


Adam Smith, 1723-1790, 


T. SmoUet, 1720-1771, 


Hist, of Charles V., <fec. 


' Wealth of Nations.' 


Novels. 


Thomas Warton, 1728— 


J. Harris, 1709-1780, Phi- 


R. Glover, 1712-1789, 'Le- 


1790, History of England, 


lology. 


onidas.' 


Poetry, Poems. 


John Hunter, 1728—1793, 


O. Goldsmith, 1731—1774, 




Medicine. 


' Traveller,' ' Vicar of 




F. Balguy, 1716—1795, Di- 


Wakefield.' 




vinity. 


W. Mason, 1725—1797, Po- 






ems, Biography. 


H. Walpole. d. 1797, ' His- 




T. Chatterton, 1752—1770, 


toric Doubts,' ' Royal 




Poems. 


and Noble Authors.' 




Ar. Murphy, 1727—1805, 


J. Moore, 1730—1802, 


T. Reid, 1710—1796, Meta- 


Drama. 


'Views of Society and 


physics. 


Wm. Cowper, 1731—1800, 


Manners.' 


Sir J. Reynolds, 1723—1792, 


Poems. 


James Bruce, 1730-1794, 


Art. 


R.Cumberland, 1732—1811, 


Travels. 


S. Horsley, d. 1806, Theo- 


Drama. 


W. Gilpin, 1724-1804, Bio- 


logy. 


Eras. Darwin, 1732—1802, 


graphy, Divinity. 


Jos. Priestley, 1733-1804, 


'Botanic Garden.' 


E. Gibbon, 1737—1794, 


Metaphysics, Chemistry. 


James Beattie, 1735—1803, 


Decline and Fall of Ro- 


Hugh Blair, 1719—1800, 


Poems. 


man Empire. 


Sermons. 


R. Ferguson, 1750—1774, 


J. Whitaker, 1735—1808, 


J.Home Tooke, 1736—1812 


Poems. 


Hist, of Manchester, &c. 


Philology. 


Geo. Colman, 1733—1794, 


Edmd. Burke, 1730—1797, 


Wm. Jones, 1747—179-1, 


Comedies. 


Oratory. 


Orientalist. 


J. Wolcot (Peter Pindar), 


J. Boswell, 1740—1795, Bio- 


R. Price, 1723—1791, Meta- 


1738—1819, Com. Po- 


graphy. 


physics, Divinity. 


ems. 


J. Milner, 1744—1797, 


Wm. Paley, 1743—1805, 


Jas. Macpherson, 1738— 


Church History. 


Theology. 


1796, ' Ossian's Poems.' 


Joseph Strutt, 1748-1802, 


Ricd. Porson, 1759—1808; 


Robert Burns, 1759—1796, 


Chronology, Antiquities. 


Philology. 


Poems. 




Ths. Beddoes, 1760-1808, 


J. Home, d. 1808, Drama. 




Medicine. 



626 



THK world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 



1700 



Ricd. B. Sheridan, 1751— 
iar.6, Drama. 

Arm Radcliffe, 1764—1823, 
Novels. 



1700 



1^0 Rob. Bloomfield, d. 1823, 
' Farmer's Boy.' 
Mrs. Barbauld, Poems, 
Tales. 



Lord Byron, 1788—1824, 

Poems. 
John Keats, Poems. 
P. B. Shelley, d. 1822, 

Poems. 
R. C. Maturin, d. 1824, 

Drama. 
Miss Austin, Novels. 
Wm. Godwin, 1755—1836, 

Novels, Metaphysics. 
Walter Scott, 1771—1832, 

Novels, Poems. 



Robt. Pollok, 1798— 1S27. 

' Course of Time.' 
Geo. Crabbe, d. 1832, ' The 

Borough,' &c. 
Fanny Bumey, — 1840, 

Novels. 
Wm. Beckford, 1760—1844, 

Novels. 
Thos. Haines Baily, 1797— 

1839, Lyrics. 
Thos. Hamilton, 1789— 

1842, Novels, Travels. 
Felicia Hemans, 1794— 

1835, Poems. 
Barbara Hofland, Novels. 
Jas. Hogg, —1835, Po- 
ems and Tales. 
Th^. E. Hook, 1788—1841, 

Novels. 
Thos. Hood, Poems, No- 
Hannah More, 1744—1833, 

Poems, Tales. 
Jane Porter, —1849, 

Novels. 
S. T. Coleridge, -1834, 

Poems. 
Wm. Wordsworth, — 

1850, Poems. 
Robt. Southey, —1843, 

Poems. 
Marg. Blessington, — 

1849, Novels. 
Chas. Lamb, 1775—1834, 

Poems, Essays. 
Tlioa. H. Lister, 1801—1842, 

Novels. 



Charles Bumey, d. 1841, 
' History of Music. 



J. Macdiarmid, 1779—1808, 
Biography. 



E. D. Clarke, d. 1822, 

Travels. 
C. J. Fox, d. 1796, History. 



W. Mitford, History ol 
Greece. 



R. Heber, Travels, &c. 
Major Rennel, Geography. 
Wm. Rosco, 1751—1831, 

Life of Leo X., «fcc. 
Walter Scott, —1832, 

History, Biography. 



Sir Jas. Mackintosh, 1766 
1832, Hist, of England. 

Geo. Chalmers, 1742—1825, 
Political Annals. 

Marsden, 1755—1836, Ori- 
ental Hist, and Travels. 

Jas. Mill, —1836, Hist. 
British India. 

Robt. Morrison, —1834, 
Travels, Philology. 

Jas. Grahame, History of 
United States. 

John Gillies, 1747-1836, 
History of Greece, 

Basil Hall, 1788—1844, 
Travels and Voyages. 



Wm. Hone, —1842, 

Every Day Book. 



R. & J. Lander, 1834, 
Travels in Africa. 



SPECULATIVE AND SClENTWia 



N. Maskelyne d. 1811, 

Astronomy. 
G. L. Staunton, d. 1801, 

Chinese Code. 
W. Hersrfiell, 1738—1822, 

Astronomy. 



Arthur Young, 1741—1820, 
Agriculture. 

A. Rees, 1743—1825, Cyclo- 
paedia. 

Joseph Banks, 1743—1820, 
Natural Historv. 

Dr. Parr, d. 18^5, Philo- 
logy. 

D. Ricardo, d. 1823, Politi- 
cal Econo.'^y. 

C. Hutton, d. 1823, Mathe- 
matics. 

John Playfeir, d. 1819. 
P. Elmsley, Philology. 
T. Wollaston, Chemistry. 
Thomas Young, Hierogly- 
phics, &c. 
T. Scott, d. 1821, Divinity. 

D. Stewart, d. 1821, Meta- 
physics. 

Vicessimus Knox, 1752 — 

1821, Essays. 
Malthus, Polit. Economy. 
Wm. Hazlit, Critic and 

Essayist. 
Francis Jeffrey, 1773—1849, 

Essays, Criticism. 
Archbish. Magee, d. 1831, 

Divinity. 
Sir Humph. Davy, d. 1829, 

Chemistry. 
Jer. Bentham, d. 1832, 

' Principles of Legisla- 
tion.' 
Adam Clarke, 1763—1832, 

Divinity, Criticism. 
Arch. Alison, 1757—1839, 

Essays on Taste. 
Francis Baily, 1774—1844, 

Astronomy, &c. 
Bp. Burgess, 1756-1837, 

Theology. 
Herbert Marsh, 1758—1839, 

Theology. 
Thos. Mi'chell, 1783—1845, • 

Classic. Critic. 
Robert Mudie, 1777—1842, 

Scient. Miscellanies. 
Sir E. Brydges, 1762—1837, 

Miscellanies. 
Wm. Cobbett, —1835,- 

Politics, &c. 
J. Dalton, —1844, Che- 
mist. 
J. P. Daniell, —1845, 

Chemist. 
Sydney Smith, —1845, 

Theology, Essays. 
Chas. Bonnycastle, — 

1840, Mathematics. 
Thos. Chalmers, Theology, 

and Political Economy." 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 



627 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1800 S. T. Coleridge, 177'3-1834, 


1800 


1800 John Leslie, —1832, 


Ethics. 




Mathematician. 


L. E. Landon Maclean, 


Southey, 1774—1843, Bio- 


J. C. Loudon, 1783—1843, 


1804—1838, Novels and 


graphy. 


Botany, Agricul., Archit. 


Poems. 


Wm. Beckford, 1769—1844, 


John Bell, 1763—1825, 


Wm. Maginn, 1793-1842, 


Travels. 


Anatomy & Physiology. 


Poems, 


Arch. Alison, History of 


Olinthus Gregory, 1774— 


Marryatt, —1847, Nov- 


Europe. 


1841, Mathematics and 


els. 


Thos. Arnold, 1795-1842, 


Religion. 


John Gait, 1779-1839, 


History of Rome. 


Robert Hall, 1764—1831, 


Novels. 


Thos. D. Fosbrooke, 1770— 


Sermons. 


Wm. H. Ireland, Shaks. 


1842, Archaeology. 


Sir Chas. Bell, 1781—1824, 


Forgeries. 


Thos. McCrie, 1772—1835, 


Anatomy and Physio- 


Lady Morgan, — 184-, 


Life of Knox. 


i(gy- 


Novels. 


Sir John Malcolm, History 




Jas. Morier, 1780— , 


Persia and India. 




Novels. 


I. D'Israeli, 1766—1848, Cu- 




Thos. Campbell, 1777— 


riosities of Literature. 




1844, Poems. 


Basil Hall, 1788—1844, Voy- 




Thos. Bariim, 1800—1842, 


ages and Travels. 




Novels. 






Henry F. Gary, 1772—1844, 






Trans. Dante, &c. 







GERMAN. 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


800 


800 Eginhard, d. 839, Life of 
Charlemagne, Annals. 


800 


Walafrid Strabo, d. 810, 




Rabanus Maurus, 776—856, 


Poems, Theology. 


Nithard, d. 853, History ol 
Wars of France. 


Theology. 

Gottschalk, d. 869. 'Or, 
Predestination.' 


Otfried, Harmony of Gos- 






pels in rhyme. 






900 


900 Regino, d. 915, Chronicles. 


900 


Hroswitha, Let. Comedies. 




Batherius, d. 974, Theolo- 


Notger, Trans, of Psalms. 


Witikind, Hist, of Saxons. 


gy, Grammar. 


1000 


1000 Dithmar, d. 1018, Chron. 


1000 


Witpo, 'Praise of HairT 


of Saxon Emperors. 




III.,' Biography. 


Hermannus Contractus, 




Willeram, Francic Poems. 


Universal History. 

Blar. Scotus, 1028—1086, 
Chronicles. 

Adam of Bremen, Ecclesi- 
astical History. 

Lambert, General History. 

Sigebert, d. 1113, Chron. 

Kosmas, 1045—1126, Histo- 
ry of Bohemia. 




1100 


1100 Berthold Constantiensis, 
Universal History. 
Otto, d. 1158, Chronicle. 


1100 Mangold, Theology. 


Henry of Veldeck, Minne- 


Helmold, d. 1170, Chron. 




singer. 


of Slavi. 





628 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 


1200 Giinther, Poems. 


1200 

Arnold of Lubeck, Chro- 
nicle of Slavi. 


1200 


Frederic H., 1196-1254, 




Epko of Repgow, ' Saxon 


'D'e Arte Venandi.' 




Mirror,' (Law). 
John Semeca, Law. 
Alb. Magnus, 1193—1280, 

Natural Philosophy. 


Freydank, Poems. 






1300 RiidgerofManesse, Collec- 


1300 


1300 


tion of Ballads. 






Henry Frauenlob, Songs. 






Boner, Fables. 


Henrich von Rebdorf, 

Chronicle. 
Heinrich von Hervorden, 

Chronicle. 
Jacob von Konigshofen, 

Chronicle. 


John Tauler, Sermons. 




John Schildberger, History 


John Huss, 1386—1415, 




of Timour. 


Theology. 


1400 


1400 Gobelin Persona, General 


1400 


Felix Hammerlein, Satires. 


Histoiy. 






Windeck, Life of Sigis- 


John von Gmiinden, Astro- 




mund. 


nomy. 




John Stadweg, Chronicle. 




Hans von Rosenplut, 


Peter von Andlo, de Im- 


Geo. von. Peurbach, 1423 


Poems. 


perio Romano. 


1461, Theory of Planc.3. 
Regiomontanus, 1436—1476 

Astron,, Mathemat. 
Nic. von Cuss, Mathemat. 
Thomas k Kempis, 1380— 


Heinrich von Alkraaar. 




1471, Theology. 


' Reinke de Voss.' 


Mar.Behhaim. Geography. 


Gabriel Brie, d. 1495, The- 




Breydenbach, Topogy. 
Conrad Botho, Chronicle. 


ology. 




John Geyler, 1445-1510, 


Conrad Celtes, 1459—1508. 




Theology. 


Latin Poems, History of 




John Trithemius, 1462— 


Nuremburg. 




1516, Nat. Philosophy. 
Reuchlin, 1454—1522, Phil- 


Thos. Murner, 1475—1536, 




'Rogues' Guild.' 




ology. 


1500 


1500 Maximilian, d. 1508, Auto- 


1500 J. Wimpfelingen, 1452- 




biography. 


1528, Theol., Poems. 




Griinbeck, Lives of Em- 






perors. 




Melc. Pfinzing, 1481—1535, 


Albert Kranz, d. 1517, His- 


Holoander, d. 1531. Law. 


' Theuerdank.' 


tory of Saxons, &c. 


Corn. Agrippa, 1486—1535, 




B. Pirkheimer, 1480—1530, 


Physics, Theology. 




History, Poetrv. 


M. Luther, 1483-1546, 




John Aventin, 1466—1534, 


Theology. 




Anals of Bavaria. 


Zwingle, 1484-1531, The- 

ology. 
Melancthon, 1497—1560, 


Glareanus (H. L.) 1488— 


Con. Peutinger, 1465—1547, 


1563, Classics. 


History and Geography. 


Theology. 




John Carinn, 1499—1538, 


Paracelsus, 1493—1541, 




Comp. of History. 


Chemistry. 
Joac. Camerarius, 1500— 
1574, Philology. 




John Sleidan, 1506—1556, 


Conrad Gesner, 1516 — 1565, 




Universal History. 


Natural History. 


Hans Saciis, 1494-1574, 


G. Tschudi, d. 1572, Hel- 


Basil Faber, 1520—1576, 


Poems. 


vetic Chronicle. 


Thes. Erud. Schol. 


John Fischart, 1511—1581, 


Gerard Mercator, 1512— 


Mar. Chemnitz, 1522-1586, 


Satires. 


1594, Geography. 


Theology. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 



629 



IMAGINATION. 



1500 G. Fabricius, 1516—1571, 
Lat. Pms. Topography. 



Rollenhagen, 1542—1609, 

Froschmausler. 
Fr. Taubman, 1565—1613, 

Latin Poems. 



1600 



Martin Opitz, 1597—1639, 

Poems. 
James Balde, 1603—1668, 

Poems. 
A. Gryphius, 1616—1664, 

Tragedies. 

Paul Fleming, 1609—1640, 
Poems. 



Lohenstein, 1638—1683, 
Poems. 



1500 Simon Scharil, 1535—1573, 
CoUec. German Hist. 



John Pistorius, 1544—1607, 
CoUec. German Hist. 

Marq. Freher, 1565—1614, 
Hist. Germy. & France. 



1600 



P. Cluvier, 1580-1623, 

Geography. 
M. Goldast, 1576—1635, 

History. 



G. Calixtus, 1586—1656, 

Ecclesiastical History, 
Olearius, 1604—1685, 



Travels. 



S. von Puffendorf, 1631— 
1694, History, Law. 

D. G. Morhoff, 1639—1691, 
Biography, History. 



SPECULATIVE ANB SCIENTIFIC. 



1500 Wm.Xylander, 1532—1576, 

Philology. 
Wesenbeck, 1531—1586, 

Law. 
Fred. Sylberg, 1531—1596 

Philology. 
Theod. Beza, 1519—1609, 

Theology, Philology. 

S 
C. Ritterhuis, 1560—1613, 
Law. 



1700 C. Gryphius, 1649—1706, 
Poems, Hist., Philology. 



Von Canitz, 1654—1699, 
Poems. 



Gunther, 1695-1724, Poems. 



Liscov, Satires. 

J. C. Gottsched, 1700-1766, 

Poems, Trag., Criticism. 
Hagedorn, 1708—1754, 

Fables. 
Haller, 1708—1777, 'The 

Alps.' 
J. E. Schlegel, d. 1759, 

Drama. 
E. C. Kleist, 1715—1759. 

Idylls. 
Gellert, 1715—1769, Fables. 
Rabener, 1714—1770, Satir. 



1700 H. Meibomius, 1638—1700, 
History. 

C. Cellarius, 1638—1707, 
Geography, Antiq. 

C. Frankenstein, 1661— 
1717, History, Biog. 

J. Arnold, 1665—1714, Ec- 
clesiastical History. 

J. G. von Eccard, 1670— 
1730, General History. 

J. A. Fabricius, 1668—1736, 
Bibliography. 



H. Freyer, Gen. History. 
B. G. Struve, 1671—1738. 

History of Germany. 
J. L. Mosheim, 1695—1755, 

Ecclesiastical History, 



1600 C. Schwenkfeld, d. 1616, 

Natural History. 
J. Buxtorf, 1555—1621, 

Philology. 
John Kepler, 1571—1631, 

Astronomy. 

B. von Helmont, 1577— 
1644, Chemistry. 

C. Scioppius, 1576—1649, 
Ars Crilica. 

John Bayer, Uranometria. 

G. Barth, 1587-1658, Phil- 
ology. 

Sol. Glass, 1593—1656, 
Philol. Sacra. 

Otto Guerike, 1602—1686, 
Air-Pump, &c. 

Her. Conring, 1606—1681, 
Antiquities. 

Ez. Spanheim, 1629—1702, 
Numismatology. 

John Schilter, d. 1705, An- 
tiquities. 

1700 Ludolph, 1619—1711, Phil- 
ology. 

Leibnitz, 1646—1716, Ma- 
thematics, Metaphysics. 

C. Thomasius, 1655—1728, 
Law. 

F. Budaeus, 1667—1729, 
Divinity. 

G. E. Stahl, 1660—1734, 
Chemistry. 

P. Hoffman, 1660—1742, 
Medicine. 
J. Bemouilli, 1667—1747, 

Mathematics. 
B. Hederick, 1675—1748, 
Philology. 



A. F. BQsching, 1724—1793 
Geography. | 



J. M. Gessner, 1691—1761, 

Philology. 
A. G. Baumgarten, 1714 — 

1751, Ethics, Metaph. 
J. J. Gessner, 1707—1787, 

Numismatology. 
G. F. Meyer, 1711—1777, 

Philosophy. 
F. W. von Gleicken, 1714- 

1783, Nat. History. 
J. Winkelmann, 1718—1768 

Antiquity. 
Leon. Euler, 1707—1783, 
Mathematics. 



630 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIO, 


1700 Gleim, d. 1803, Songs. 


1700 Frank, d. 1784, Chronol. 


1700 G. J. Zollikofer, 1730- 




Walch, d. 1784, Ecclesias- 


1780, Sermons. 




tical History. 


J. A. E. Gotze, 1731—1786, 


Klopstock, 1724—1803, 




Entomology. 
Im. Kant, 1724—1804, 


' The Messiah.' 




Zachariae, 1727—1777, 




Metaphysics. 


Comic Poems. 






C. F. Weisse, Drama. 






J. G. Zimmerman, 1728— 






1795, ' On Solitude.' 






Gotz, 1721-1781, Pastorals. 






Ramler, 1725-1798. Odes. 






Dusch, 1727—1788, Poems. 






G. E. Lessing, 1729—1781, 






Drama, Fables. 






S. Gessner, 1730—1788, 






'Death of Abel.' 






Wieland, 1733—1813, Ro- 


C. Gatterer, d. 1799, Hist. 




mances, Poems. 






Pfeffel, 1736—1809, Fables. 




Semler, d. 1791, Thtology. 


G. A. Biirger, 1748—1794, 


- J. W. von Archenholz, 




Poems. 


1745-1812, 'Seven Years' 




I. H. Voss, 1751-1826, 


War.' 


Putter, Law of Nations. 


Novels. 






F. Schiller, 1750-1805, 






Drama. 


Scurokh, d. 1808, Eccle- 


Adelung, d. 1807, Phil- 


Kotzebue, 1761—1819, 


siastical History. 


ology. 


Drama. 


Forster, d. 1798, Geogra- 


Lavater 1741—1801, Phy. 


Goethe, 1749-1832, Drama, 


phy. 


siognomy. 


Tales, Poems. 


A. L. von Scholzer, d. 1809, 
History. 


Werner, Geology. 


1800 F. Schlegel, 177^-1829, 


1800 J. von Muller, d. 1809, Uni- 


1800 Herder, 1741—1803, Philc 


Novels, Poetry, Hist.,&c. 


versal History. 


sophy of History. 


Ernst Schultze, 1787—1817, 


J. G. Eichhom, d. 1827, 


Fichte, d. 1819, Metaphy- 


Elegies. 


Histoiy. 


sics. 


E. T. W. Hoffman, d. 1822, 




F. H. Jacobi, d. 1819, Me- 


Tales. 




taphysics. 


A. G. H. Lafontaine, 1760— 




Blumenbach, Physiology. 


1831, Tales. 




Schelljng, Metaphysics. 


Konaer, Poems. 




Thaer, —1828, Agri- 
culture. 

RosenmuUer, —1855, 
Theology, Criticism. 




Von Hammer, Orien. Hist. 


Gail, -1829, Philology. 




B. G. Niebuhr, History. 


Griesbach, —18L% Phi- 
lology. 
Grotefend, —1836, Phi- 


L. von Amim, — 1831, 




lology. 


Poems, Novels. 


Scholl, —1833, History. 


H. J. Klaproth, 1784-1835, 
Philology. 

F.Passow, —1833, Phi- 
lology. 




C. O. Muller, —1840, 


Hegel, —1831, Meta- 




History, Archaeology. 


physics. 

F. Accum, —1838, Che- 
mistry. 

Mohs, —1839, Minera- 


Schopenhauer, — 1838, 




logy. 


Novels. 








F.Rotteck, —1849, His- 


G.A.Fant, —1841, Phi. 




tory. 


lology. 




H. Hase, -1812, His- 


E. Bekker, Philology. 




tory, Antiquities. 


Buttmann, —1841, Phi- 
lology. 

C. T. FoUen, —1840, 
Theology, Essays. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY FRENCH. 



631 



IMAGINATION. 



SPBCtJLATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



1800 



Tieck, Poems, Novels. 



1800 Augt. Neander, 1850, 

Ecclesiastical History. 

J. L. C. Heeren, —1842, 
History. 

H. Berghaus, Geography. 

A. von Humboldt, Travels, 
History. 



1800 Gibers, —1840, As'.ro- 
nomy. 

Hahnemann, — 1843, 

HomcBopathy. 
A. W. Schlegel, —1845, 

Criticism, Essays. 



Humboldt, Science. 
Liebig, Chemistry. 



FRENCH. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


500 Venan. Jortunatus, Latin 
Poetry. 


500 

Gregory of Tours, 554—595, 

History. 


500 


600 


600 Marculfe, ' Charts Re- 
gales,' &c. 


600 


700 


700 Fredegaire, Chronicle. 


700 


800 Theodulph, d. 821 , Hymns, 
Theology. 

Servatus Lupus, d. 8G2, 
Epistles. 

Hincmar, d. 882, Epistles. 
Abbon, ' Siege of Paris.' 


800 

Ado, d. 875, Chronicle. 


800 

Agobard, d. 840, Theology 

Paschasius Radbert, 'Traa- 
substantiation.' 


900 

Adalberon, d. 1030, Poetry. 


900 Flodoard, 896—966, Chron. 
Dudon, History of Norman 
Conquest in France. 


900 


1000 

Fulbert, d. 1029, Epistles. 


1000 Almoin, d. 1008, History of 
France. 


1000 Gerbert, d. 1003, Geometry, 
Mathematics, &c. 
Abon, d. 1004, Arithmetic, 
and Astronomy. 

Berengarius, d. 1088, Theo- 
logy. 


1100 

Wm, of Poictiers, 1071— 
1126, First Troubadour. 

Hlldebert, 1067—1133, Po- 
etry. 

Bechada, Norman Poetiy, 
' Gestes de Godefroi.' 


1100 Guibert, 1058—1124, Histo- 
ry of First Crusade. 
Pierre Theutbode, History 

of Crusades. 
Marbodaeus, d. 1123, Bio- 
graphy. 

Suger, 1082—1152, Life of 
Louis le Gros. 


1000 Anselm, 1033—1109, Scho- 
lastic. 

Pierre Abelard, 1079-1142, 
Theology. 

Bernard of Clairvaux, 
1091-1153, Mystic. 



632 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1100 


1100 Hugh de St. Victoire, 1097— 
1140, Geography, Histo- 


1100 




ry, and Theology. 


Peter Lombardus, d. 1164, 


Geoffroi Galmar, Anglo- 




Theology. 


Norm. Chron. in verse. 






Rob. Wace, 'Roman da 






Rou.' 




Alain de I'Isle, d. 1202^ 
Theology, Ethics. 


Fouque, a Troubadour. 
Alexander of Bemai, Poet- 










ry, Fables. 






1200 


1200 Pierre de Poictiers, Sacred 
History. 
Geoffrey de Villehardouin, 


1200 


John .ffigidius, Poem on 




Medicine. 


Conq. of Constantmople. 




William le Breton, ' Deeds 






of Philip,' in verse. 






P. Gautier, 'Alexandrieda.' 


Phil. Mouskes, d. 1283, His- 


Vincentius of Bt*auvais, 




tory of France in verse. 


Encyclopaedia. 


William de Lorris, 'Roman 


W. Rubruquis, Traveller. 


Rob. of Sorbonne, d. 1271, 


de la Rose.' 




Theology. 


Jean de Meim, Contin. of 


Jean de Joinville, 1260— 




' Roman de la Rose.' 


1318, Hist, of Louis IX. 




Esteve de Bezier, Last 






Troubadour. 






1300 Peter Langtoft, Anglo-Nor- 


1300 


1300 Bernard Gordon, Medicine. 


man Chronicles. 




John of Paris, d. 1306, The- 

olosy. 
W. Durand, d. 1333, Law. 
W. Occam, d. 1347, Law. 


Philippe of Vitri, Transla- 






tion of Ovid. 


John Froissart, 1337—1402, 
Chronicles. 




1400 


1400 


1400 Peter d'Ailly, 1350—1425, 

Astronomy. 
John Gerson, 1363—1429, 

Scholastic. 
Raymund de Sebunda, d. 

1432, Theology. 
Henry of Bahna, d 1439, 


Alain Chartier, d. 1458, 




Mystic. 


Poetry. 






Corbeil, Satire. 






D'Auvergne, d. 1458, Po- 




James Lefevre, 1436— 1537, 


ems. 




Theology. 
Wm. Budffius, 1467—1540, 


Clement Marot, 1463—1525, 


Philip de Comines, 1445— 


Jurist. 


Poems. 


1509, Hist, of his Times. 




1500 


1500 


1500 J. C. Scaliger, 1484-1558, 
Philology. 
Du Bois, 1478—1555, Anat. 


F. Rabelais, 1483—1553, 


Guill. du Bellay, d. 1543, 




Satires. 


History of his Times. 


Rob. Stephens, 1503—1559, 


J. du Bellay, 1492—1560, 




Philology. 


Poems. 




P.Ramus,1515— 1572,Logic 
Seb. Castellio, 1515-1563, 


Steph. Jodelle, 1532-1573, 




Philology. 


Odes, Tragedies, &c. 




Jas. Cujacius, 1520—1590, 




Jaques Amyot, 1514—1593, 


Law. 




Translations. 


Lambinus, 1516—1572, 
Commentaries. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY FRENCH. 



633 



IMACINATION. 



1500 M. A. Muret, 1526—1585; 
Poems, Criticisms. 
Mich, de Montaigne, 1533— 
1592, Essays. 



Fran. Malherbe,1556— 1628 
Odes. 



1600 M. Reignier, 1573—1613, 
Satires. 



J. Chapelain, 1695—1674, 
La Pucelle.' 



P. ComeiUe, 1606—1684, 
Drama. 



St. Evremond, 1613—1703, 
Literature. 



Rochefoucault, 1603—1680, 

Reflections. 
Moliere, 1620-1673, Drama. 
La Fontaine, 1621—1695, 

Fables, Tales. 
Segrais, 1624—1701, Idyls. 
T. Corneille, 1625—1709, 

Drama. 
M. de Sevigne, 1626—1694, 

Letters. 
J. Racine, 1639—1699, 

Drama. 



Boileau, 1636-1711, Satires. 



1700 Regnard, 1647—1709,' 
Comedies. 
Galland, 1646—1715, Tran. 
of Arabian Nights. 



Fenelon, 1661—1715, 'Tele- 

machus,' &c. 
Deshoulieres, 1638—1694, 

Elegies. 



1500 



J. J. Scaliger, 1540—1609, 
History, Criticism, &c. 



J. A. ae Thou, 1553—1617, 
History of France. 



1600 P. Matthieu, 1544—1621, 
History of France. 
An. Du. Chesne, 1584-1640. 
Collections of Histories.' 



Bochart, 1599—1667, ' Geo- 

graphia Sacra.' 
Henry Spondanus, 1568- 

1643, History. 
S. Guicheron, 1607—1664, 

Hist, of House of Savoy. 
Henri Valesius, 1603—1696, 

Ecclesiastical History. 



Adr. Valesius, 1607—1692, 
' Deeds of the Franks.' 



L. Moreri, 1643—1680, 
Historical Dictionary. 

Tilltimont, 1637—1698, Ec- 
clesiastical History. 



SPECtTLATIVE AND SOIEKTIPIC. 



1500 Hen. Stephens, 152S— 1590, 
Philology. 

F. Vieta, 1540—1603, Al- 
gebra. 

Pierre Charon, 1543—1603, 
Theology. 

Isaac Casaubon, 1659 — 
1604, Philology, 



1600 



1700 



J. MarsoUier, 1647—1724, 
History, various. 

Fleuiry, 1653-1723, Eccle- 
siastical History. 

G. Daniel, 1649— 1728, His- 
tory of France. 

Vatincourt, 1653—1730, 
Biography. 
27* 



C. Salmasius, 1596—1652, 

History and Criticism. 
Dennis Petau, 1583-1652, 

Chronology. 
P. Gassendi, 1592—1655, 

Philosophy. 
Des Cartesj 1596- 1650, 

Metaphysics. Ma;hem. 



B. Pascal, 1623—1662, 

Divinity. 
D'Herbelot, 1626—1695, 

Orientalist. 
Cassini, 1625-1712, Astron. 



Huet, 1630-1721, Philos'phy 
Bourdaloue, 1632-1704, 

Sermons. 
La Bruyere, 1636-1696, 

' Characters.' 
Malbranche, 1633-1715, 

' Search after Truth.' 



1700 P. Bayle, 1647-1706, 

Dictionary. 
Hardouin, 1646-1729, 

Criticism. 
And. Dacier, 1651-1722, 

Philology. 
Anne Dacier, 1651-1720, 

Philology. 



Toumefort, 1656-1708, 

Botany. 
Fontenelle, 1657-1756, , 

' Plurality of Worlds.' 
Montfaucon, 1655-1741, 

Antiquities. 
Massillon, 1663-1742, 

Sermons. 



634 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 



1700 



J. B. Rousseau, 1671—1741, 

Odes. 
Crebillon, 1674—1762, 

Tragedies. 
Ren. Le Sage, 1677—1747, 

'Gil Bias.' 
P. N. Destouches, 1680— 

1754, Comedies. 
J. B. Grecourt, 1683—1743, 

Odes, Tales, &c. 
Marivaux, 1688—1763, 

Novels. 
Voltaire, 1695—1778, Tra- 
gedy, Poetry, Hist., &c. 



J. J. Rousseau, 1712—1778, 

' Emile,' ' Heloise,' <fec. 
Diderot, 1713-1784, 'En- 

cyclopedie,' Novels. 
Bernis, 1715—1794, Poems. 
Favart, d. 1762, Comic 

Operas. 
Louis Racine, d. 1763, 

Poems. 
J. J. Bartlielemy, 1716-1795, 

' Anacliarsis.' 
Marmontel, 1719—1799, 

Tales. 
Gresset, d. 1777, Elegies. 
Dorat, d. 1780, Novels. 



Florian, 1755 -1794, Tales. 
Beaumarchais, d. 1799, 
Comedies. 



1800 B. St. Pierre, 'Paul and 
Virginia.' 
Madme. de Genlis, Novels, 

Mdme. Cottin, 1772-1807, 

Delille, d. 1813, 'L'Homme 

des Champs.' 
Madame de Stael, 1768- 

1817, ' Corinne,' &c. 
H. de Balzac, 1799-1850, 

Novels. 
J. J. Boissaid, 1743-1831, 
Fables. 



1700 Vertot, 1655— 1735, History. 

Paul Rapin, 1661—1725, 
History of England. 

Bossuet, 1662—1704, His- 
tory, Sermons. 

C. RoIIin, 1661—1741, 
Ancient History. 



0. 1. F. Henault, 1685-1770, 
Chronicles, History. 



C. Villaret, 1715—1766, 
History of France. 

L. P. Anquetil, 1723—1808, 
History. 

Mart. Bouquet, d. 1754, 
Recueil d'Histoireks. 

A. Goguet d. 1758, ' Origin 
of Laws, Arts, &c.' 

Larcher, 1726-1812, Trans, 
of Herodotus. 

Crevier, d. 1765, Ancient 
History. 

Guyot, d. 1771, Ecclesias- 
tical History, 



J. De Guignes, 1721—1800, 
History of the Huns. 

D'Anville, 1702—1782, 
Geography. 

G. Raynal, 1711-1796, Hist, 
of East and West Indies. 

C. F. X. Millot, 1726—1785, 
History. 



1800 



Denon, d. 1825, Travels in 

Egypt. 
.1. P. F. Ancillon, 1767- 

1837, History. 
Louis E. Bignon, — 1841; 

Histoiy. 
J. J. Jacotot, 1770-1840, 

Education. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 



1700 



Folard, 1669-1752, Stra- 
tegy. 

Saurin, 1677-1730, Ser- 
mons. 



Montesquieu, 1698—1755, 

' Esprit des Loix.' 
Reaumur, 1683—1757, 

Natural History. 
Houbigant, 1686—1783, 

Criticism, Philology. 
Girard, d. 1748, 'Synony- 

mes.' 



Buffon, 1707-1788, Natural 

History. 
De Brosses, 1709—1777, . 

Philology, History. 



Helvetius, 1715—1771, 
' De I'Esprit.' 

D'Aubenton, 1716—1799, 
Natural History. 

N. Vattel, d. 1770, 'Law 
of Nations.' 

D'Alembert, d. 1783, ' En- 
cyclopedic.' 

La Grange, Mathematics. 



Bailly, 1736—1793, Hist., 

Astronomy. 
Lavoisier, 1743—1794, 

Chemistry. 
Montucla, 1725-1799, 

Mathematics. 
Turgot, Polit. Economy. 
Mirabeau, Politics. 
Fourcroi, d. 1809, Chem. 
J. Lalande, d. 1807, Astron, 



1800 Volney, 1755-1820, Travels, 

Philology, &c. 
Hauy, d. 1822, Crystallo 

graphy. 
La Place, d. 1S27, Mathf 

m'atics. 
Guyton Morveau, Chem. 
Cuvier, d. 1832, Nat. Hisi 
Dumont, Legislation. 
P. L. Courier, Politics. 
J. F. Audoin, 1797—184 

Zoology. 
J. E. D. Esquirol, 1772- 

1840, on Insanity. 
Chas. Fourier, 1772—183 

Socialism. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 



635 



IMAGINATION. 



imt 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC, 



1800 Mad. Junot, 1784-1839, 
Biography. 

A. L. G. Laborde, —1842, 
Travels. 

Las Cases, — 1S12, Biog- 
raphy. 

J. Michaud, —1839, His- 
tory. 

Bourrienne, — 1834 ' Life 
of Napoleon.' 

A. Coille, —1838, Voyage 
el Tembuctou, &c. 

ChampoUion le Jeune, 
1832, Antiq. Egypt. 

J. P. A. Remusat, —1832, 
History, 



1800 T. S. Jouffroy, 1796—1842, 
Metaphysics. 

A. L. de Jussieu, 1748-1836, 
Botany. 

S. F. Lacroix, 1765—1843, 
Mathematics. 

Lamarck, —1829, Natural 
History. 

Legendre, 1753—1833, Ma- 
thematics. 

Louis, —1837, Surgery, 

Broussais, — 1838, Medi- 
cine, Physiol. 

Chaptal, —1832, Chem- 
istry. 



SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 
P. is prefixed for Portuguese. 



IMAOINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIC. 


500 


500 


500 Anian, Law. 

Fulgentius Ferrandus, 

Canon Law. 
Martin, d. 580, Ethics. 


60O 


600 John of Biclair, d. 620 
Chronicle. 
Isidore, d. 636, Chron. de 
Goth. 


600 

Ildefonso, d. 667, Polemics. 


800 


800 Eulogius, d. 859, Martyr- 
ology. 
Alvarez, Biog. of Eulogius. 


800 


p. 1100 Egaz Monez, Songs. 

P. Gonzalo Hermiguez, 

Songs. 


1100 


1100 


1200 

Gonzalo Berceo, Rhymes. 


1200 Rodrigo Ximenez, d. 1215, 
History of Spain. 


1200 

R. de Penafort, 1175—1275, 
Decretals. 

Alphonso X., d. 1281, 
Astronomy, Alchemy. 

Raimund Lullo, 1236— 
1315, Theology, Chem- 
istry, &c. 


1300 Juan Manuel, d. 1362, Ro- 
mances. • 


1300 


1300 


1400 Villena, d. 1434, Trans. 

Virgil and Dante. 
E. de Villena, 1434, Moral 

Drama. 
Juan de Mena, 1412—1456 

Poems. 
L. de Mendoza, 1393—1458, 

Poems. 


1400 Diez de Games, Biography. 


1400 

J. de Torquemada, d. 1468, 
Sermons, Criticism. 



636 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGWATION. 



1400 Perez de Guzman, Lyrics. 



Juan de la Enzina, Pastoral 
Drama. 



1500 Lope de Rueda, Comedies. 
Torres Naharro, Comedy. 
Juan Boscan, d. 1544, Son 
nets. 
P. Ber. Ribeyro, Eclogues. 
Garcilaso de la Vega, 
1503—1536, Poems. 
P. San de Miranda, 1495— 1558, 
Lyrics. 
Juan de la Cueva, Art of 
Poetry. 
P. Gil Vicente, d. 1557, 
Comedy. 
J. de Montemayor, 1520— 

1561, Romance. 
Ant. Ferrelra, 1528—1569, 
Elegies. 



Diego de Mendoza, d. 1575, 

Poems, History. 
P. Camoens,l-524— 1579, 'The 

Lusiad.' 
Luis de Leon, 1527 — 1591, 

Lyric Poems. 
Fern, de Herrera, d. 1578, 

Classical Poems. 
P. Rodriguez Lobo, Ro- 
mances, Pastorals, &c. 
P. P. de A. Caminha, d. 1595, 

Epigrams, Pastorals. 
C. cfe Castillejo, d. 1596, 

Romantic Poems. 
A. de Ercilla, 1533—1600, 

' Araucana.' 
Geron. Bermudez, d. 1589, 

Tragedy. 
L. de Argensola, 1565— 

1613, Tragedy, History. 
P. Jeron. Cortereal, Poems. 
Cervantes, 1549 — 1616, 

' Don Quixote.' 



1600 



Bart, de Argensola, 1566— 

1631, Tragedy, History. 
F. Quevedo, 1570—1645, 

Tales, Satires. 
L. Congora, 1585—1638, 

Poems. 
Lope de Vega, 1562—1635, 

Drama. 
J. P. de Montalvan. d. 1639, 
Tragedy. 
M. de Madrigal, Romances. 
P. Man. de Faria e Sousa, d. 

1649, Pastoral Poems. 



1400 R. de Zamora, 1407—1470, 
History of Spain. 
Fern, del Pulgas, Biog. of 
Ferdinand and Isabella. 



1500 



P. Damian Goez, History, 
Travels. 



P. Joao de Barros, d. 1570, 

' Hist. Portugu. in India.' 
A. Zarate, 'Discov. of 

Peru.' 
A. de Morales, 1513—1590, 
History of Spain. 



J. Acosta, 1547—1600, Hist. 

of the West Indies. 
Gonsalvo Illescas, d. 1580, 

Lives of the Popes. 
Luis Marmol, Description 

of Africa • 
Jeron. Zurita, 1513—1580, 

History of Arragon. 
Estevan Garibay, History 

of Spain.' 



Juan Mariana, 1537 — 1624, 

Hist., Chronology, &c. 
Blanca, History of Spain. 



J. G. de Mendoza, Hist, of 
China. 



1600 Her. y Tordesillas, 1565— 

1625, History of Spain. 
P. A. de Meneses, d. 1617, 

History of Augustines. 
P. F. Andrada, Chronicle of 

John m. 
P. B. de Brito, 1570—1617, 

History of Portugal. 



A. de Andrada, d. 1633, 
Travels in Thibet and 
Cathay. 

Pru. de Sandoval, History. 

Jayme Bleda, History of 
Moors in Spain. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



1400 



Fras. Ximenez, 1437—1517, 
Polyglot Bible. 



1500 Perez de Oliva, d. 1533, 
Ethics. 
J. Luis Vives, 1492—1540, 
Philosophy, Theology. 



Ant. de Guevara, d. 1544, 
Ethics, Epistles. 
P. A. Govea, 1505—1565, Law. 



Ant. Agostino, 1516—1586, 
Theology, Law. 

S. des Brosses, 1523—1600, 

Grammar. 
P. D. de Andrada, 1528—1535, 

Theology. 
Luis Molina, 1535—1600, 

Metaphysics. 



J. Guevara, 1541— 1623i 
Publicist. 



J. Valverda, Anatomy. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 



637 



IMAGINATI05J. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFM. 


1600 L. V. de Guevara, d. 1646, 


1600 


1600 




' El Diablo Coxuelo.' 










Vic. Espinel, 1545—1634, 










Elegies. 


P. 


C. Acuna, 1597— 1641,' De- 
scrip, of River Amazon. 

E. de Almeyda, d. 1646, 
History of Ethiopia. 






Calderon, 1601-1667, 


P. 


J. F. de Andrada, 1597— 






Drama. 




1657, Life of .John de 






L. Ulloa, d. 1660, Poems. 




Castro, Comic Poetry. 




P 


A. B. Bacellar, d. 1663, 

Sonnets. 








P. 


Matheo Ribeiro, Romance. 

M. de ViUegas, 1595—1669, 
Anacreontics. 


P. 


Nic. Antonio, 1617—1672, 
Bibliotheca Hispanica. 

Alb. Coelho, d. 1658, 
' Wars oLBrazil.' 




P. 


F. de Vasconcellos, Poems. 








P. 


R. de Macedo, d. 1682, 
Poems. 








P. 


Viol, do Ceo, 1601-1693, 
Poems. 




Ant. de Solis, 1611-1686, 
Hist, of Conq. Mexico. 




P. 


F. da Castanheira, Novel. 








P. 


A. Nunhes da Sylva, Son- 
nets. 








1700 Fran. Candamo, rf. 1709, 


1700 J. Ferreras, 1652-1735, 


1700 




Drama. 




History of Spain. 






Ant. de Zamora, Comedy. 








P. 


Xav. de Meneses, 1673— 
1743, ' Henriqueide,' 
Epic Poem. 

Ignacio de Luzan, d. 1754, 






Feyjoo, 1765, Ethics, Criti- 
cism. 
A. Ulloa, 1716-1795, Math- 




Art of Poetry. 


P. 
P. 


Barbosa Maehado, Diction- 
ary of Learned Men. 

Velasquez, d. 1772, Hist, 
of Castilian Poetry. 

Figoeireda, Eccl. History. 


ematician. 




Tomas de Yriarte, d. 1771, 










Fables, &c. 








P. 


A. de Barros Pereira, 
Poems. 








P 


Manoel da Coste, Poems. 
V. Garcia de la Huerta, 

Tragedy. 
P. Correo Garcao Lyric 




Munoz, Hist, of America. 




P. 






Ruiz, Botany. 




Poems. 






Pavon, Flora Peruviana. 




Leon de Arroyal, Odes. 




Cavanilles, Annals. 


P. J. H. Magalhaens, d. 1790, 


P. 


Paulino de Vasconcellos, 
Sonnets. 






Natural Philosophy. 
Felix de Azara, Zoology. 
J. N.de Azara, 1731— laOl, 




Mel. Valdez, Odes, Lyrics. 






P^ 


Cathar. de Sousa, Tragedy. 
G. Jovellanos, 1744-1811, 






Antiquity. 


180 


1800 J. A. Llorente, History of 


1800 




' Agrarian Law.' 
Tol. da Almeida, Satires. 




Inquisition. 




P. 










Fem. de Moratin, d. 1828, 




Jose Antonio Conde, His- 






Comedies. 




tory of Moors in Spain. 






M. Garcia de Villanueva, 










' On the Theatre.' 










J. H. Davila, General Lit- 










erature. 









638 



THE world's progress. 



DUTCH. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIEKTIFIO 


1200 J. Van Maerlant, 1235— 
1300, Poems, ' Rymby- 
bel.' 
Melis Stoke, Poetic Chron. 


1200 


1200 


1300 Jan van Helen, Poems, 
Chronicles. 
Heij. van Holland, Poems. 
Claes Willems, Poems. 


1300 


1300 

Gerard Groot, Theology. 


1400 J. Wilt, Trans. Boethius. 

Dirk van Munster, ' Chris- 
tian Mirror.' 

Lambert, Goetman, ' Mir- 
ror of Youth.' 


1400 Edmund Dinter, d. 1448, 
Chronicles of Brabant. 
p. vander Heyden, 1393— 
1473, Chronicles. 


1400 

J. W. Gransfc«t, Theo. 

Rud. Agricola, 1442—1485, 
Philosophy, Hist., &c. 


1500 

A. Byns, Religious Poems. 

Jan. Fruiiiers, Poems and 
Prose. 

J. Secundus, 1511—1536, 
Amatory Poems. 

Dirk Koornhert, 1522— 
1590, Transl. Homer. 

P. van Mamix, Odes, 
Songs. 

R. Visscher, Epigrams. 

Hendrick Spieghel, Didac- 
tic Poems. 


1500 

S. Pighius, 1520—1604, 
'Roman Annals.' 

.V 

A. Schott, 1552—1629, His- 
tory of Spain. 


1500 Erasmus, 1467—1536, The- 
ology, Literature, &c 

J. Heurnius, 1543—1601, 
Medicine. 

C. Kiliaan, d. 1607, Dic- 
tionary. 

Justus Lipsius, 1547—1606, 
Philology. 

Sim. Stevinus, d. 1633, 
Hydrostaucs, Mathem. 

H. Erpenius, 1584—1624, 
Orientalist. 


1600 G. Brederode, 1585—1637, 

Comedies, &c. 
D. R. Kamphuizen, 1586— 

1626, Religious Poems. 
Daniel Heins, 1580—1655, 

Poems, Philology. 
J. Cats, 1577—1660, Drama. 
P. C. Hooft, 1587—1647, 

Tragedy, Odes, Hist, of 

the Netherlands. 
G. van Baerle (Barlseus), 

1584—1648, Latin Poems. 
Just van Vondel, 1587— 

1679, Tragedies. 
M. Visscher, Trans. Tasso. 
Jan van Heemskerk, 'Ar- 
cadia.' 
J. Westerbaen, 1599—1669, 

Epigrams. 


1600 

H. de Groot (Grotius), 
1583—1645, Hist., Theol- 
ogy, Poetry, &c. 

1^ 


1600 

J. Golius, 1596—1667, On. 

entalist. 
Voetius, 1589—1676. 

Polemics. 
Beverwyk, 1594—1647, 

Medicine. 
Diemerbroek, 1609—1674, 

Anatomy. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY DUTCH. 



639 



IMAOINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


Cons, Huygens, 1595-1687, 




J. F. Gronovius, 1611— 


Epigrams. 




1671, Philology. 


Jer. Decker, 1610—1966, 




J. Leusden, 1614—1699, 


Elegies. 




Philology. 


D. Joncktijs, d. 1654, Ama- 






tory Poems. 






Nicholas Heins, 1620-1681, 




. F. Burman, 1628-1679, 


Poems, Philology. 




Theology. 


Jan de Brune, ' Whetstone 




Chr. Huygens, 1629—1695, 


of Wit.' 




Mathem., Mechanics. 


Jan Vos, Drama, Epi- 




B. Spinoza, 1632—1677, 


grams. 




Theology. 


Reinier Anslo, 1622—1660, 






'Plague of Naples.' 


Ger. Brandt, 1626-1685, 
Hist, of Reformation. 

Cau, Collect, of Batavian 
History. 

J, G. Greevius, 1632—1703, 






Swammerdam, 1637—1680, 




Roman Antiquities. 


Natural History. 




J. Perizonius, 1631—1715, 


A. Leuwenhoek, 1632 — 




History. 


1723, Natural History. 


1700 P. Francius, 1645-1704, 


1700 


1700 F. Ruysch, 1639-1731, 


Latin Poetry. 




Anat. 


J. A. Vander Goes, 1647— 






1648, Drama. 


J. Gronovius, 1645—1716, 






Greek Antiquities. 


G. Bidloo, 1649-1713, 




P. Bondam, Collection of 


Anat. 




Batavian History. 


C. Vitringa, 1659—1722, 




Simon Styl, History of 


Theology. 




Netherlands. 


Binkerschoek, 1663—1743, 

Law. 
H. Boerhaave, 1668—1738, 

Medicine. 
Hemsterhuis, 1685—1766, 

Philology. 
A. Schultens, 1686-1750, 

Philology. 
Gtavesande, 1688—1742, . 










Mathematics. 






Chr. Hecht, 1696—1748, 






Philology. 




„ 


B. S. Albinus, 1683-1771, 






Anatomy. 






Oudendorp, 1696—1761, 






Philology. 






W. Otto Reiz, 1702—1768, 






Law. 






D. Gaubius, 1705-1780, 






Medicine. 


- 




Hoogeveen, 1712—1794, 






Philology. 


Eliz. Wolff, Novels. 




G. van Sv^ieten, 1700— 


Loosjes, Novels. 




1772, Medicine. 
P. Camper, 1722—1789, 


Bellamy, 1757—1786, Odes. 




Anatomy. 


Klem, Lyrics. 




D. Ruhnken, 1723—1793, 


Van Alphen, Odes. 




Philology. 
Valckenaer, Philology. 


1800 


1800 


1800 D. Wyttenbach, d. 1808, 


Hincopen, Odes. 




Philology. 


Helmers, d. 1831, Poems 






Nieuwland, Poems. 
Borger, Odes. 






Te Water, History. 






Engelberts, Ancient Hist. 




Bilderdyk. Dramas, Odes, 


of Netherlands. 


Van Kampen, Statistics. 


&c. 







640 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECTILATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


ToUens, Poems. 

Da Costa, Sacred Poems. 

Wilderbosch, Odes. 


Kluits, Hist, of Holland. 
Westendorp, History. 
Ypey, Ecclesiastical Hist. 


De Jonge, Antiquities. 
Hamaker, Orientalist. 
Vander Palm, Literature. 



SWEDEN, DENMARK AND ICELAND. 

S., Sweden; D., Denmark ; Ic, Iceland.- 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


Ic. 900 Hjalti, Poems. 


900 


900 


Ic. 1100 Thorwald, Ballads. 

Ic. Saemund, 6. 1156, The 
Elder Edda. 


1100 

Ic. Aro, d. 1148, Annals of Ice- 
land. 

D. Saxo, Grammaticus, d. 

1204, Hist, of Northern 
Nations. 

D. Sueno, Hist, of Denmark. 


1100 

D. Sunesen, Jurist. 
D. Axel, Theology. 


Ic. 1200 Snor.Sturleson,d. 1241, 
Younger Edda, Hiat. 
of Norway. 

Ic. Suerron, Tales. 


1200 

D. Sturla Thoridsen, History 
of Norway. 


1200 


1400 


1400 

S. Eric Olai, History of Goths 
and Swedes. 


1400 

S. Bryn. Karlsson, d. 1430, 

Instruction to Kings and 
Princes. 


1600 


1500 

S. John Magnus, d. 1544, 

Hist, of Sweden. 
S. Olaus Magnus, Customs of 

Northern Nations. 
S. P. Lagerloof, 1538—1599, 

History North of Europe. 
Ic. Arn. Jonas, 1545—1640, 

Hist, of Iceland, &c. 


1500 

D. Tycho Brahe, 1546— leoi,' 

Astronomy. 
D. tJrsus, a. 1600, Astronomy. 


1600 

D. Anders Arrebo, 6. 1587, 
Religious Poetry. 

D. Anders Bording, b. 1619, 

Poems. 
S. Stiemhjelm, Epic Poem, 

'Hercules.' 


1600 

D. J. J. Pontanus, 1591—1640, 
Danish Hist. 


1600 

S. P. Kirsten, 1577—1640, 
Orientalist. 

D. G. Bartholine, 1585—1629, 
Anatomy, Theology. 

D. Ole Worm, 1588— 1654, An- 
tiquities, Philo. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SWEDEN, DENMARK, AND ICELAND. 641 



IMAGINATION. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



Torfeus, 1639—1720, Hist, 
of Norway. 



S. OI. Rudbeck, 1630—1702, 
Botany, Anat., &c. 



D. 1700 Thos. Kingo, b. 1634. 
Hymns. 



1700 



D. 



L. Holberg, 1684—1754, 
Drama, Satire, Hist. 

Ch. Falster, 1690— 
1752, Satirist. 



OlofDalin, 1708—1763, 
Poetry, History. 



Sneedorf, 1724—1764, 
Poems. 



TuUin, Lyrics. 
John Ewald, 1743- 

1781, Tragedy, Lyrics. 
J. H. Wessel, Humor- 
ous Poems. 
Bellerman, 1741—1796, 

Lyrics. 
H. Tode, 1736—1806, 

Dramas, Fables. 
Samsoe, 1759— 1796, 

Tragedies. 
P. A. Heiberg, b. 1758; 

Drama. 
S. Elgstrom, d. 1810, 

Poems. 



John Permgskiold, 1654 — 
1720, History. 

Arne Magnussen, b. 1663, 
CoUec. Hist. 

Albert Thura, Hist. 

Hans Gram, d. 1748, His- 
tory. 



1700 

D. J. C. Sturmius, 1635—1703, 
Phys., Mathera. - 



D. 



Langebek, d. 1775, Collec. 
Danish History. 

Pontoppidan, d. 1764, Ori- 
gines Havnienses. 

Lagerbring, d. 1781, His- 
tory. 



P. T. Suhm, 1720—1798, 
Hist, of Denmark. 



Ic. 1800 Thorlacksen, d. 1819, 

Transl. Milton 
D. C. L. Sander, Dramas. 



1800 

D. Malte Brun, d. 1826, Geog- 
raphy. 



Linnaeus, 1707—1778, 
Botany. 



S. Wallerius, d. 1785, 

Mineralogy. 
D. Oeder, Flora Danica. 
S. Hire, Dictionary. 



1800 



D. 


Jens. Baggesen, d. 












1826, Lyrics. 
Oehlenscnlager. 


S. 


Thorild Travels. 






D. 






S. 


Berzelius, Chemistry. 




Poems. 






1). 


Rask, Orientalist. 


D. 


B. S. Ingermann, 






s. 


Wodderstadt, 'On Yellow 




Lyrics. 


S. 


Afzelius, Iceland Records. 




Fever.' 


S. 


Atterbone, Poems. 


S. 


Hallenberg, History. 


s. 


Liliegren, Northern An- 


S. 


Tegner, Romances, &c. 


S. 


Granberg, Statistics. 




tiquities. 


s. 


F. Bremer Novels. 


s 


Blexell, Topography. 


s. 


Norberg, Orientalist. 








J. F. Blumenbach, 












1840, Naturalist. 



642 



THE world's progress, 



POLISH. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIO 


1200 


1200 Vine. Kadlubek, d. 1226, 

History of Poland. 
Boguphalus, d. 1253, 

Chronicle of Poland. 
Martin Polonus, d. 1278, 

Chronicle of Popes and 

Emperors. 


1200 

Vitellio, Optics. 


1400 


1400 Dluglossus, 1415—1480, 
History of Poland. 


1400 


1500 

Kochanowski, 1530—1584, 


1500 

Cawalezewskij Chronicles. 
Bielski, Chronicles. 

Stryjkowski, Chron. of Po- 
land and Russia. 


1500 

N. Copernicus, 1472-1543, 

Astronomy. 
Lucas Gornicki, Ethics. 
Rey of Naelowic, 1515— 

1568, Ethics. 


1600 

Sarbiewski, 1595—1640, 
Latin Poetry. 


1600 Ab. Bzovius, 1567—1637, 
Ecclesiastical Annals. 

Lubienetski, 1623-1675, 
History of Reformation. 


1600 

John Maccov, d. 1644, The- 
ology. 

Przipcov, 1590—1670, The- 
ology. 


1700 

Naruszewicz, d. 1796, Po- 
etry and History. 


1700 Dogiel, Coll. Hist. Poland. 
Mizler, Do. 


1700 


ISOO Krasicki, Poems, Roman- 
ces. 
Boguslawski, Drama. 
Bronikowski, Novels. 
Bernatowicz, Novels. 
Bulgarin, Novels. 
Mickiewicz, Poems. 
Odyniec, Drama. 


1800 

Lach Szmyma, Travels. 
Potocki, Travels. 


1800 

Linde, Lexicon. 



RUSSIAN. 

[The Russian has been in use as the language of literature scarcely more than a century. Almost 
f>U books used in Russia were written in the ancient Sclavonic tongue, which does not greatly 
differ from Russian, but more closely resembles the languages spoken in Servia, and in the 
other provinces near the Save and Danube. The first printing-office in Russia was established 
in 1553.] 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECtTLATIVB AND SCIENTIFIC. 


lOOO 


1000 

Nestorof Kiew, 1056—1115, 
Chronicles of Russia. 


1000 YaroBlaf, Code of Laws. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY RUSSIAN. 



643 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1100 

The Expedition of Ighor, a 
celebrated Poem, autlior 
Unknown. 


1100 Theodosius,(?.1120, Annals. 
Sylvester, d. "1123, Chro- 
nicles of Russia. 

Simeon of Susdal, d. 1206, 
Chronicles of Russia. 


1100 


1200 


1200 John of Novgorod, History 
of Russia. 


1200 



[The blank of nearly four centuries arises from the oppression of the Mongols, who held Russia 
from 1223 to 1477. They destroyed almost all ancient books, and repressed the rising spirit of 
knowledge which a close connection with the Greeks was then introducing into Russia.] 



1600 



Simeon of Polotsk, Poems, 
Spiritual Dramas. 




1700 



Cantemir, 1708—1744, Sati- 
rical Poems, 

Lomonosoff, 1711—1765, 
Poetry, History, Science. 

Tredianoffski, Poems. 

Popofski, Transl. Pope. 

Suraarokoff, 1718—1777, 
Drama. 

Kheraskofr, 1733—1807, 
'The Russiad.' 

Kostroff, d. 1796, Transl. 
the Iliad. 

Petrotr, 1736—1799, Transl. 
the Eneid. 

Kniajnin, 1742—1794, 
Drama. 

J. Khemnitzer, 1744—1784, 
Fables. 

Klushin, Comedies. 

EphimiefF, Comedies. 

Ablesimoff, Operas. 

G. R. Derjavin, 1743—1816, 
Lyric Poetry. 

H. Bogdanovitch, 1743— 
1803,' Dushenka,' Poems. 

Vizin, 1745—1792, Come- 
dies, Tales. 

Nicoleff, Tragedies. 



1800 Maikoff, Comic Poems. 
Dmitrieff, Lyrics. Fables. 
OzerofF, d. 1816, Tragedies. 
P. Sumarokoff, Poems, 

V. A. jukofski, b. 1783, 

Poems. 
Milonoff, d. 1821, Satires. 
Batiushkoff, Transl. Tibul- 

lus. 
Gneditch, Transl. Iliad, 

Odes. 
Kryloff, Fables. 



1500 



1700 Khilkoff, History of Russia. 
V. Tatischeff, d. 1750, 
Chronicles of Russia. 



Cherbatoff, History. 
Golikotr, History. 



Muravieff, 1757—1816, His- 
tory, Didactics. 
Eugenius, History. 



Karamsin, b. 1765, History 

of Russia. 
Kachenofski, History. 
G. Glinka, History. 



Kotzebue, Voyage of Dis- 

coveiy. 
Gretch, History of Russian 

Literature. 
Timkowski, Journey 

China. 



1500 Sudebuek, Code of Laws. 



1600 Demetrius of Rostoff, Tlie- 
ology. Spiritual Dramas. 



1700 Theophanes, Seimons. 



Plato, 1737—1812, Sefmona. 

P. S. Pallas, 1741—1811, 
Natural History. 



1800 Shishkoff, Criticism. 



Augustin, Sermons. 



644 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 
P. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian. 



IMAGINATION. 



60C Mahomet, Koran. 

Lebid, 622—757, Poems. 
Zohair, Poems. 

Kais' El Ameri, or Amrul- 
kais, Poems. 



600 



700 



700 



Abun Massabj Poems. 
Abunowas,?62— 810, Poems. 
Rehashi, Poems. 
Acu Obeid, d. 838, Fables. 



800 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTir. O. 



600 



Muham. ben Omar, History. 



A.Temain, 804—84.5, Poems 



Bochteri, 821—882, Anthol. 

Abu Mohammed Abdallah, 
Literature. 



900 Ibn Doraid, d. 931, Poems. 



Almotanabbi, d. 965, 
Poems 



Wahab, Travels. 
Abuzeid, Travels. 
I. Kotaibah, d. 889, History. 
Abu Jafar, 838—922, Hist. 
Honain ben Isaac, d. 874, 
Translations from Greek. 



Ahaxun, Medicine. 



700 Jafar, Chemistry. 

Abu Hanifah, 699—767, The- 
ology. 



800 Asmai, 740—830, Theology. 

Kendi, Philosophy. 

J. ben Serapion, Medicine. 

Almamon, Astronomical 
Tables. 

Bahali, d. 835, Etymology. 

Alfragan, Astronomy. 

Nasir Khosru, Metaphys. 

Albumazar, 805—885, Ma- 
thematics, Astronomy. 

Bochari, 810—870, ' Tha 
Sahih,' Traditions. 



Geber, Chemistry. 



900 



P. 1000 Ferdusi, 932—1020, 

'Shah Nameh,' Epic 
Poem. 



Abul Ola, 973—1057, 
Poems. 



Said ben Batrik, 876—937, 

General History. 
Eutychius, History. 
Massudi, d, 957, History 

and Geography. 



Ibn Haukal, Geography. 



1000 Almuyadad, History of 
Saracens in Sicily. 



900 Albategni, Astronomy. 
Bases, d. 9^, Medicme. 
Ben Musa, Mathematics. 
Azophi, Astronomy. 



Alfarabi, d. 954, Aristo- 
telian Philosophy. 

Geuhari, d. 998, Aristo- 
telian Philosophy. 



1000 Achmet, Treatise on 
Dreams. 
Ibn Mesua, Medicine. 
Avicenna, 930-1038, 
Philosophy, Medicine. 



Abulcasis, Medicine. 
Jelaleddin, Correction of 

Calendar. 
Arzachel, Astronomy. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 645 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPBCtTLATIVE AND SCIENTIPIO. 


1100 Tograi, d. 1119, Poems. 


1100 


1100 Gazali, 1058-1112, Aristo- 




/, 






telian Philosophy. 










Alhazin, Optics. 










Tabrizl, d. 1136, Commen- 




Hairi, 1054-1121, Moral 






taries. 




Poems. 




Algazel, Antiquities, &c. 


Alchabit, Optics, Astron. 


P. 


Felekl, d. 1181, Poems. 




Ben Idris, b. 1099, Geog. 


A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic. 


P. 


Khakani, d. 1185, Poems. 








P. 


Anwari, d. 1200, Poems. 
Jaafar ebn Tofail, d. 1198, 

'Hai ben Yokdan,' a 

Novel. 
I. Elfaredh,d. 1234, Poems. 






Averroes, d. 1206, Aristo- 
telian Pliilosophy. 


1200 




1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin. 


1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithm. 








AbdoUatif, Topography of 










Egypt. 










Abuldem, d. 1244, History. 










El Harawi, Travels. 




P. 


Saadi, 1193-1291, ' Gulis- 
tan,' 'Bostan.' 

Elfaragi, Poems. 


P. 


Abulfarage, 1226—1286, 
Universal History. 

Elmacin, d. 1302, History 
of Saracens. 

Fadlallah, History of Mo- 
guls. 


Caswin, d. 1274, Natural 

History. 
Beithar, d. 1246, Botany, 

Medicine. 

P. Nasireddin, 1201—1273, 
Astronomy. 


1300 




1300 Abulfeda, 1273-1333, 


1300 E. Hajan, d. 1344, Gran. 








Geography, History. 
Novairi, d. 1331, Universal 

History. 
Mohammed Ibn Batuta, 


























Travels. 










Ibn al Wardi, d. 1358, 










Geography. 










Abu Sharaeh, b. 1299, Hist. 








P. 


Turan Shah, d. 1377, Hist. 




P. 


Hafix, d 1395, Odes. 




Jafei, d. 1368, Biography. 


Firuzabadi, 1329—1414, 
' The Camoos.' 


1400 




P. 
P. 


1400 Ali Yezdi Sherifeddin, 
Life of Tamerlane. 
Makrizi, 1367-1438, Hist. 

Arabshah. d. 1450, Life of 
Timur. ' 

Baccai, d. 1480, Biography. 
Khondemir, or Mirkhond, 


1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan, 
Dictionary. 

Ulug Beg, 1393—1444, 
Astronomy, Chronology 

Babacushi, d. 1481, 
Politics. 


P. 


Jami, d. 1486, Poems, s 


T. 


Gen. Hist, to a. d. 1474. 
Baber, d. 1530, Autobio- 
graphy. 








1500 Alhassan, Description of 


1500 








Africa. 


Babacushi, d. 1566, Morals. 








Al Jannabi, d. 1590, Uni- 











versal History. 





645 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND BCIENTIFIO. 


1600 


1600 Ferishta, Hist, of India. 
Abulgazi, 1605—1663, Hist. 

of Tartars. 
T. Haji Khalifeh, d. 1675, 

History. 


P. 1600 Nured. Shirazi, Metaph. 
Moham. Hossain, ' Borhani 
Kata,' Dictionary. 


1700 


P. 1700 Gholam Hussein, An- 
nals of Hindostan. 


1700 Gholam Ali, Grammar. 



UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1600 


1600 


1600 Thomas Hooker, d. 1627, 
Sermons, &c. 




Wm. Hubbard, 1704, Hist. 


John Cotton, d. 1652, Theol. 




of Massachusetts. 


Cotton Mather, 1662-1728, 
Sermons, ' Magnalia,'&c. 


1700 John Adams, 1705—1740, 


1700 Inc. Mather, 1723, ' History 


1700 Benj. Colman, d. 1747, 


Poems. 


of War with Indians.' 


Theology. 


Benj. Church, 1739-1776, 


Thos. Prince, d. 1757, Hist. 


Jona. Edwards, d. 1757, 


Poems. 


of New England. 


Theology. 


Wm. Livingston, 1723— 




Samuel Davies, d. 1761, 


1790, Poems. 




Sermons. 


John Trumbull, 1750-1831, 




John Clayton, d. 1773, 


'McFingal,' &c. 




Botany. 


.loel Barlow, 1755—1812, 


Cadwallader Golden, 1688- 




' The Columbiad.' 


1776, History of the Five 
Nations of Indians. 




John Blair Linn, 1777— 


John Bartram, d. 1777, 




1804, Poems. 


Botany, Travels. 






Thos. Hutchinson, d. 1780, 


Jos. Bellamy, d. 1790, 




Hist, of Massachusetts. 


Theology. 
Benjamin Franklin, 1706— 

1790,Natural Philosophy, 

Politics, &c. 
Jas. Otis, d. 1783, Politics. 
John Hancock, 1793, 

Politics. 
Jolin Witherspoon, d. 1794, 

Theolosy, Politics. 
Patrick Henry, d. 1796, 




David Rittenhouse, d. 1796, 


Politics. 




Astronomy. 


Samuel Adams, 1803, 




Jeremy Belknap, 1798, His- 


Politics. 




tory of N. riampshire, 


Samuel Hopkins, 1721— 




Amer. Biog. &c. 


1803, Theology. 




Geo. R. Minot, 1802, ' Hist. 


Fisher Ames, d. 1808, 




of Massachusetts Bay.' 


Politics. 




Isaac Backus, 1806, Church 






History of N. England. 




1800 Chas. B. Brown, d. 1810, 


1800 Jas. Sullivan, d. 1809, Hist. 


1800 Thos. Paine, 1737—1809, 


Novels. 


of Maine. . 


Politics, 'Age of Reason,' 


Robt. Treat Paine, 1773— 




' Rights of Man,' &c. 


1811, 'Invention of Let- 


David Ramsay, d. 1812, 


Jos. S. Buckminster, a. 


ters,' 'The Ruling Pas- 


' Life of Washington,' 


1812, Theology. 


Bion,' and other Poems. 


'American Revolution,' 


Alex. Hamilton, 1757— 




' Universal History.' 


18W, Pontics. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY U. S. OF NORTH AMERICA. 



647 



IMAGINATION. 



1800 Paul Allen, 1775—1826, 
' Noah,' (a poem,) [Hist, 
of Am. Re vol.] 



1800 Alexander Wilson, d. 1813, 
'American Ornithology.' 

Hugh Williamson, d. 1818, 
Hist, of N. Carolina. 

Benj. S. Barton, d. 1815, 
Botany. 



J. G. C. Brainard, d. 1826, 
Poems, 



Wm. Wirt, 1772— ia34, 
'British Spy.' 



Robt. C. Sands, d. 1832, 

Poems. 
J. Q. Adams, 1707—1847, 

Poems. 
Washington AUston, 1779- 

1843, Painter, Poet, and 

Novelist. 
Timothy Flint, 17S0— 1840 

Novels. 
Jas. A; Hillhouse, 1789— 

1841, Poems. 
Wm. Leggett, 1802—1840, 

Poems, Miscellan., Polit. 
R. H. Wilde, 1789—1840, 

Poems, Researches on 

Tas90, <fcc. 



E. A. Poe, 1811-1849,Poems, 
Tales. 



SPECULATIVK AND SCIENTIFIC. 



1800 



Wm. Bartram, d. 1823, 

Botany, Travels. 
Jedediah Morse, d. 1826, 

Geog., Statistics, &c. 



Nathl. H. Carter, 1788— 
1830, ' Letters from Eu- 
rope.' 

Edmund D. Griffin, 1804— 
1830, Travels in Europe, 
Lectures on Literature, 
&c. 

John D. Godman, d. 1830, 
Anatomy, Natural Hist., 
&c. 

John Marshall, 1755—1835, 
Life of Washington, &c. 

Jno. Armstrong, 1758-1843, 
'War of 1812.' 

Abiel Holmes, 1763—1837, 
Annals of America. 

Timothy Flint, 1780—1840, 
Hist, of Mississ. Valley. 

A. S. Mackenzie, —1849. 
Travels in Spain, &c. 



Gouvenieur Morris, 1752— 

1816, Politics. 
Timothy Dwight, 1752— 

1817, ' Theology Explain- 
ed and Defended.' 
Levi Frisbie, 1784—1822,- 

Moral Philosophy. 
Wm. Pinckney, 1764-1822, 

Law, Politics. 
Jno. Marshall, 1755—1835, 

Law. 
W. E. Channing, 1780—. 

1842, Sermons, Criticism. 



Thomas Jefferson, 1743— 

1826, Politics, Philos. 
John Adams, 1735—1826, 

Politics. 
John M. Rlason, D. D., 

1770—1829, Divinity, 

Sermons, &c. 
John H. Hobart, D. D., 
1776-1830, Sermons, &c. 
Jos. Story, 1779—1^45, 

Law. 
Henry Wheaton, 1782— 

1848, Law. 
Edw. Livingston, 1764— 

1836, Criminal Code, <fec. 
David Hosack, 1769—1835, 

Medicine. 
Jas. Madison, 1751—1836, 
Politics. 



Alex. H. Everett, 1790— 

1847, Essays. 
R. Harlan, 1796—1843, 

Natural History. 
James Kent, 1763—1847, 

Comment, on Am. Law. 
Hugh S. Legare, 1797- 

1843, Miscellanies. 
Jas. Marsh, 1794-1842, Me- 
taphysics. 
Albert Gallatin, 1761-1849, 

Ethnology, Philology. 
J. C. Calhoun, 1782-1850, 

Politics, Speeches. 



HEATHEN DEITIES, AND OTHER FABULOUS PERSONS, 



WITH THE 



HEROES AND HEROINES OF ANTIUUITY. 



Ab'aris, a Scythian, priest of Apollo. 

Abeo'na, a goddess of voyages, &c. 

Abreta'nus, a surname of Jupiter. 

A'bron, a very voluptuous Grecian. 

Aby'la, a famous mountain in Africa. 

Acan'tha, a nymph beloved by Apollo. 

Acas'tus, the name of a famous hunter. 

Ace'tus, one of the priests of Bacchus. 

Achcb'menes, the first king of Persia. 

Acha'tes, a trusty friend of .lEneas. 

Ach'eron, a son of Titan and Terra, changed into 
a river of hell for assisting the Titans in their 
war against Jupiter. 

Achil'les, son of Peleus, king of Thrace, and 
Thetis, a goddess of the sea, who, being dip- 
ped by his mother in the river Styx, was in 
vulnerable in every part except his right 
heel, by which she held him; after signaliz- 
ing himself at the siege of Troy, for his valor, 
as well as cruelty, he was at length killed by 
Paris with an arrow. 

Acid'cdia and Arma'ta, names of Venus. 

AcidaHus, a famous fountain of Bceotia. 

A'cis, a Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphemus, 
because he rivalled him in the affections of 
Galetea. 

Ac'mon, a famous king of the Titans. 

Ac'ratus, the genius of drunkards at Athens. 

A -Hcbon, a celebrated hunter, who, accidentally 
discovering Diana bathing, was by her turned 
into a stag, and devoured by his own hounds. 

Adme'tus, a king of Thessaly. 

Ado'nis, the incestuous offspring of Cinyras and 
INIyrrha, remarkably beautiful, beloved by 
Venus and Proserpine. 

AdrasHea, the goddess Nemesis. 

JE'acus, one of the infernal judges. 

^'ga, Jupiter's nurse, daughter of Olenus. 

JDgeius, a king of Attica, giving name to the 
iEgean sea by drowning himself in it. 

JDgi'na, a particular favorite of Jupiter. 

yE'gis, a Gorgon, whom Pallas slew. 

JE'gle. one of the three Hesperides. 

Ji^'gon, a wrestler famous for strength. 

JDgyp'lus, son of Neptune and Lybia. 

A^l'lo, one of the three Harpies. 

^ne'as, son of Anchises and Venus. 

/Eo'lus, the god of the winds. 



^o'us, one of the four horses of ths sun. 

^scula'niis, a lloman god of riches. 

JEscula'pius, the god of physic. 

^thal'ides, a son of mercury. 

^'thon, one of the four horses of the sun. 

^t'naus, a title of Vulcan. 

jEto'los, a son of Endymion aud Diana. 

Agamem'non, a brother of Menelaus, chosen 

captain-general of the Greeks at the siege 

of Troy. 
Aganipipe, daughter of the river Permessus, 

which flows Irom mount Helicon. 
Age'nor, the first king of Argos. 
Agenoi ria, the goddess of industry. 
Agclas'tuu a.nd'Agesi'laus, names of Pluto. 
Agla'ia, one of the three Graces. 
AJJax, one of the most distinguished princes and 

heroes at the siege of Troy. 
Albu'nea, a famous sybil of Tripoli. 
Atci'des, a title of Hercules. 
Alci'nous, a king of Corcyra. 
Alci'oneus, a giant slain by Hercules. 
Alci'ope, a favorite mistress of Neptune. 
Alcyne'na, the wife of Amphitryon. 
Alec'tn, one of the three Furies. 
Alec'lryon, or Gal'lus, a favorite of Mars. 
Al'mus, and Alum'nus, titles of Jupiter. 
Alo'a, a festival of Bacchus and Ceres. 
Alcb'us, a giant who warred with Jupiter. 
AmaUlut'a, the goat that suckled Jupiter. 
Ambarva'le, a spring sacrifice to Ceres. 
Ambro'sia, the food of the gods. 
Ani'mon, a title of Jupiter. 
Amphiara'us, son of Apollo and Hypermnestra, 

a very famous augur. 
Amphime'don, one of the suitors of Penelope. 
Amphi'on, a famous musician. 
AmphitriHe, the wife of Neptune. 
Amyntor, a king of Epirus. 
Ana'tis, the goddess of prostitution. 
Anca'us, a king of Arcadia. 
Andro'geus, the son of Minos. 
Androm'ache, the wife of Hector. 
Androm'eda, the daughter of Cepheus and Cas- 

siope,who, contending for the prize of beauty 

with the Nereides, %vas by them bound tu a 

rock and exposed to be devoured by a sea 

monster ; but Perseus slew the monster, and 

married her. 
Angc'rona, the goddess of silence. 



HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 



64S 



An'na, the sister of Pygmalion and Dido. 
AntcB'as, a giant son of Neptune and Terra ; he 
was squeezed to death by Hercules. 

Ah'teros, one of the names of Cupid. 

Antever'ta, a goddess of women in labor. 

An'thia, and Arg-i'va, titles of Juno. 

An'ubis, an Egyptian god with a dog's head. 

Aon'ides, a name of the Muses. 

Apatu'ria, and Aphrodi'tis, titles of Venus. 

JVpis, son of Jupiter and Niobe, called also, 
Serapis, and Osiris : he iirst taught the 
Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines; 
after his death they worshipped him in the 
form of an o.\:, a symbol of husbandry. 

Arach'ne, a Lydian princess, turned by Minerva 
into a spider, lor presuming to vie with her 
at spuming. 

Arethu'sa, the daughter of Nereus. 

Argenti'nus, and ^scida'nus, gods of wealth. 

At-igo, the ship that conveyed Jason and his com- 
panions to Colchis, and reported to have been 
the iirst man-of war. 

Ar'gojiauts, the companions of Jason. 

Ar'gus, son of Aristor, said to have had a hun- 
dred eyes ; also an architect, who built the 
ship Argo. 

Ariad'ne, daughter of Minos, who, from love, 
gave Theseus a clue of thread to guide him 
out of the Cretan labyrinth : being after- 
wards deserted by him, she was married to 
Bacchus, and made his priestess. 

Arimas'pi, a warlike people of Scythia. 

Ari'on, a lyric poet of^Methymna. 

Aristoi'us, son of Apollo and Cyrene. 

Aristome'nes, a cruel Titan. 

Aristoph'anes, a comic poet, born at Lindus, a 
town of Rhodes. 

Arie'mis, the Delphic sybil ; also Diana. 

Asde'pia, festivals of jEsculapius. 

Asco'tia, feasts of Bacchus, celebrated in Attica. 

Aste'ria, daughter of Ceus. 

Astrapcb'us, and Ataby'rics, Jupiter. 

Astrcb'a, the goddess of justice. 

Astrol'ogus, a title of Hercules. 

Asty'anax, the only son of Hector. 

Astypala'a, daughter of Phtenix. 

A'te, the goddess of revenge. 

AtlanUes, a savage people of Ethiopia. 

At'las, a king of Mauritania. 

At'ropos, one of the three Fates. 

Aver'nus, a lake on the borders of hell. 

Averrunc'us. a god of the Romans. 

Auge'as, a king of Elis, whose stable of 3000 
oxen was not cleansed for 30 years, yet Her- 
cules cleansed it in one day. 

A'vistuper, a title of Priapus. 

Au'rea, a name of Fortuna. 

Auro'ra, the goddess of morning. 

Auto'leon, a general of the Crotonians. 

Autum'tius, the god of fruits. 



Bac'clms, the god of wine. 

Bap'ta, the goddess of shame. 

Barba'la, a title of Venus and Fortuna. 

Bas'sarexis, a title of Bacchus. 

Bat'lus. a herdsman, turned by Mercury mto a 
loadstone. 

Bau'cis, an old woman, who, with her husband 
Philemon, entertained Jupiter and Mercury, 
travelling over Phrygia, when all others re- 
fused, 

28 



Bellero'phon, son of Glaucus, king of Ephyra, 
who underwent numberless hardships for 
refusing an intimacy with Sthenobcea, the 
wife of Proetus, king of Argos. 

Bello'na, the goddess of war. 

BerecyiiHhia Ma'tei; a title of Cybele. 

Bereni'ce, a Grecian lady, who was the only 
person of her sex permitted to see the CMym- 
pic games. 

Ber'gion, a giant, slain by Jupiter. 

Bib'lia, the wife of Duillius, who first instituted 
a triumph for naval victory. 

Bi'ceps, and Bi'Jrons, names of Janus. 

Bisul'tor, a name of Mars. 

Bi'thon, a remarkably strong Grecian. 

Boli'na, a nymph rendered immortal for lier 
modesty and resistance of Apollo. 

Bo<na De'a, a title of Cybele, and Fortuna. 

Bo'nus Dafmon, a title of Priapus. 

Bo'reas, son of JEstrseus and Heribeia, generally 
put for the north wind. 

Bre'vis, a title of Fortuna. 

Eri'areus, a monstrous giant, son of Titan and 
Terra : the poets feign him to have liad a 
hundred arms and fifty heads. 

Bi-ii-mo, and Bu'bastis, names of Hecate. 

Brise'is, daughter of Brises, priest of Jupiter, 
given to Achilles upon the taking of Lyr- 
nessus, a ciiy of Troas, by the Greeks. 

B?-on'tes, a maker of Jupiter's thunder. 

Bro'theus, a son of Vulcan, who threw himself 
into mount .^tna, on account of his de- 
formity. 

Bruma'lia, feasts of Bacchus. 

Bubohia, the goddess of oxen. 

Busi'ris, a son of Neptune, and a most cruel 
tyrant ; he was slain by Hercules. 

Byb'Us, the daughter of Miletus. 



Cabar'ni, priests of Ceres. 

Cabi'ri, priests of Cybele. 

Ca'brus, a god of the Phaselitas. 

Ca'ciis, a son of Vulcan. 

Cud'/mis, son of Agenor and Telephessa, who, 
seHiching in vain for his sister, built the city 
of Thebes, and invented 16 letters of the 
Gi-eek alphabet. 

Cadu'cetm, Mercury's golden rod or wand. 

Coi'ca, and ConservaHrix., titles of Fortuna. 

CcBc'ulus, a robber, son of Vulcan. 

Ccb'neas, a title of Jupiter. 

CaVchas, a famous Greek soothsayer. 

Calis'to, the daughter of Lycaon. 

Calii'ope, the muse of lieroic poetry. 

Calyp'so, daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, who 
reigned in the island of Ogygia, where she 
entertained and became enamored of Ulys- 
ses, on his return from Troy. 

Cam'bles, a gluttonous king of Lydia. 

Camby'ses, the son of Cyrus, and king of (he 
Medes and Persians. 

CamcB'na, and Carna, goddess of infants. 

Ca'nes, a title of the Furies. 

Cano'pus, an Egyptian god. 

Car'dua, a household goddess. 

Carmen' ta, a name of Themis. 

Car'na, a Roman goddess. 

Carya'lis, a title of Diana. 

Casipii, a people of Hyrcania, who were said to 
starve ilieir parents to death when 70 years 
old, and to train up dogs for war. 



650 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



Cassan'dra, a daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
endowed with the gift of prophecy by Apollo. 

CastaVides, the Muses, from the fountain Cas- 
talius, at the foot of Parnassus. 

Cas'tor, son of .Jupiter and Leda, between whom 
and his brotlier Pollux immortality was al- 
ternately shared. 

Ca'lius, a tutelar god to grown persons. 

Ce'crops, the first Tcing of Athens. 

Celoi'no, one of the three Harpies. 

i'tn'laurs, children ol' Ixion, half men, half 
horses, inhabiting Thessaly. 

Crpha'lus, the son ol Mercury and Hersa. 

Ct'pheus, a prince of Arcadia and Ethiopia. 

i.'tiau'nius, a title of Jupiter. 

■Je:'berus, a dog with three heads and necks, 
who guarded the gates of hell. 

Ckri-aHia, festivals in honor of Ceres. 

Ci'res, the goddess of agriculture. 

Ce'rus; or Seh'us, the god of opportunity. 

Chul'cea, festivals in honor of Vulcan. 

C/iar'ites, a name of the Graces. 

Clia'ron, the ferryman of hell. 

Cliiiinera, a strange monster of Lycia, which 
was killed by Bellerophon. 

Chi'ion, the preceptor of Achilles. 

C/iro'/iiJs, a cruel son of Hercules 

C/iii/iiao'rms, a surname of Jupiter. 

C/ii'i/'sis, a priestess of Juno and Argos. 

C'ir'ce, a famous enchantress. 

Cir'rha, a cavern of Phocis, near Delphi, whence 
the winds issued which caused a divine rage, 
and produced oracular responses. 

Cillub'rides, a title of the Muses. 

Clau'sina, a name of Venus. 

Clau'siiis, or Clu'sius, a name of Janus. 

Vteu'inedes, a famous wrestler. 

Cli'u, the Muse presiding over history, and pa- 
troness of heroic poets. 

Clo'tho, one of the three Fates. 

Cli/temnes'tra, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, 
killed by her son, Orestes, on account of her 
adultery with JSgisthus. 

Cocy'tus, a river of hell, flowing from Styx. 

CoUi'na, the goddess of hills. 

Compila'tia, games of the household gods. 

Co'nius, the god of festivals and merriment. 

Concor'dia, the goddess of peace. 

Vonserva'lor, and Cus'tos, titles of Jupiter. 

Con'sus, a title of Neptune. 

Corli'na, the covering of Apollo's tripos. 

Curyban'les, and Citre'ies, ■'riests o'' pvbele. 

Cre'on, a king of Thebes. 

Crihiis, a priest of Apollo. 

On ms'sMs, a Trojan prince, who could change 
himself into any shape. 

Ctcb'sus, a rich king of Lydia. 

Crohiia, festivals in honor of Saturn. 

Ctes'ibus, a famous Athenian parasite. 

Cu'nia, the goddess of new-born infants. 

Cu'pidj son of Mars and Venus, the god of love, 
smiles, &c. 

Cy'clops, Vulcan's workinen, with only one eye 
in the middle of their forehead. 

Ci/b'e!e, the wife of Saturn. 

Ci/c'nus, a king of Liguria ; also a son of Nep- 
tune, who was invulnerable. 

OijUe'nius, and CamWlus, names of Mercury. 

Cyjtoceph'ah, a people of Lidia, said to have 
Ireads resembling those of dogs. 

Cyn'thia, and Cyn'thius, Diana, and Apollo, 

Cyparisscb'a, a title of Minerva. 

Cyp'ria, Cythere a, titles of Venus. 



D 

Dmda'lion, the son of Lucifer. 

Dced'alus, an artificer of Athens, who formed the 
Cretan labyrinth, and invented the auger, 
axe, glue, plumb-line, saw, and masts and 
sails Jbr ships. 

Da'mon, the sincere friend of Pythias. 

Da'mun, Bu'nus^ Dithyram'bus, and Dionys'- 
ius, titles of Bacchus. 

Da'nae, the daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos, 
seduced by Jupiter in the form of a golden 
shower. 

Dana'ides, or Be'-'ides, the fifty daughters )f 
Danaus, khig of Argos, all of whom, except 
Hypermnestra, killed their husbands, the sons 
ot their uncle .aSgyptus, on the marriage 
night : they were therefore condemned to 
draw water out of a deep well with sieves, 
so that their labor was without end or suc- 
cess. 

Daph'ne, a nymph beloved by Apollo. 

Darda'nus, the founder of Troy. 

Da'res, a very ancient historian who wrote an 
account of the Trojan war. 

De'a Syr'ia, a title of Venus. 

Dec'hna, a title of Lachesis. 

Deian'ira, the wife of Hercules. 

Deidaimia, a daughter of Lycomedes, king of 
Scyros, by whom Achilles had Pyrrhus, 
while he lay concealed in woman's apparel 
in the court of Lycomedes, to avoid going to 
the Trojan war. 

Deiape'a, a beautiful attendant on Juno. 

Deiph'obe, the Cumean sybil. 

Deiph'obus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 

De'lia, Del'ius, Diana and Apollo. 

De'las, the island where Apollo was bom. 

DeVphi, a city of Phocis, famous for a temple 
and an oracle of Apollo. 

DeVphicus, Didymoi'us, titles of Apollo. 

Dem'ades, an Athenian orator. 

Der'bices, a people near the Caspian Sea, who 
punished all crimes with death. 

Deuca'lion, son of Prometheus, and king of Thes- 
saly, who, with his wife Pyi-rha, was pre- 
served from the general deluge, and re-peo- 
pled the world. 

Dever'ra, the goddess of breeding women. 

JDiag'oras, a Rhodian, who died for joy, because 
his three sons had on the same day gained 
prizes at the Olympic games. 

Diahia, the goddess of hunting, &c. 

Di'do, daughter of Belus, the founder and queen 
of Carthage, whom Virgil fables to have 
burnt herself through despair, because iEne- 
as left her. 

Di'es, and Dies'piter, titles of Jupiter. 

Din'dyme, Oinayme'ne, titles of Cybele. 

Diom'edes, a king of jEtolia, who gained great 
reputation at Troy, and, accompanied by 
Ulysses, carried off the Palladium ; also, a 
tyrant of Thrace. 

Di'one, one of Jupiter's mistresses. 

Dionys'ia, feasts in honor of Bacchus. 

Dioscu'ri, a title of Castor and Pollux. 

Zfz'rtB, a title of the Furies. 

Z)zs, a title of Pluto. 

JDiscor'dia, the goddess of contention. 

Domidu'ca, a title of Juno. 

Doinidu'cus, and Domi'iius, nuptial gods. 

DomHna, a title of Proserpine. 

Dry'ades, nymphs of the woods and forests. 



HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 



651 



Echi'on, a companion of Cadmus. 
Ec'ho, daughter of Aer and Tellus, vrho pined 
away for love of Narcissus. 

EdorJides, priestesses of Bacchus. 

Edu'ca, a goddess of new born infants. 

Ege'ria, a title af Juno ; also a goddess. 

Elec'tra, the daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- 
temnestra. who instigated Orestes to revenge 
their father's death on their mother and her 
adulterer jEgisthus. 

E'leus, and Eieutke'rise, titles of Bacchus. 

E.'eusin'ia, feasts in honor of Ceres and Proser- 
pine. 

Eh' ides, nymphs of Bacchus. 

Eiitpii'sai, a name of the Gorgons. 

Eudym'ion, a shepherd of Caria, who, for inso- 
lently soliciting Juno, was condemned to a 
sleep of 30 years ; Luna visited him by night 
in a cave of mount Latmus. 

EniaUius, a title of Mars. 

Ewyo, the same as Bellona. 

Epe'iis, the artist of the Trojan horse. 

Epig'ones, the sons of the seven worthies who 
besieged Thebes, a second time. 

Epiloiinea, sacrifices to Bacchus. 

Epistro'phia, and Ery'cina, titles of Venus. 

Epizeph'rii, a people of Locris, who pamished 
those with death that drank more wine than 
physicians prescribed. 

Era' to, the muse of love-poetry. 

Er'ebus, an infernal deity, son of Chaos and Nox; 
a river of hell. 

Er'eane, a river whose waters inebriated 

Eriot/iohims, a king of Athens, who, being lame 
and very deformed in his feet, invented 
coaches to conceal his lameness. 

Erhi'nys, a common name of the furies. 

E'ros, one of the names of Cupid. 

Eros'tratus, the person who, to perpetuate his 
name, set fire to the celebrated temple of 
Diana at Ephesus. 

Ele'ocles, and Poly'nices, sons of CEdipus, who 
violently hated, and at last killed each other. 

Evad'ne, daughter of Mars and Thebe, who 
threw herself on the ftraeral pile of her htis- 
. band Cataneus, from affection. 

Euc'rates, a person remarkable fa shuffling, du- 
plicity, and dissimulation. 

Eumen'ides, a nan.e oi"the Furies. 

Euphros'yne, one of the three Graces. 

Euro'pa, the daughter of Agenor, who, it is said, 
was carried by Jupiter, in the form of a white 
bull, into Crete. 

Eiiry'ale, one of the three Gorgons. 

Euryd'ice, the wife of Orpheu.s. 

Eiirym'one, an infernal deity. 

Eul'er'pe, the muse presiding over music. 

E/clkyi/nus, a very famous wrestler. 



F 



E/iJi'ula, the goddess of lies. 

Eii/mli'iius, a god of infants. 

Fa' ma. the'god'dess of report, &c. 

Fus'cinmn, a title of Priapus. 

Fates, the three daughters of Nox and Erebus. 

Cloihos, Lachesls, and Atropos, intrusted 

with the lives of mortals, &c. 
Fau'na, anil Falhia, names of Cybelo. 
Fau'mi.s, the son of Mercury and Nox. find fa- 

\\wv of the Fauns, rural god.-*. 



Feb'rua, Flor'ida. Fluo'nia, titles of Juno, 

Feb'rua, a goddess of purification. 

Feb'ruus, a title of Pluto. 

Feii'cilas, the goddess of happiness. 

Fer' cuius, a household god. 

Fere'trius, and Fulmina'tor, titles of Jupiter. 

Ferohiia, a goddess of woods. 

Fesso'nio, a goddess of wearied persons. 

FidHus, the god of treaties. 

Flam'ines, priests of Jupiter, Mars, &c. 

Flo'ra, the goddess of flowers. 

Fluvia'les, or Patamides, nymphs of rivers. 

Forinax, the goddess of corn and bakers. 

Fortu'na, or ForHune, the goddess of happiness, 
&c., said to be blind. 

Fu'ries, or Eumen'ides, the three daughters o( 
Nox and Acheron, named Alecto, Megsera, 
and Tisiphone, with hair composed of snakes, 
and armed with whips, chains, &c. 



G, 

Galate'a, daughter of Nereus and Doris, passion- 
ately beloved by Polyphemus. 

Gal'ii, castrated priests ol Cybele. 

Gal'lus, or Alec'trion, a favorite of Mars, and 
changed by him into a cock. 

Game'lia, a title of Juno. 

Gan'ges, a famous river of India. 

Gany'mede, the cup-bearer of Jupiter. 

Gelasi'nus, the god of mirth and smiles. 

Gelo'iii, a people of Scythia, who used to paint 
themselves in order to appear more terrible 
to their enemies. 

Ge'iiii, guardian angels. 

Ge'nius, a name of Priapus. 

Ger'yon, a king of Spain, who fed his oxen with 
human flesh, and was therefore killed by 
Hercules. 

Glauco'pis, a name of Minerva. 

Glau'cus, a fisherman made a sea god by eating 
a certain herb : also the son of Hippolochus, 
who exchanged his arms of gold for the bra- 
zen ones of Diomede. 

Giios'sis, a name of Ariadne. 

Gor'dius, a husbandman, but afterwards king of 
Phrygia, remarkable for tying a knot of cords 
on which the empire of Asia depended, in so 
very intricate a manner, that Alexander the 
Great, unable to unravel it, cut it to pieces. 

Gor'ffons, the three daughters of Phorcys and 
Ceta, Medusa, Euryale, and Stheno, who 
could change into stone those whom they 
looked on ; Perseus slew Medusa, the prin- 
cipal of them. 

Gorgopli'orus, a title of Pallas. 

Gra'ces, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, the 
daughters of Jupiter and Eurynomb; atten- 
dants on Venus and the Muses. 

Gradi'vus, a title of Mars. 

Gy'ges, a Lydian, to whom Candaules, king of 
Lydia, showetl his queen naked, which so 
incensed her that she slew Candaules, and 
married Gyges; also a shepherd, who by 
means of a ring could render himself invi- 
sible. 

Ha'des, a title of PUito. 

Ha.maxo'hii, a people of Scythia, who lived in 

carts, and removed from place to place aa 

necessity requii-ed. 



652 



THE world's progress. 



Harmo'nis, a famous artist of Troy. 

HarpaVyca, a very beautiful maid of Argos. 

Harpies, three monsters, Aello, Celceno, and 
Ocypete, with the faces of virgins, bodies of 
vultures, and hands armed with monstrous 
claws. 

Harpodrates, the Egyptian god of silence. 

He'be, the goddess of youth. 

He'hrus, a river in Thrace. 

He'calius, a title given to Jupiter by Theseus. 

Hec'ate, Diana's name in hell. 

Hec'tor, a son of Priam and Hecuba, and the 
most valiant of all the Trojans. 

Hec'uba, the wife of Priam. 

Hege'sius, a philosopher of Cyrene, who de- 
scribed the miseries of life with such a 
gloomy eloquence, that many of his auditors 
killed themselves through despair. 

JSeVena, the wife of Menelaus, the most beauti- 
ful woman in tlie world, who, running away 
with Paris, occasioned the Trojan war. 

Hel'enus, a son of Priam and Heculia. 

Hel'icon, a famous mountain of Bisotia, dedi- 
cated to Apollo and the Muses. 

Hera'ia, sacrifices to Juno. 

Her'cules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, re- 
markable ibr his numerous exploits and 
dangerous enterprises. 

Heribe'ia, the wife of Astreus. 

I'ler'moi, statutes of Mercury. 

Her'mes, a name of aiercury. 

Hermi'one,_ a daughter of Mars and Venus, mar- 
ried to Cadmus; also a daughter of Mene- 
laus and Helena, married to Pyrrhus. 

He'ro: a beautiful woman of Sestos, in Thrace, 
priestess of Venus; Leander, of Abydos, 
loved her so tenderly that he swam over the 
Hellespont every night to see her; but being 
at length unfortunately drowned, she threw 
herseff into the sea, through despair. 

Hcrod'olus, a very famous historian of Halicar- 
nassus. 

Heroph'iia, the Erythraean sybil. 

Hersili'a, the wife of Romulus. 

Hes'perus, or Vesper, the evening star. 

Hes'jjerirfes, the daughters of Hesperus; iEgle, 
Arethusa, and Hesperethusa, who had a gar- 
den bearing golden apples, watched by a 
dragon, which Hercules slew, and bore away 
the fruit. 

He'sus, a name of Mars among the GauLs. 

Hip'pias, a philosopher of Elis. 

Hippocam'pi, Neptune's horses. 

Hiypocrene, a fountain at the bottoir if mount 
Helicon, dedicated to Apollo. 

TlippoVylus, the son of Theseus and Aniiope or 
Hyppolite, who refused intimacies with his 
stepmother Pheedro. At the request of 
Diana, iEsculapius restored him to life, 
after he had been thrown from his chariot, 
and dragged through the woods till he was 
torn in pieces. 

Hippohia, the goddess of horses and stables. 

IJisto'ria, the goddess of history. 

Horten'sis, a name of Venus. 

Ho'rus, a title of the sun. 

irost.ili'na, a goddess of corn. 

Hy'ades, the seven daughters of Atlas and 
jEthra : Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, Pasi- 
thoe, Plexaris, Pytho, and Tyche. They 
were changed by Jupiter into seven stars. 

lli/bla, a mountain in Sicily, universally famous 
for its thyme -and bees. 



Hy'dra, a serpent, which had seven heads, or as 
some say nine, others fifty, killed by Hercu- 
les in the lake Lerna. 

Hyge'ia, the goddess of health. 

HyL'lus, the son of Hercules and Dejanire. 

Ily'meii, the god of marriage. 

liype'rion, a son of Ccelus and Terra. 

Ilypsipiyle, a queen of Lemnos, who was ban- 
ished for preserving her father when all the 
othea.- men of the island were murdered hv 
their kindred. 



lac'chus, a name of Bacchus. 

lanHhe, the beautiful wife of Iphis. 

lape'lus, a son of Coelem and Tefra. 

lar'bas, a cruel king of Mauritania. 

Ica'rius, the son of Oebalus, who, '.aving re- 
ceived from Jiacchus a bottle of wine, went 
into Attica, to show men the use of it: but, 
making some shepherds drunk, they thought 
he had given them poison, and therefore 
threw him into a well. 

Ica'rus, the son of Djedalus, who, flying with his 
father out of Crete into Sicily, and soaring 
too high, melted the wax of his wings, and 
fell into the sea, thence called the Icarian 
sea. 

I'da, a mountain near Troy. 

Ida-Ja Mater, a nanie of Cybele. 

Idcb'i Dact'yli, a priest of Cybele. 

IdciHia, a name ol Venus. 

Id'mon, a famous soothsayer. 

Ido'thea, Jupiter's nurse. 

lli'one, the eldest daughter of Priam. 

llis'sus, a river in Atiica. 

lUus, the son of Tros and Callirrhoe, from whom 
Troy was called Ilium. 

Impera'tor, a name of Jupiter. 

IrJachis and I'ses, names ol' lo. 

I'no, daughter of Cadmus and Hermiones, and 
wife of Athamas. 

Intercido'na, a goddess of breeding women. 

Interdu'ca, and Ju'ga, names of ,)uno. 

In'uus, and Jnc'ubus, names of Pan. 

/'o, daughter of Inachus, transformed by Jupi- 
ter into a white heifer ; but afterwards re- 
suming her former shape, was worshipped 
as a goddess by the Egyptians, under the 
name of Isis. 

Iph'idus, the twin brother of Hercules. 

fyhige'nia, daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- 
temnestra, who, standing as a victim ready 
to be sacrificed to appease the rage of Diana, 
was, by that goddess, transformed into a 
white hart, carried to "Tauris, and made her 
priestess. 

I'phis, a prince of Cyprus, who hanged himself 
for love ; also a daughter of Lygxlas. 

Iph'itus, son of Praxonides, who instituted 
Olympic games to Hercules. 

Pris, the daughter of Thaumas ; she was Juno's 
favorite companion, and her messenger on 
affairs of discord, &c. 

I'tys, the son of Tereus and Progne, murdered 
and served up by his mother at a banquet 
before Tereus, in revenge lor hi<! having vio- 
lated her sister Philomela. 

Ixt'on, the son of Phlegyas, who was fastened in 
hell to a wheel perpetually turning round, 
ibr boasting that he had lain with Juno. 



HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 



653 



Jan'itor, and Jtino'nhcs, titles of Janus. 

Ja'niis, the first king of Italy, son of Apollo and 
Creusa. 

Ja'son, a Thessalian prince, son of JEson, who 
by Medea's help brought away the golden 
fleece from Colchis. 

To' casta, the daughter of Creon, who unwittingly 
married her own son, OEdipus. 

Ju'no, the sister and wife of .Jupiter. 

Ju'no, I/ifeihia, a name of Proserpine. 

Jiincihiess, guardian angels of women. 

Jii.'piter, a son of Saturn and Ops — the supreme 
di»ity of the heathen. 

Jii'piter Secun'dus, a name of Neptune. 

Ju'piter Ter'tius, Infer'nus, or Sly'gias, seve- 
ral appellations given to Plulo. 

Juvcn'la, a goddess of youth. 



La'clinsis, one of the three Fates. 
Lacin'ia, and Lucil'ia, titles of Juno. 
Lactu'ra, or Lactuci'na, a goddess of corn. 
Lccstrlg'ones, caimibals of Italy, who roasted 

and ate the companions of Ulysses. 
La'ius, a king of Thebes, killed unwittingly by 

his own son, ffidipus. 
La'mia,, a name of the Gorgons. 
Lcioc'oon, a son of Priam and high-priest of 

Apollo : he and his two sons were killed by 

serpents for opposing the reception of the 

wooden horse into Troy. 
La.'pis, or Lapid'eus, titles of Jupiter. 
Laires, sons of Mercury and I^ara, worshipped 

as household gods. 
Laicra'niis, a household god. 
Laver'na, a goddess of thieves. 
Lean'der, see Hero. 
Le'da, daughter of Thestias, and wife of Tyn- 

darus, seduced by Jupiter in the shape of a 

swan. 
Lemoni'ades, nymphs of meadows, &e. 
Le'na, priestesses of Bacchus. 
Ler'na, a marsh of Argos, famous for a Hydra, 

killed there by Hercules. 
Le'lhe, a river of hell, whose waters caused a 

total forgetfulness of things past. 
Leva'na, a goddess of new born infants. 
Lihiti'na, the goddess of funerals. 
Li'nus, son of Apollo and Terpsichore. 
Luben'tia, the goddess of pleasure. 
Lu'cifer, son of Jupiter and Aurora, made the 

morning star. 
Lii'na, Diana's name in heaven. 
Luper'calia, feasts in honor of Pan. 
Lijper'ci, priests of Pan. 
Lyca'on, a king of Arcadia, turned by Jupiter 

into a wolf. 



M 



Ma'ia, loved by Jupiter, and by him turned into 

a star to avoid Juno's rage. 
Managenc'la, a goddess of women in labor. 
Mantu'ra, a goddess of com. 
ManturhM, and Me'na, nuptial goddesses. 
■Mariina, Mel'anis, Mer'etrix^ Migoni'tis, and 

Mur'cia, titles of Vetjus. 
Mars, the god of war. 



Mauso'lus, a king of Caria, who had a most 
magnificent tomb erected to him by his wife 
Artemisia. 

Mede'a, daughter of JEtes, king of Colchis, a 
famous sorceress, who assisted Jason to ob- 
tain the golden fleece. 

Mediiri'na, a goddess of grown pe^ions. 

Medu'sa, the chief of the three Gorgons. 

Megoi'ra, one of the three Furies. 

Megalen'sia, festivals in honor of Cybele. 

Mega'ra, the wife of Hercules. 

Melani'ra, a name of Venus. 

Me'liai, nymphs of the fields. 

Me'lius, a name of Hercules. 

Melo'na, the godde.ss of honey. 

Melpom'ene, the muse of tragedy. 

Mem'non, a king of Abydos. 

Menala'tis, a famous Centaiu". 

Menelaius, the husband of Helena. 

Men'tha, a mistre.ss of Pluto. 

MenHor, the governor of Telemachus. 

Mer'cury, the messenger of the gods, inventor of 
letters, and god of eloquence, merchandise, 
and robbers. 

Mero'pe, one of the seven Pleiades. 

Mi'das, a king of Phrygia, who entertained Bac- 
chus, or, as some say, Silenus, had the power 
given him of turning whatever he touched 
into gold. 

Mi'lo, a wrestler of remarkable strength. 

MimaVlones, attendants on Bacchus. 

Mineriva, the goddess of wisdom. 

Mi'nos, a king of Crete, made, for his extraordi- 
nary justice, a judge of hell. 

Min'otaur, a monster, half man, half beast. 

Min'ya:, a name of the Argonauts. 

Mnemos'i/ne, the goddess of memory. 

Moi-mus, "the god of raillery, wit, &c. 

Mone'ta, a title of Juno. 

Mor'pheus, the god of sleep, dreains, &c. 

Mors, the goddess of death. 

MuVciber, a title of Vulcan. 

Mu'ses, nine daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo- 
syne, born on mount Pieri us, mistresses of 
all the sciences, presidents of musicians and 
poets, and governesses of the feasts of the 
gods; Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Mel- 
pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia, 
and Urania. 

Mu'ta, the goddess of silence. 



Nmnia, the goddess of funeral songs. 

Na'iades, nymphs of the rivers, &c. 

Narcis'sus, a very beautiful youth, who, falling 
in love with his own shadow in the water, 
pined away into a daflTodil. 

Na'tio, and Nundihia, goddess of infants. 

Namibia, a country of Elis, famed for a terrible 
lion killed there by Hercules. 

Nem'esis, the goddess of revenge. 

Nep'tune, the god of the sea. 

Ne'reides, sea hymphs. 

Ne'rio, the wife of Mars. 

Niceph'orus, a title of Jupiter. 

Ni'nus, the first king of the Assyrian.?. 

Ni'obe, daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Am- 
phion, who, preferring herself to Latona, 
had her 14 children killeti-by Diana and 
Apollo, and wept herself into a statue. 

No'niius, a name of Apollo. 



654 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



Nox, the most ancient ot the deities ; she was 
67611 reckoned older than Chaos. 



O 

Ob'sequens, a title of Fortuna. 

Occa'tor, the god of harrowing. 

Oce'anub; an ancient sea god. 

Ocyp'ete, one of the three Harpies. 

CEd'ipiiSi son of Laius and Jocasta, and king of 
Thebes, who solved the riddle of the Sphinx, 
unwittingly killed his father, married his 
mother, and at last ran mad, and tore out 
his eyes. 

Om'phale, a queen of Lydia, with whom Her- 
cules was so enamored, that she made him 
submit to spinning and other unbecoming 
offices. 

Ojt tr'lus, a name of Pluto. 

Opi'gena, a name of .luno. 

Ops, a name of Cybele. 

Orbo'na, a goddess of grown persons. 

Orns'/es, the son of Agamemnon. 

Ori'on, a great and mighty hunter. 

Or'pheus, son of Jupiter and Calliope, who had 
great skill in music, and was torn in pieces 
by the Msenades, for disliking the company 
of women after the death of his wife Eury- 
dice. 

Orythi'a, a queen of the Amazons. 

Osi'ris, see Apis. 



Pac'lolus, a river of Lydia, with golden sands 
and medical waters. 

Pcc'an, and Phce'bus, names of Apollo. 

Pa'les, the goddess of shepherds. 

PaliUia, feasts in honor of Pales. 

Pallu'dium, a statue of Minerva, which the 
Trojans imagined fell from heaven, and that 
their city could not be taken whilst that re- 
mained in it. 

Pal'las, and Py'lotis, names of Minerva. 

Pan, the god of shepherds. 

Pando'ra', the first woman made by Vulcan, and 
endowed with gifts by all the deities ; Jupi- 
ter gave her a box containing all manner of 
evils, war, famine, &c., with hope at the 
bottom. 

Pan'ope, one of the Nereids. 

Pa'phia, a title of Venus. 

Par'cxb, a name of the Fates. 

Par'is, or Alexander, son of Priam and He- 
culja, a most beautiful youth, who ran away 
with Helena, and occasioned the Trojan 
war. 

Parnas'siis, a mountain of Phocis, famous for 
a temple of Apollo, and being the favorite 
residence of the Muses. 

Par'lunda, a nuptial goddess. 

Pastoph'ori, priests of Isis. 

Patiareus, a title of Apollo. 

Pateli'na, a goddess of corn. 

patula'cius, a name of Janus. 

PatuleHus, a name of Jupiter. 

PavenUia, and PoWna, goddesses of infants. 

Peg'asus, a winged horse belonging to Apollo 
and the Muses. 

Pello'nia, a goddess of grown persons. 

Pena'les, small statues or household gods, 



Penel'ope, daughter of Icarus, celebrated for her 
chastity and fidelity during the long absence 
of Ulysses. 

Per'seus, son of Jupiter and I>anae, who per- 
fortred many extraordinary exploits by 
means of Medusa's head. 

Phcbcasia'ni, ancient gods of Greece. 

Pha'elon, son of Sol (Apollo) and Climene, who 
asked the guidance of his father's chariot 
for one day, as a proof of his divine descent ; 
but unable to manage the horses, set the 
world on fire, and was therefore struck by 
Jupiter with a thunderbolt into the river P6. 

PhalHica, feasts of Bacchus. 

Philainhnon, a skilful musician. 

Pailome'la, daughter of Pandion, king of Athens, 
who was ravished by her brother-in-law, 
Tereus, and was changed into a nightin- 
gale. 

Phin'eas, son of Agenor, and king of Paphla- 
gonia, who had his eyes torn out by Boreas, 
but was recompensed with the knowledge 
of futurity ; also a king of Thrace, turned 
into a stone by Perseus, by the help of Me- 
dusa's head. 

Plile^'ethon, a boiling river of hell. 

Phlegon, one of the four horses of Sol. 

Phlegiyoi, a people of Bosotia, destroyed by 
Neptune, on account of their piracies and 
other crimes. 

Plia'bas, the priestess of Apollo. 

PlKB'biis, a title of Apollo. 

Pha'nix, son of Amyntor, who being falsely ac- 
cused of having attempted the honor of one 
of his father's concubines, was condemned 
to have his eyes torn out ; but was cured by 
Chiron, and went with Achilles to the siege 
of Troy. 

Picum'nus, a rural god. 

Pilum'nus, a god of breeding womei^. 

Pin'dus, a mountain in Thessaly. 

Pi'tho, a goddess of eloquence. 

Ple'iades, the seven daughters of Atlas and 
Pleione ; Mala, Electra, Taygete, Asterope, 
Merope, Halcyone, and Celceno ; they were 
changed into stars. 

Plu'lo, the god of hell. 

Plu'ius, the god of riches. 

Pol'lux. See Castor. 

Polyd'amas, a famous wrestler. 

Polyd'ius, a famous prophet and physician. 

Polyhym'nia, the muse of rhetoric. 

Polyphe'mus, a monstrous giant, son of Nep- 
tune, with but one eye in the middle of his 
forehead. 

Pomo'na, the goddess of fruits and autumn. 

Pose'idon, a name of Neptune. 

Pramesti'na, a name of Fortuna. 

Prces'les, a title of Jupiter and Minerva. 

Praxit'eles, a famous statuary. 

Pri'am, son of Laomedon, and father of Paris, 
Hector, &c. ; he was the last king of Troy. 

Prog'ne, wife of Tereus, king of Thrace, an I 
sister of Philomela ; she was turned into a 
swallow. 

Prome'theus, son of lapetus, who animated a 
man that he had formed of clay, with fire, 
which, by the assistance of Minerva, he stole 
from heaven, and was therefore chained by 
Jupiter to mount Caucasus, with a vulture 
continually preyins upon his liver. 

Propu'lcBa, a name of Hecate. 

Pros'erpine, the wife of Pluto. 



HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 



655 



ProHeus, a sea god, who could transform himself 
into any shape. 

Psy'che., a goddess of pleasure. 

Pi/t'adas, the constant friend of Orestes. 

Pyr'amus, and This'be, two lovers of Babylon, 
who killed themselves vifith the same sword, 
and occasioned the turning the berries of the 
mulberry-tree, under which they died, from 
white to red. 

Prycb'tis, one of the four horses of the sun. 

Pyr'rhus, son of Achilles, remarkable for his 
cruelty at the siege of Troy. 

Py'thon, a huge serpent, produced from the mud 
of the deluge, which Apollo killed, and in 
memory thereof, instituted the Py ihiau games. 

Puthonis'sa, the priestess of Apollo. 



Quad'rifrons, a title of Janus. 
Qui'es, a goddess of grown persons, 
Quieta'lis, and Quie'tzis, names of Pluto. 
Quinqua'tria. feasts of Pallas. 



S, 



Jiecl'us, a title of Bacchus. 

Rc'dux, and Re'gia, titles of Fortune. 

liegi'na, a. title of .luno. 

Rhadaman'thus, one of the three infernal 

judges. 
Rhe'a, a title of Cybele. 
Rhe'a-syl'via, the mother of Romulus. 
Robi'gus, a god of corn. 
Rom'idus, the first king of Rome. 
Ruini'na, a goddess of new-born infants. 
Runci'na, the goddess of weeding. 
Rusi'na, a rural deity. 



S 

iSaba'zia, feasts of Proserpine. 

Sa'lii, the 12 frantic priests of Mara. 

Salmone'us, a king of Eiis, struck by a thunder- 
bolt to hell for imitating Jupiter's thunder. 

Sa'lus, the goddess of health 

Sanc'us, a god of the Sabines 

Sator, and Sorri'tor, rural gods. 

Saturna'lia, feasts of Saturn. 

Satur'nus, or Sai'urn, the son of Coelus and 
Terra. 

Sat'yrs, the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon- 
sters, half men, half goats. 

Scy'ron, a famous robber of Attica. 

Se'ia, and Sege'iia, goddesses of corn. 

Sel'li, priests of Jupiter. 

Sen'ta, a goddess of married women. 

(Sera'pis. See Apis. 

Sile'nus, the foster-father and companion of Bac- 
chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, 
and was drunk every day. 

Si'mis, a famous robber, killed by Hercules. 

Sis'ypkus, the son of ^olus, killed by Theseus, 
and doomed incessantly to roll a huge stone 
up a mountain in hell for his perfidy and 
numerous robberies. 

fiol, a name of Apollo. 

Som'nus, the god of sleep. 

Sphinx; a monster, born of Syphon, and Ecliidna, 
who destroyed herself because CEdipus 
solved the enigma she proposed. 



Sta'ta, a goddess of grown persons. 

Sten'tor, a Grecian, whost voice is reported to 

have been as strong and as loud as tne voices 

of 50 men together. 
Sthe'no, one of the three Gorgons. 
Styx, a river of hell. 
Sua'da, a nuptial goddess. 
Summa'nus, a name of Pluto. 
Sylva'nus, a god of woods and forests. 
Sy'rens, sea monsters 



T 



Ta'cita, a goddess of silence. 

TantaHus, a king of Paphlagonia, who, serv- 
ing up to table the limbs of his son, Pelops, 
to try the divinity of the gods, was plunged 
to the chin in a lake of hell, and doomed to 
everlasting thirst and hunger, as a punish- 
ment for his barbarity and impiety. 

TarUi'rus, the place of tire wicked in hell. 

Tau'rus, the bull, under whose form Jupiter 
carried away Europa. 

Telchi'nes, priests of Cybele. 

Telema'chus, the onl)^ son of Ulysses. 

7'e-m'pe, a most beautiful valley in Thessaly, the 
resort of the gods. 

Ter'minus, the god of boundaries. 

Terpsicko're, the muse of music, &c. 

Ter'ror, the god of dread and fear. 

Tha'lia, the muse of comedy. 

The'mis, the daughter of Coelum and Terra, the 
goddess of laws, oracles, &c. 

Thes'pis, the first tragic poet. 

The' lis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and god- 
dess of the sea. 

Thyr'sus, the rod of Bacchus. 

Ti'phys, the pilot of the ship Argo. 

Tisiph'o7ie, one of the three Furies. 

Ti'tan, son of CcElum and Terra, and the elder 
brother of Saturnus, or Saturn. 

Tnia'rius, a title of Jupiter. 

TriHon, Neptune's trumpeter. 

Tri' Ionia, a name of Minerva. 

Tro'ilus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 

Troy, a city of Phrygia, famous for holding out 
a siege often years against the Greeks, but 
they at last captured and destroyed it. 

Tuteli'na, a goddess of corn. 

Ty'ro, one of the Nereids. 



U 



Ulys'ses, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king 
of Ithaca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence, 
was eminently serviceable to the Greeks in 
the Trojan war. 

Unx'ia, a title of Juno. 

Ura'nia, the muse of astronomy. 



V 

Vacu'na, the goddess of idle persons. 
Vagita'nus, a god of little infants. 
Vallonia, a goddess of valleys. 
Veni'lia, a wife of Neptune. 
Ve'nus, the goddess of love, and beauty. 
Vergil'icE, a name of the Pleiades. 
Verticor'dia, a name of Venus. 
Vertuni'nus, the god of spring. 



656 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



Ves'la, the goddess of fire. 

Via'les, deities of the highways. 

VibU'ia, the goddess of wanderers. 

Virgmen'sis, a nuptial goddess. 

Vir'go, a name of Astrea and Fortune. 

Virilis, and ViscaHa, titles of Fortune. 

Viri'placa, an inferior nuptial goddess, who re- 
conciled husbands to their wives; a temple, 
at Rome, was dedicated to her, whither the 
married couple repaired after a quarrel, and 
returned together friendly. 

Vitu'la, the goddess of mirth. 

Volu'sia, a goddess of corn. 

Vul'can, the god of subterraneous fire. 



Xan'lhus, one of the horses of Achilles, born of 



the harpy Celosno, a river near Troy, called 
also Scamander. 



Z 

Za'greus, a title of Bacchus. 

Zeph'yrus, son of ^olus and Aurora, w!ici pas- 
sionately loved the goddess Flora, and is put 
for the west wind. 

Zb'lcs, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Orythia, 
who accompanied the Argonauts, and drove 
the Harpies from Thrace. 

Ze'tus, a son of Jupiter and Antiope, very expert 
m music. 

Ze'us, a title of Jupiter. 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



N' . B. This list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period to the present time, is not oi 
r.oursc intended to include every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in 
iheir several departments. The names of Sovereig7is are referred to occasionally only, as full lista 
are given in their proper place. 

This list may be useful in two ways, viz : 

First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in this volume ; and 

Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the cliief political events and contemporary 
public characters during the life of each person in the list. 

Thus : Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 B. J. Tlie tables on 
page 20 to 24, show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' life. 

Milton was born a. d. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia ; six 
years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended the throne ; 
the same year that the Pi'otestant Union was formed in Germany; one year before Gustavus 
Adolphus became king of Sweden ; two years before Louis XIII. became king of France. He 
was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth; he was 17 when Charles I. suc- 
ceeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was beheaded. Among his contemporaries 
were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, 
Tiryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in England : Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton, and 
Eliot, in America: Richelieu, Mazarine, Colbert, Ilubens, Kepler, Des Cartes, Molicre, Corneille, 
Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. He died a. d. 1674, nine years after the great plague in London, 
14 years after Charles II. was restored, and 7 years after New- York was ceded to the English. 

And thus of any person mentioned in the Index — a great variety of particulars may be found 
at a glance, on referring to the tables. 

*,* No living persons are mentioned, except some of the most noted in Europe. 

Abbreviations. — See List in the Introduction. Bar. {Barbarian), includes several different 
nations, some not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. The dates before Christ 
are indicated by b. o. — all others are a. d. — In some cases the dates are necessarily left blank. 

NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ban. Aagesend, Svind, historian 

Jew. Aaron, the fi"st high-prie.st 

Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician 

Eng. Abbot, George, Archbishop of Canterbury and author 

Arab. Abd 'el Kader, distinguished warrior 

Fr. Abelard, Peter, a celebrated scholastic divine . 

Nor. Abel, Nicholas H., mathematician 

Sp. Abenezva, an astron., pbilos., poet, philologist, &c. 

Eng. Aberdeen, Earl of, statesman and antiquary 

Eng. Abercromby, Sir Ralph, military commander 

Eng. Abernethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer 

Fr.~ Ablancourt, N. P. D., translator of the classics 

Jew. Abraham, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation 

Dan. Absalom (real name Axel), archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor. 

Ara. Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet 

Syr. Abulfeda. the geographer .... 

Rom. Accius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant.) 

Ital. Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic 

Ger. Accum., Fred , operative chemist (in Eng.) 

Pruss. Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas-lighting and lithog. in London 

Gr. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war 

Gr. Achilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bp. and author 

Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 

Eng. Adam, Alexander, schoolmaster and author 

28* 



BORN. 


DIED. 


. f. 1188 




. B. c. 1570 


1453 


. f. 622 




1562 


1623 


1805 




1079 


1142 


1802 




1119 


1174 


. ' 1738 


1801 


1764 


1831 


1606 


1664 


B. c. 1995 B. 


c, 1821 


1128 


1203 


561 


624 


1273 


1345 


B. c. 171 






1229 


1769 


1833 


n 1764 


1834 




f. 1184 


3d cent 




1220 


1282 


1711 


1809 



658 



THE world's PK.OGRESS. 



KATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Adam, Robert, an arcliitectural author 

Amcr. Adams, John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S. 

Amer. , Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic 

Ainer. , John, patriot and statesman — 2d Pres. TJ. S. 

Eng. Addison, Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature 

Rom. Adrian, the 15th Emp. (born in Spain) 

Ire. Adrain, Robert^ mathematician (at New-York, &c.) 

Gr. jElian, the historian and rhetorician . . 

Gr. jEneas, son of Priam, king of Troy_ . . 

Gr. JEschines, of Athens, philos. — disciple of Socrates 

Gr. • orator 

Gr. ^schylus, of Athens, the great tragic writer 

Gr. iEsop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists 

Rom. ^Etius, mil. com. (defeated Atilla) 

Rom. Africanus. Julius, historian 

Gr. Agamemnon, "the king of kings" 

Gr. Agathius, historian and poet 

Swiss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist 

Gr. Agesilaus II., king of Sparta ; (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks) 

Gr. Agis IV., the greatest of the Spartan kings 

Eng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible 

Rom. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander 

Ger. Agricola, John, a divine ; — founder of the Antinomians 

Rom. Agrippa, military commander, governor of Judea 

Fr. , Cornelius, philosopher, &c. 

Eng. Aikin, John, M. D., an elegant writer ; editor of poets, &c. 

Eng. Ainswonh, grammarian and lexicographer 

Tartar. Akbar. Mohammed, a great Mogul sovereign, 

Eng. Akenside, Mark, a popular poet 

Swe. Akerblad, philologist 

Bar. Alaric I., king of the Visigoths 

Span. Alberoni, Julius (cardinal), statesman 

Ital. Alberti, an eminent writer, paint., sculp., &.C. 

Ger. Albertus Magnus, philosophic writer; tutor of Aquinas 

Bar. Alboin, the J^oiubard conqueror . . . 

Port. Albuquerque (the great), military commpiider 

Gr. AlCcBUs, of Lesbos, a lyric poet 

Ital. Alciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian aud author 

Gr. Alcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman . 

Eng. Alcuinus (founder of schools at Paris, &c.) 

Eng. Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet 

Fr. Alembert, John le Rond d', math., hist., and philosopher 

Bar. Alexander, the Great, founder of /.he Macedonian empire 

Rom.. , Severus, emperor 

Rus , Nevskoi, a saint and hero ;— del", of the Tartars, &c. 

Rus. , I., emperor (coalition against Napoleon) 

Gr. Alexius C'ommcnus, emperor of the East 

Ito.l. Alfieri, Victor, an eminent tragic poet 

Eng. Alfred, justly called the Great, king 

Ital. Algarotti, a general scholar and critic 

Bar Ali Bey, gov. of Egypt, —revolted against the Turks 

Bar. — Tepelini, pacha of jannina 

Scot. Alison, Archibald Rev., 'Essays on Taste' 

Scot. Alison, Archibald, 'History of Europe,' 'Essays' 

Amer. Allen, Ethan, an intrepid officer in the Revolution 

Amer. Allston, Washington, painter and poet 

Sar. Alraamon, Caliph, patron of learning 

Sar. Almansor, Caliph, patron of learning 

Span. Alphonso X., king of Castile, Leon — and author 

Port. . • I., Henriquez, founder of the Portuguese monarchy 

Span. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous mil. com. 

Jew. Amaziah, king of Judah 

Ital. Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan— author 

Ital. Americus Vespucius (of Florence) — explored the S. Amer. coast 

Amer. Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator 

Eng. Amherst, Jeffrey, lord, mil. com. in America, &c. 

Roin. Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian 

Gr. Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher 

Fr. Ampere, Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philos. 

Fr. Amyot, James, bp. of Auxerre— translator of Plutarch 

Bar. Anacharsis, a Scythian philosopher, and disciple of Solon 

Gr. Anacreon, a celebrated poet 



BORN. 

1723 
1767 
1726 
1735 
1672 
76 
1775 
160 
3.C.1183 

c. 393 B. 
c. 468 B. 
. c. 600 



DIBD. 

1794 

1S48 
1808 
1826 
1719 
138 
1843 



f. 565 

1807 



40 
490 
40 
.486 
1747 
1660 
1555 
1721 



1664 
1398 
1205 

1452 

606 
1492 

450 b. 

732 



c. 3-Zt 
c. 400 

'454 

232 

c. 904 



361 

251 
1610 
93 
1566 
94 
1530 
1822 
1743 
1605 
1770 
1819 

411 
17.52 
1490 
1280 

574 



1717 
. 356 B. 
209 
1218 
1777 

1749 
849 
1712 
1728 
1744 
1757 



1203 
1094 
1508 

340' 
1451 
1750 
1717 



1775 

1513 

c. 592 



1550 
c. 404 

804 

709 
1783 
c. 323 

235 
1262 
1825 
1118 
1803 

900 
1764 
1773 
18-^ 
1839 

1789 
1843 
833 
775 

1284 
1185 
1532 

c. 809 
3.S7 
1512 
ISOS 
1707 
300 

c. 24 

ia36 

1593 
B. (!. 474 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



659 



NATION, 

Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Pruss. 

Dan. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Gr. 
Eng. 
Car. 
Fr. 

Eng. 
Egypt. 
Ital. 
Mace. 

Mace. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Pers. 

Egypt. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Scotch. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Pruss. 

Span. 

Span. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Span. 

Ens. 

Fr." 

Ge.-. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Fr. 



423 



121 
86 



1646 
1148 
1778 
B. c. 183 
1805 
1109 
1762 
356 
1231 
301 
164 
319 



B. C- 
B. C 



NAME AND PEOPESSION. BORN. DIED. 

Anastasius I., emperor of the East .... 518 

Anaxagoras, a philosopher . . . . b. o. 500 b. C. 428 

Anaxarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great f. b. o. 340 
Anaximander of Miletus, an lomc philosopher . . . 611 b. o. 547 

Anaximenes " " " . . . b. o. 504 

Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist . . . 1794 

Ancillon, .7. P. F., historian and statesman . . . 1767 1837 

Andersen, Hans Chris., poet and novelist 
Anderson, Sir Edmund, a judge and author . . . 1605 

, Adam, commercial writer .... 1692 1765 

Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of Winchester . . , 1555 1626 

Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine . . . 1797 

Andronicus of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, flourished . b. c. 63 

Anielo, Thomas (commonly called Masiniello), a fisherman of Naples 

who rose to great power ..... 1623 

Anna Commena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis I., historian . 1>.B3 

Annet, Peter, a deistical writer ..... 1703 
Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general . b. c. 247 

Anquetil du Perron, a classic scholar, and author . . . 1731 

Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury— a learned divine . . 1033 

Anson, George, lord, celebrated naval commander . . 1697 

Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions . . 251 

, of Padua, a divine ..... 1195 

Antigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great 
Antiochus V. ..... 

Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great . 
Antislhenes, a philos.— Ibunder of the sect of Cynics, before Christ 
Antoninus, Pius, emperor ..... 

• ■ , IMarcus Aurelius, emperor — surnamed the philosopher 

Antony, Mark, mil. commander and statesman 

Anveri, a celebrated jDoet ..... 

Apion, a grammarian, and bitter enemy of the Jews, flourished . 80 

Apollonius, surnamed Rodius, a poet . . . b. c. 194 

, Pergamensis, a geometrician, fluurished . . e. c. 242 

, Tyaiieus, a Pythagorean philosopher 

Appian, an historian, flourished .... 143 

Aquinas, St. Thomas, a celebrated theologian . . . 1224 

Arago, astron., nat. philos., and statesman 

Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder . 1705 

Aratus, ofSicyon, mil. com. and statesman . . . b. c. 273 b. 

Arbuthnot, John, Dr., a poet ..... 
Archelaus, Ionic philosopher, flourished . . . b. c. 450 

Archius, a poet, nourished . . . . b. c. 719 

Archilochus, a poet, flourished . . . . b. c. 685 

Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician . . b. c. 287 b. 

Archytas, a mathematician . . . . . b. c. 408 b. 

Aretino,Guido, inventor of the gamut of music . . . 995 

, Leonard, an historian .... 1369 

, Peter, satirist ...... 1492 

Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer . . . 1799 

Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet .... 1565 

, Bartholomew, historian .... 1566 

Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet .... 1474 

Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher . I. b. o. 280 

, grammarian and critic . . . b. c. 160 

Aristides, an Athenian statesman . . . . b. 

, jElius, an orator and sophist . . . .129 

one of the fathers of the church, flourished . . 127 

' ■ " B. c. 392 

B. c. 662 



Aristippus, of Cyrene, philosopher — founder of the Cyreniacs 

Aristomenes, a warrior and patriot, flourished 

Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet 

Aristotle, philosopher — founder of the Peripatetics 

Alius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Ariaa sect 

-, Montanus, Benedict.— orientalist 

Arkwnght, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies 
Arlincourt, Victor, vicompto de, novelist 
Arminius, the deliverer of Germany 

, James, a celebrated divine — founder of a sect 

Armstrong, John, M. D., poet .... 

, Jolm, general, statesman, militai-y com., and historian 

Amaud, Daniel, troubadour .... 
, Francis Baculard d", dramatist and poet 



161 

180 

30 

1201 



97 

1274 

1759 
216 
1735 



212 
360 

1414 
1556 

1613 
1631 
1533 



467 
185 



D. c. 384 B, 

1527 
1732 

1789 

1560 
1709 
1758 

1718 



C. 389 

0. 381 

336 

1598 
1792 

20 
1610 
1779 
1843 
1220 
1805 



660 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Prus. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Bar. 

Bar. 

Bar. 

Brit. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Bar. 

Amer, 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Bar. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Bar. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 



Rom. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Ara. 

Ara. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer 

Arnobius, a defender of Christianity 

Arnim, L. A. von, poet and novelist 

Arnold, of Brescia, a learned monk — disciple of Abelard 

, Tlios., D. D., theologian, historian and philologist 

, Benedict, major general — the traitor to his country 

Arrian, historian — disciple of Epictetus 
Arrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts 
Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . 
Artaxerxes I., king of Persia 

, founder of the new Persian kingdom 



f. B 



Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable 

Arundel, Thomas H., earl of, importer of the Arundelian marbles 

Ascham, Roger, a learned writer 

Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general 

Ashmun, John H., jurist— professor of lav/ 

Asser, John, historian 

Ast, Geo. A. F., philologist, 'Lexicon Platonicum' 

Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York 

Athanasius, St., one of the fathers of the church 

Athenagoras, philosopher .... 

Athenais, Emp. of the West, and authoress (called also Eudoxia) 

Athenteus, a celebrated grammarian — the Greek Varro 

Attalus, founder of the monarchy of Pergamus — inv. of parchment 

, Rhodius, mathematician . . . f. b 

Atterbury, Francis, bp. of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy 

Atticus, a knight, and author (works lost) . . . B, 

Attila, king of the Huns, " the Scourge of God" 

Auber, D. F. E., famous musical composer 

Auckland, William, lord, statesman 

Audoin, J. F., zoologist ..... 

Augercau, duke of Castiglione, mil. com. 

Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church 

, the Apostle of the English — 1st archbishop of Canterbury 

Augustulus, Romulus, the last emperor of the West 

Augustus, Cains Julius Cffisar Octavius — 1st emperor . i 

Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet .... 

Auvergne, Thenphilus — republican— military commander . 

Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author . 

Avicenna, philosopher, physician, and author 

Ayscough, Samuel, Compiler of Index to Shakspeare, &c. 



BORN. 

1710 

f. 303 

1781 

1795 

f. 140 

C. 250 

472 

1515 

1800 ' 

1778 

1763 

296 

f. 177 

f. 190 



c. 173 
1662 
c. 109 B. 

1784 

1797 
1757 
354 



G3 
1743 



DIBD. 

1778 

1831 
1155 

1842 
1801 

1823 

c. 425 
242 
542 
1646 
1568 
, c. 220 
1833 
909 
1841 
1848 
371 

460 

B. c. 193 



1731 
c. 32 

453 

1814 
1841 
1816 
430 
604 
476 
14 
394 
1800 
1197 
1037 
1804 



B 



Eng 

Gr. 

Port 

Ame- 

Eng. 

Eng 

Eng. 

Dan. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Turk. 

Ital. 

Fr.- 

Fr. 

Swe. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Pruss. 

Eng. 

Turk. 

Fr. 



Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist . . . 1790 

Bacchylides, lyric poet . . . . f. b. C. 450 

Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . . . 1610 

Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian . . . 1724 

Back, Geo., Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author 
Bacon, Roger, a monk, celebrated for his scientific knowledge 

, Francis, lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and statesman 

Baden, James, one of the founders of Danish literature 

Bilhr, Jno. C. F., classical philologist .... 

Bailey, Nathan, a grammarian and lexicographer 

Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer 

Baillie, Matthew, physician and anatomist 

Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician 

Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revolution 



Bainbridge, Wm., naval commander 

Baird, Sir David, military commander 

Bajazet, sultan— conquered by Tamerlane 

Baibi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer 

Baldwin, who became emperor of the East 

Balzac, Honore de, novelist 

Banier, or Banner, a celebrated military commander 

Banim, John, novelist 

Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator — President Royal Society 

Baralier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age 

Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer 

Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair — usurper of Algiers 

Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer 



Princeton 



1214 
1561 
1735 
1798 

1649 
1761 
1774 
1736 
1774 
1757 



Venice 1782 

Tours 1799 
1596 
1800 
1743 
1721 
1743 

. ' 1674 



1663 
1806 

1292 
1626 
1804 

1742 
1706 
1823 
1844 
1793 
1833 
1820 
1413 

1206 
1850 
1641 
1842 
182U 
1740 
1825 
1518 
1729 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



661 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . . Va. 

Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman, and .ludge of Sup. Court . Va. 

Eng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated viniiicator of the Quakers 

Ital. Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer — author of Travels, &c. 

Eng. Baring, Alex, (lord Ashburton), statesman 

Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman, and poet . . . 

Eng. Barnes, Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar 

Amer, , Daniel H., a distinguished conchologist . 

Dutcli, Barnereldt, John, statesman (beheaded) 

Amer. Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval comti ander 

\'r. Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the revolution 

Eng. Barrow, Isaac, a divine, and mathematician 

Amer. Barry, W. T., statesman and diplomatist . . Va 

Fr. Barthelemy, John James, author of 'Anacharsis,' &c., . 

Amer Barton, Benj. Smith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist 

Amer. Bartram, John, an eminent botanist .... 

Or. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church 

Fr. Basnage De Beaval, James, historian 

Fr. Bassaiio, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman . 

Eng. Bath, William Pulteney, earl of, statesman 

Eng. Bathurst, earl of, statesman — friend of Pope, &c. 

Fr. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician, and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine, and author 

Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander .... 

Amer. ■ , James A., a distinguished statesman, and lawyer 

Ger. Bayer, Jolm, astronomer .... 

Ger. , Theophilus, chronologist, and historian 

Fr. Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher, and critic [Bayle's Dictionary] 

Eng. Bayly, Tlios. Haines, poet .... 

Eng. Beattie, James, LL.D., poet .... 

Fr. Beauharnois, Eugene Hortense, ex-queen of Holland 

Fr. Beauharnois, Eugene, son of the empress Josephine, mil. com. — vice- 
roy of Italy, &c. ..... 

Fr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist 

Fr. Beaumont, Elie de, mineralogist and geologist 

Eng. Beaumont, Francis, dramatic writer . . . < 

Fr." Beauzee, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian 

Ital. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher 

Ital. , Marquis, professor of political economy, and author 

Eng. Becket, Thomas k, celebrated prelate and statesman 

Eng. Beckford, Wm., traveller and novelist 

Brit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk, and historian , 

Eng. Bedford, Jolm, duke of, military commander 

Pruss. Beer, Michael, dramatic poet (bro. of 'Meyerbeer') 

Ger. Beethoven, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer 

Ger. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist ... 

Rom. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror 

Scot. Bell, Johji, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist 

Scot. Bell, Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist 

Amer. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author 

Ital. Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church 

Fr. Bellau, Remi, poet ..... 

Fr. Belleisle, Count de, military commander 

Ital. Bellini, Vincenzo, musical composer 

Eng. Beloe, Wm., a divine and critic — translator of Herodotus, &c. 

Fr. Belon, William, naturalist and traveller 

Eng. Belsham, William, historical, political, and miscellaneous writer 

Ital. Belzoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt 

Ital. Bembo, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature 

Eng. Benbow, John, a gallant admiral 

(tal. Benedict, St., one of the originators of monasteries 

Ital. Xlil., pope — theological writer . , 

lial. ■ XIV., pope— theological writer 

Fr. Benezet, Anthony, philanthropist and historian (died in America) 

Bar. Bcnhadad, king of Syria .... 

Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet 

Eng. Beniham, Jeremy, political and philosophical writer 

Eng. Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar 

Fr. Beranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet . 

Fr. Berenger, A. T.I. M. T., statesman and jurist 

Ger. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer 

Swe. Bergman, nrofessor of chemistry at Upsal 



BORN. 

1775 
1783 
1648 
1716 

1756 
1654 

1547 
1759 
1755 
1630 
1785 
1716 
1766 
1701 
320 
1653 
1758 
1682 
1684 
1713 
1615 
1476 
1767 

1694 
1647 
1797 
1735 
1753 

1780 
1732 
1798 
1555 
1714 
1716 
17.35 
1119 
1760 
672 

1800 
1770 



1763 

1781 
1719 
1542 
1528 
1684 
1808 

1518 
1752 

1470 
1650 
480 
1649 
1675 
1713 

1612' 

1C62 

1785 
1797 
1735 



DIED. 

1842 
1841 
1690 
1789 

1812 
1712 
1818 
1619 
1S18 
1829 
1677 
1835 
1795 
1815 
1777 
379 
1723 
1839 
1764 
1775 
1780 
1691 
1524 
1815 
1627 
1738 
1706 
1839 
1803 
1837 

1824 
1799 

1616 
1789 
1781 
1793 
1170 
1844 
735 
1435 
1833 
1827 

565 
1825 
1842 
1790 
1626 
1577 
1761 
1835 

1664 
1827 
1823 
1542 
1702 
547 
1728 
1753 
1784 
B. 895 
1691 
1832 
1742 



662 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Dan. Behiing, a navigator, from whom the strait dividing Asia and America 
was named ..... 

Bel. Beriot, Chas. A. de, violinist and composer 

Irish. Berkely, George, bp., an eminent prelate and philosopher , 

Amer. , William, govenior of Virginia 

Fr. Berlioz, Hector, musical composer 

Fr. Bernadotte, .1. B. .J., elected king of Sweden, as Cliarles XIV. 

Fr. Bernard, Simon, engineer and mil. commander 

Fr. , St., preacher of crusades, and author 

Eng. , Edward, a divine, astronomer, and author 

Dutch. , John Frederick, a bookseller, editor and author 

Amer. , Francis, governor of ftlassachusetts 

Fr. Bernardin, De Sainte Pierre, author of ' Studies of Nature,' &c. 

Ital. Bemi, poet (poisoned) ..... 

Swiss. Bernoulli, James, mathematician 

Bar. Berosus, the Chaldean historian . . . f. i 

Fr. Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a ' History of the People of God,' in 11 
vols. 4to. . . .... 

Fr. Berryer, Pierre A., statesman 

Fr. Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander 

Fr. BerthoUet, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist 

fr. Bertrand, Henri G., gen. in Napoleon's army 

Eng. Berwick, duke of, military commander (k. at Phillipsburg) 

Swe. Berzelius, John James, chemist 

Fr. Bessieres, duke of Istria, military commander (k. at Lutzen) 

Ger. Bessel, Fred. Wm., astronomer 

Ital. Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer 

Fr. Beudant, Francois S., mineralogist and naturalist 

Eng. Beveridge, William, an eminent theologian, and orientalist 
Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer 

Fr. Bezout, mathematician . . .■ . 

Ital. Bianchini, Francis, mathematician and author 

Gr. Bias, one of (lie seven sages .... 

Fr. Biehat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist 

Eng. Biddle, .John, an eminent Socinian writer 

Amer. , Nicholas, financier and lileratcur . . . 

Amer. , Nicholas, a captain in the IJ. S. navy 

Amer. , .Tames, commodore, in U. S. navy 

Fr. Bignoii, Louis E., historian 

Gr. Bion, pastoral poet ..... 

Gr. of Borysthenes, philosopher (Cyreniac) . 

Fr. Biot, Jean B., mathematician .... 

Eng. Birbeck, Geo., M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions 

Fr. Biron, duke of, military commander (beheaded for conspiracy) 

Scotch. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer 

Span. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in Instory and romance under the name ol' 
the Cid ..... 

Eng. Blackstone, Sir William, an eminent lawyer and author 

Scotch. Blair, Robert, a divine and poet 

Scotch. , John, a chronologi.st 

Scotch. , Dr. Hugh a divine and rhetorician 

Scotch. , James, founder of William and Maiy's college in Virginia 

Eng. Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral . . 

Irish. Blessington, Marguerite, Countess, novelist, and literaleur 

Eng. Bloomiield, Roben, a poet .... 

Pruss. Blucher, a celebrated military commander 

Swe. Blumenbach, John Fred., naturalist 

Brit. Boadicea, the warlike queen of the Iceni . 

Ital. Boccacio, John, one of the great classic writers of modern Italty 

Ital. Boccalina, a satirist ..... 

Fr. Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine, and orientalist 

Fr. Bodin, John, a lawyer and author 

Ger. Baehmen, .Jacob, a fanatic and author 

Dutch. Boerhaave, one of the most eminent of modern physicians . 

Rom. Boethius, a statesman and philosopher 

Fr. Bohemond, a Norman adventurer _ . 

Ger. Boekb, Augustus, classical philologist 

Fr. Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet 

Fr. Boissard, Jean J., fabulist .... 

Fr. Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies 

Fr. , D'Angles, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist 

Eng. Bolmbroke, Henry St. John, lord, political and deistical writer 



f. 1730 




1802 




1684 


1753 




1667 


1803 




1764 


1844 


1779 


18.39 


1091 


1153 


1638 


1697 




175) 




1779 


1737 


1814 




1536 


1654 


1705 


c. 268 




1681 


751 


1790 




1753 


1815 


1748 


1822 


1778 


1844 


1670 


1734 


1779 




1769 




1784 




1718 


18:)1 


1787 




1638 


1708 


1519 


1605 


1730 


1783 


1662 


1729 


c. 606 




1771 


1802 


1615 


1662 


1786 


1844 


1750 


1778 


1783 


1848 


1771 


1841 


B. 


c. 300 


B. 


c. 240 


1776 


1841 


1561 


1602 


1759 


1805 


IWO 


1099 


1723 


•1780 


1699 


1777 




1782 


1718 


1800 


1660 


1743 


1599 


1657 




1849 


1766 


1823 


1742 


1819 


1752 


1840 




61 


1313 


1373 


1556 


1613 


1509 


1567 


1530 


1595 


1575 


1624 


1668 


1738 


455 


526 




nil 


1636 


1711 


1743 


lasi 


1694 


1758 


1756 


1826 


1678 


1751 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



66c 



KATION NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Colom. Bolivar, Simon, the iieroic deliverer of his country 

Fr. Bonaparte, Napoleon, emp. of France 

Fr. ■, Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon 

Fr. , Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain 

Fr. , Lucien, prince of Canino 

Fr. • , Louis, ex-king of Holland 

Fr, , Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia 

Fr. , Louis Napoleon, 1st pres. Republic of France 

Eng. Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants . 

Swiss. Boimet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist 

Eng. Bonnycastle, John, mathematician 

Eng. , Charles, mathematician 

Amer. Boone, Daniel, the first settler of Kentucky 

Ger. Bopp, Francis, Sanscrit scholar 

Fr. Bonpland. Anne, traveller and botanist . 

Iial. Boresli, pliilosopher an;! mathematician . 

Ital. Borghesi, Bartoiomeo, count, antiquarian 

Ital. Borgia, Cassar, the infamous pope, Alexander VL 

Ital. Borromeo, cardinal, theological writer 

Fr. Bosc, Louis A. W., naturalist 

Eng. Boscawen, Edward, a brave and skilful admiral 

Ital. Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer 

Fr. - Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian 

Fr. Bossul, Charles, mathematician 

Scotcli. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author 

Eng. Boswell, James, the biograplier of Dr. Jolmson 

Bottiger, ai'chaeologist and antiquarian 

Gr. Botzarris, Marco, a gallant leader in the modem revolution 

Anier. Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist 

Fr. Boufflers, duke of, military commander 

Fr. Bourgainville, Louis A., military commander, and author 

Fr. Bourguer, Peter, mathematician and hydrographer 

Fr. Bourlainvilliers, Henry, count de, historian 

Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer 

Fr. Bourcet, Peter J. cle, an officer and topographer 

Fr. Bourdalouo, Louis, a noted preacher 

Fr. Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author 

Fr. Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France 

Eng. Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet 

Fr. Bom'rienne, biographer of Napoleon 

Fr. Bousmard, M. de, a military engineer 

Amer. Bovi'ditch, Natli., astronomer, mathematician, &c, 

Eng. Bowdler, Thomas, editor Shakspeare, &c. 

Amer. Bowdoin, James, LL. D., philosoplier and statesman 

Amer. , James (son of the last), ambassador to Spain 

Eng. Bowring, John, statesman, poet, and linguist 

Fr. Boyer, jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) 

Amer. Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent pliysician 

Scolch. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet 

Irish. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher 

Eng. Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician 

Eng. Bradwardine, Thomas, mathematician and theologian 

Eng. Brady, Robert, physician and historian 

Amer. Bradford, William, second governor of Plymouth colony 

Amer. , William, attorney general of the United States 

Dan. Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer 

Ger. Brandes, Henry Wm., mathematician and astronomer 

Ger. , John Christian, actor and dramatist 

Amer. Brainard, David, missionary to the Indians 

Amer. , J. G. C., a poet 

Ger. Breitkopf, John G. E., an eminent printer and typo-founder 

Swe. Bremer, Fredrika, novelist 

Bar. Brennus, the leader of the Gauls, 

Scotch. Brewster, Sir David, natural philosopher 

Ens. Bridgewater, duke of, introducer of canals in England 

Eng. Briggs, Henry, mathematician 

Fr. Brisson, Mathurin James, naturalist 

Fr. Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author 

Fr. Broglio, due de, statesman 

Irifih. Brooke, Henry, miscellaneous writer 

Amer Brooks, John, LL. D., governor of Massachusetts 

Fi'. Brotier, G., a Jesuit— editor of Tacitus 



BORN. 

1785 
1769 
1750 
1768 
1775 
1778 
1784 
1808 

1720 



1730 
1791 



1781 
1608 
1538 
1759 
1711 
1711 
1627 
1730 
1676 
1710 

17S0 
1740 
1644 
1729 
1698 
1658 
1728 
1700 
1632 
1616 
1773 



1773 
1754 
1727 
1752 
1792 
1776 
1680 
1562 
1626 
1692 



1588 
1755 
1546 
1777 
1735 
1718 
1797 
1719 
1802 
. 390 
1785 
1736 
1536 
1723 
1757 
1785 
1706 
1752 
1723 



664 



THE world's PKOGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Brougniait, Alex., mineralogist and geologist 

Fr. , Adolphe T., botanist 

Eng. Brougham, Henry, lord, statesman and jurist 

Fr. Broussais, F. J. V., medical and pliysiological writer 

Amer. Brown, Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister 

Amer. •, Charles Brockden, a novelist 

Eng. , John, D D., a miscellaneous writer 

Scotcli. , John, a divine and author 

Scotch. , Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet 

Amer. , Maj. Gen. Jacob, general in war of 1812 

Amer. , James, senator, minister to France 

Eng. •, Robert, eminent botanist 

Eng. Browne, Sir Thomas, a physician and philos. writer 

Irish. , George, count de, an officer in the Russian serv 

Eng. , William George, a traveller in Africa, &c. 

Scotch. Bruc£, Robert, the deliverer of his country 

Scotch. , James, a celebrated traveller 

Fr. Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral 

Fr. Brumoy, Peter, a Jesuit and author 

Fr. Brune, William Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist 

Fr. Brunei, Sir M. J., engineer of Thames Tunnel, &c. 

Fr. Brunei, Jacques Charles, ' Bibliographer's Manual' 

Fr. Bruno, St., founder of the Carthusian order 

Gei\ Brunsv/ick, Ferdinand, duke of, military commander 

Ger. ■ Lunenburg, Charles Wm. Fer., duke of, mil. commander 

Rom. Brutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government 

Rom. — , Marcus Junius, conspirator against Ctesar 

Fr. Bruyere, John de la, a celebrated writer 

Dutch. Bruyn, Cornelius le, traveller 

Eng. Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary 

Eug. Brydges, Sir Egerton, eccentric lileraleur 

Fr. Buat, Nancay, Louis G., count de, a learned writer 

Fr. Bucer, Martin, one of the fathers of the reformation 

Scotch. Buohan, William, a physician and author 

Scotch. Buclianan, George, an eminent writer 

Scotch. , Claudius, a divine 

Eng. Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesinan 
— , George Villiers, son of the former 



Eng. 

Amer. 

Polish, 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Nor. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Pruss. 

Eng. 

Swiss. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Scotch 



Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer 

Buffiei-, Claude, a Jesuit, and miscellaneous writer 

Buflbn, George L. le Clerc, count of, celebrated naturalist 

Bugeaud, T. R,, marshal of France 

Buhle, J. G., hist, of philosophy, &c. 

Bull, Ole, famous violinist 

Bullinger, Henry, reforiner and author 

Bulwer, (now Sir Edward Lytton,) novelist and dramatist 

, Sir Henry L., diplomatist and pol. writer 

Bunsen, C. C. J., chevalier de, diploinatist and historian 
Bunyan, John, author of ' Pilgrim's Progress' 
Burckhardt, John Louis, oriental traveller 
— , John Charles, mathematician 



Burdett, Sir Francis, politician 

Burgess, Thomas, bp. of Salisbury, classical and theological writer 

Burgoyne. John, military commander and author 

Burke. Edmund, a great statesman and writer 

Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman 

Burman. Peter, critic and editor .... 

Burnes, Sir Alex., travels in Bokkara— ' Cabool,' &c. 

Scotch. Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian 

Eng. Burney, James, admiral and author 

Eng. , Charles, a doctor of music 

Scotch. Burns, Robert, a popular and national poet 

Amer. Burr, Col. Aaron, vice-pres. U. S. . . . 

Eng. Burton, Robert, author of the ' Anatomy of Rlelancholy ' 

Ger. Busching, Anthony Frederick, philosopher and geological writer 

Eng. Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman 

Eng. Butler, Samuel, a humorous poet 

Eng. , Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author 

Eng. , Samuel, bp. of Litchiield, editor of ' iEschyles,' &c. 

Amer. , Richanl, colonel, an officer in the revolution 

Ger. Buttman, Philip C, philologist .... 

Ger. Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Chaldaic lexicographer 



BOBM. 


DIBU. 


1770 




ISOl 




1779 




1772 


1839 




1805 


1771 


1810 


1715 


1766 


1722 


1787 


1777 


1820 




1828 


1766 


1835 


1781 




1605 


168^ 


1698 


1792 




1814 




1329 


1730 


1794 


17.50 


1798 


1688 


1742 


1763 


1815 


1769 


mi. 


1377 


1444 


1721 


1792 


1735 


1806 


B. 


c. 505 


B. 


0. 42 


1644 


1697 


1652 




1715 


1804 


17b'2 


1837 


1491 


1551 


1729 


1791 


15U6 


1582 


1766 


1805 


1592 


1628 


1627 


1688 


1778 


1839 


1661 


1737 


1707 


1788 


1784 




1763 




1810 




1504 


1575 


1803 




1791 




1628 


1683 


1784 


1815 


1773 


1815 


1770 


1844 


1756 


1837 




1792 


1730 


1797 


1520 


1598 


1668 


1741 


1805 


1841 


1643 


1715 


1739 


1820 


1726 


1814 


1759 


1796 


1756 


1836 


1576 


1639 


1721 


1793 


.1738 


1792 


1612 


1680 


1692 


1752 


1774 


1840 




1791 


1764 


1829 


1564 


1629 



JBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



665 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ger. Biixtorf, John, (son of the preceding) lexicographer 

Eng. Byng, honorable John, admiral 

Eng. Byron, honorable John, admiral 

Eng. , George Gordon, lord, a popular poet 



BORN. 


DIED, 


1599 


3644 


1704 


1757 


1723 


1786 


1788 


1824 



c 

Ital. Cabot, Sebastian (son of John) navigator . 

Port. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator 

Span. Cabrera, don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos 

Fr. Cadet De Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher 

Ital. Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator 

Fr. Caille, Rene, ' Voyage k Tembouctou,' &c. 

Rom. Caesar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author 

Ital. Cajelan, Cardinal, diplomatist and author 

Gr. Calaber, Quintus, poet 

Span. Calderon de la Barca, don Pedro, dramatist 

Ital. Calepino, Ambrose, author of a Lexicon in 11 languages 

Amer. Calhoun, John C, senator of the U. S. 

Gr. Calippus, astronomer and mathematician 

Gr. Callimachus, a poet .... 

Gr. Callisthenes, philosopher and historian 

Fr. Calmet, Augustine, an erudile divine and author . - 

Ital. Calogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author 

Fr. Calonne, Charles Alex, de, minister of state 

Fr. Calvin, John, one of the apostles of the Reformation 

Amer. Calvert, Leonard, first governor of Maryland [See Baltimore 

Fr. Cambaceres, John J. R., distinguished revolutionist 

Eng. Cambridge, duke of, sixth son of George III. 

Eng. Camden, William, an eminent antiquaiy and historian 

Rom. Camillus, Marcus Furius, a distinguished dictator 

Port. CJamoens, I,oui3, the most eminent poet of his country 

Scotch. Campbell, George, a divine and author 

Scotch. -, John, a multifarious writer 

Scotch. , Thos., poet— 'Life of Petrarch,' &c. 

Scotch. • , Lord, jurist — ' Lives of Chancellors' 

Ger. Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist 

Fr. Campiston, John G. de, dramatist 

Fr. Cange, Charles Dufresne, Sieur du, historian 

Eng. Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet 

Fr. Capefigue, B. H. R., historian 

St>an. Capmany, Don Antonio, historian 

Rom. Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor 

Brit. Caractacus, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior 

Ital. Cardan, Jerom, philosopher, mathematician, and physician 

Fr. Cardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientalist 

Eng. Carey, Henry, Earl of Monmouth, translator 

Amer. , Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, and politician 

Eng. , William, mi-ssionary to India . . 

Ital. Carissimi, James, musical composer 

Irish. Carleton, Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada 

Ital. Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author 

Eng. Carlisle, Sir Anth., physician and medical writer 

Span. Carlos, don, son of Philip II. (hero of Schiller's tragedy) 

Port. , don M. J. 

Scotcl . Carlyle, Thomas, historian and metaphysician 

Gr. Carneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy 

Fr. Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist 

Fr. Carrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician 

Eng. Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translatress, &c. 

Amer. — — — , Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller 

Eng. Cartwright, Major John, parliament reformer 

Ger. Carus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology . 

Amer. Carver, Jonathan, traveller ajid author 

Amer. — , John, first governor of Plymouth colony 

Eng. Cary, Henry F., poet — translator of ' Dante ' 

Span. Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian 

Fr. Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer 

I]al. Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur., statesman and historian 

Rom. Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Caesar 

Eng. Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer 



1477 




f. 1500 




1810 




1769 


1821 


. f. 1456 






1838 


B. 0. 100 B 


c. 44 


1510 


1593 


. f. 250 




1600 


1687 


1435 


1.511 


1782 


1850 


f. B. c. 330 




. f. B. B. 150 




B. 


c. 328 


1672 


1757 


1699 


1768 


1734 


1802 


1509 


1564 




1676 


1753 


1824 


1774 


1850 


1551 


1623 


B. 


c. 365 


1517 


1579 


1709 


1796 




1775 


. ' 1777 


1844 


1778 




1722 


1789 


1656 


1723 


1610 


1688 


1770 


1827 


1799 




1754 


1810 


188 


217 


(ab.) 100 




1501 


1576 


1720 


1783 


1596 


1661 


1760 


1839 


1761 


1822 


1600 




lada . 1724 


1808 


1720 


1795 


1768 


1840 


1545 


1568 


. ■ 1795 




B. c. 218 B 


c. 128 


1753 


1823 


ISOO 


ia36 


1717 


1306 




183C 


. * 1740 


1824 


1789 




1732 


1780 




1621 


1772 


1844 


1474 


1564 


1625 


1712 


470 


516 


B. 


C. 42 


- 1606 


1^>3.5 



666 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ital. Castiglione, Bulthasar, statesman and author 

Ilal. Catalmi, Madame, eminent vocalist 

Eng. Catesby, Mark, naturalist . ... 

Russ. Catherine II., a powerful and profligate empress 

Rom. Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator 

Fr. Catinat, Nicholas, military commander 

Rom. Cato, Marcus Fortius, ihe'Censor, statesman and author 

Rom. , Marco Porcius, 'of Utica,' statesman 

Rom. Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet .... 

Fr. Cauchy, Aug. L., mathematician 

Fr. Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of ' The Holy Court ' 

Fr. Cavaignac, Gen., military commander and statesman 

Eng. Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer 

Eng. ■ — , Thomas, navigator 

Etig. Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England 

Pr. Cazales, James A. M. de. an eloquent orator 

Ft. Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer 

R ;m. Ceisits, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physician 

Gr. , an Epicurean philosopher 

Rom. Censorius, a critic and grammarian 

Irish. Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer 

Span. Cervantes, Saavedra Michael, author of ' Don Quixotte ' 

Ital. Cesarotti, Melchior, a voluminous author 

Scotch. Chalmers, George, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. , Alex., ' General Biographical Dictionary,' &c. 

Scotch. , Thomas, D. T>., theologian and political economist 

Eng. Chambers, Sir William, an architect 

Fr. Champollion, the younger, ' Monuments d I'Egypte,' <fec. 

Fr. ChampoUion-Figeac, historian and antiquary 

Anier. Channing, William Ellery, U. D., theologicin and philanthropist 

Eng. Chantry, Sir Francis sculptor " . 

Eng. Chapman, George, poetical translator 

Eng. Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer 

Fr. Chaptal, J. A. C, chemist 

Fr. Charles Blartel, statesman and warrior 

Fr. Charles, J. A. C., natural philosopher 

Fr. , V. E. P., historian and literatew 

Fr. Charlemagne, emperor of the West, and king of France 

Swe. Charles XII., king, a celebrated warrior 

Fr. Charlevoix, Peter F. X. de, a Jesuit historian 

Dutch. Chasse, David H., baron, military commander . 

Fr. Chateaubriand, poet, statesinan, and traveller 

Fr, Chatel, Abbe Fer. F., theological reformer 

Eng. Chatham, Wm. Pitt, earl of, statesman 

Eng. Chat terton, Thomas, famed for precocious talent 

Eng. Chaucer, Geoffrey, the father of English poetry 

Amer Chauncey, Charles, D. D., president of Harvard College 

Anier , Commodore Isaac, naval commander 

Eng. Cheselden, William, an eminent anatomist 

Eng. Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer 

Ital. Cherubini, musical composer 

Fr. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller, and statesman 

Fr. Chevreul, M. E., chemist 

Gr. Chilo, Euphorus of Sparta — one of the seven wise men 

Amer. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman 

Eng. Chitty, Joseph, author of numerous works on law . 

Pol. Chlopicki. J., military commander — dictator of Poland . 

Fr. Choiseul-Stainville, C. A. G., duke of, statesman and author 

Swe. Christina, queen (daughter of G. Adolphus) 

Afric. ("hristophe, a slave — afterwards king of Hayti 

Gr. Chrysiphus, a stoic philosopher 

Gr. Chrysostom, John, Christian father and orator 

Eng. Churchill, Charles, a satirical poet 

Amei Church, Benjamin, military cornmander . 

Eni. Gibber, Colley, tragic and comic actor and poet 

Rom. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, one of the greatest of orators 

ital. Ciraarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer 

Gr. Cimon, an Athenian general 

Roiti. Cincimiatus, Lucius Quinctius, the pialriot, flourished . 

Rom, Cinna, Lucius Cornelius, partisan of Marius, flourished 

Ital. Cirillo, Dominic, a botanist and physician 



BORN. 


DIED 


1468 


1529 


1782 


184 


1680 


1749 


1729 


1796 


B. 


c. 62 


1637 


1712 


B. c. 232 B. 


c. 147 


B. C. 9.5 B. 


c. 46 


B. c. 86 




1780 




1583 


16.^; 


1505 


1557 




1591 


1410 


1492 


1752 


1805 


1720 


1765 


f. 30 




. f. 50 




f. 240 




1C67 


1723 


1547 


1616 


1730 


1808 


1744 


1825 


1759 


1.S.34 


1770 


1846 




1796 


1790 


1832 


1779 




1780 


1842 


1781 


1841 


1557 


1634 


1727 


1801 


1756 


1832 




741 


1746 


1825 


742 


814 


1682 


1718 


1682 


1761 


1765 




1769 


1848 


1795 




1708 


1778 


1752 


1770 


1328 


1400 




1671 




1840 


1688 


1752 


1694 


1773 




1842 


1806 




1786 




B. c. 598 




1752 


1843 


1776 


1841 


1772 




1762 




1626 


1689 


1767 


1820 


B. c. 280 B 


c. 207 


344 


407 


173J 


1764 


1639 


1718 


1671 


1557 


B. C. 105 B 


c. 43 


1754 


ISOI 


B 


c. 449 



B. c. 456 

B. c. 87 

1734 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



667 



KATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Claiv, Arthur St., a distinguisheii officer in the revolution 

Fr. Clairaut, Alexis Claude, geometrician 

Amcr. Clap, Thomas, president of Yale College 

Scotch. Clapperton, Hugh, traveller in Africa 

Eng. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, earl of, statesman and historian 

Eng. Clarke, Samuel, Dr., theologian and philosopher 

Eng. -, Dr. Edward Daniel, traveller and mmeralogist 

Eng. , Dr. Adam, a celebrated theologian and commentator 

Eng. , Sir James, medical author 

Amer. Clark, Willis Gaylord, poet and essayist 

Eng. Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist 

Amer. Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist 

Gr. Cleanthes, a Stoic philosopher, flourished 

Ital. Clementi, Mazio, musical composer 

Gr. Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men, flourished 

Egypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen 

Amer. Clinton, George, governor of New- York, and vice-president of U. 

Amet , Dewilt, governor and benefactor of New-York . 

Eng. Clive, Robert, lord, military commander . 

Fr. Cloquet, Hypolite (brother of Jules), anatomist 

Fr. Clot, or Clot Bey, surgeon and medical writer (in Egypt) 

Eng. Cobbett, William, political writer 

Eng. Cogan, Thomas, physician, and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Coke, Sir Edward, a learned judge 

Fr. Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman 

Amer. Colburn, Zerah, precocious arithmetician 

Amer. Golden, Cadwallader, an eminent botanist, astronomer, &c. 

Amer. — ■ Cadwallader D., statesman, biographer of Fulton, &c, 

Eng. Coleridge, Henry N., literateur 

Eng. , Samuel T., poet and metaphysician 

Eng. CoUingvvood, Cuthbert, lord, admiral 

Eng. Collins, William, a popular poet 

Eng. Coleman, George, dramatic writer 

Amer. ■ , Benjamin, a learned divine (in Boston) 

Eng. Colman, George, the younger, dramatist . 

Fr. Colombat de I'Isere, medical writer 

Ital. Columbus, Christopher, the discoverer of America 

Eng. Colton, C. C, author of 'Lacon' 

Scotch. Combe, George, phrenologist and philosopher 

Scotch. , Andrew, medical and physiological writer 

Fr. Conde, Louis II, of Bourbon, Protestant military commander 

Fr. Condillac, Stephen Bonnot de, metaphysical writer 

Chinese Confucius,_a celebrated philosopher 

Eng, 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Eng 

Ens. 

Eng. 



Congreve, William, a comic dramatist 

Conon, an Athenian general 

Constant, Benjamin, statesman and metaphysician 

Consiantine (the Great), the first Christian emperor 

VII. (Porphyrogenitus), emperor and author 

■ (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 



Cook, James, a celebrated circumnavigator 

Cooke, Thomas, editor and translator 

^ , George F., an eminent actor 

Amer. Cooper, Samuel, D. D., a divine and political writer 

Eng. , Sir Astley Paxi on, physician and medical writer 

Eng. . , Thomas, chemist, jurist, and politician (in Amer.) 

IrisJi. , Coote, Sir Eyre, military commander in India 

Prus3. Copernicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer — the reviver of the Py^ 
thagorean system of the universe 

Corinna, a poetess, flourished in the fifteenth century, before Christ. 

Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, a vyarrior 

Cormenin, L. M. de la Haye, vie. de, political writer 

Cornaro, Lewis, a noble — auihor of a book on temperance 

Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramatic writer 

Thomas (brother of Peter), poet and dramatist 



Gr. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Port. 

Ital 



Cornelius, Peter, painter (in fresco, &c.) 
Cornell!, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and historian 
Cornwallis, Charles, marquis, military commander 
Cortes, Ferdinand, the brutal conqueror of Mexico 
Cosia, Paola, lileraieur 

Dutch. Coster, John Lawrence, one of the supposed inventors of printing 

Ger. Cotia, Baron F., publisher and statesman . 

Fr. Cottin, Sophia, madame, a novelist . . , . 



BORN. 


DIED. 




1818 


• ' 171.3 


1765 


1703 


1767 


1788 


1827 


1608 


1674 


1675 


1729 


1767 


1821 


1760 


1832 


. ' 1810 


1841 


1761 




1705 


1773 


B, C. 260 






1832 


B. c. 559 




B 


c. 30 


S. . 1739 


1812 


1769 


1828 


1725 


1774 


1787 




1795 






1835 


1736 


IS 18 


1549 


16.34 


1619 


1683 


1804 


1840 


1683 


1776 


1769 


18-34 


(ab.) 1800 


1843 




1834 


1748 


1810 


1720 


1756 


1733 


17.84 


1673 


1747 


1762 


1836 


(ab.) 1800 




1441 


1506 


1773 


1832 


1788 




1797 




I62I 


i6S6 


1715 


1780 


n. 0. 550 




1670 


1728 


B. 


c. 390 


1767 


1830 


274 


337 


905 


959 


1403 


1453 


1728 


1776 


1702 


1756 


1756 


1812 


1725 


1783 


1768, 


1841 


1759 


1840 


1726 


1783 



1473 



1543 



1788 




1467 


1.565 


1606 


1684 


1625 


1709 




1718 


1738 


1805 


1485 


1554 


1771 


1836 


1370 






183J 


1773 


18C7 



668 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



NATIOM. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Cotton, John (of Boston), a learned divine . 

Fr. Coulomb, Charles, Augustine de, philosopher . 

Fr. Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist 

Fr. , Paul Louis, political writer . . 

Fr. Court de Gebelin, Anthony, an antiquarian and author . 

Fr. Cousin, Louis, historian .... 

Fr. , Victor, statesman and metaphysician • 

Eng. Cowley, Abraham, poet . . . 

Eng. Cowper, William, poet . . 

Eng. Coxe, William, traveller and historian 

Eng. Crabbe, Rev. George, poet .... 

Ger. Cramer, John Andrew, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer . . 

Rom. Crassus, Marcus Lucinius (the Rich), military commander 

Amer. Crawford, William H., statesman and jurist . . 

Fr. Crebillon, Prosper Jolyott de, tragic poet 

Fr. Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian . . . 

Amer. Crockett, David, eccentric statesman 

Eng. Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist 

Eng. Cromwell, Thomas, earl of Essex, successor of Wolsey . 

Eng. , Oliver, military commander and statesman . 

Scotch. Cruden, Alexander, author of a Concordance to the Bible 

Eng. Cruiivshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature 

Eng. Cudworth, Ralph, philosopher 

Scotch. Cullen, William, an eminent physician 

Eng. Cumberland, William Augustus, duke of, military commander 

Eng. , Richard, a multifarious writer 

Scotch. Cunningham, Allan, poel, biographer, &c. 

Irish. Curran, John Phi I pot, a celebrated barrister and orator 

Rom. Curtius, Rufus Uuintus, history . . , 

Fr. Cuvier, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists . 

Fr. , Fred, (brother ol the baron), naturalist . 

Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the church 

Cyril, St., the apostle of the Sclavi 





BORN. 


DISD. 


1585 


1652 




1736 


1806 




1772 


1825 




1774 


1825 




1725 


17S4 




1627 


1707 




1618 


1667 




1731 


1800 




1747 


1828 




1754 


1832 




1723 


1788 




1489 


1556 


, 


B. 


0, 53 




1772 


1834 




1674 


1762 




1693 


1765 
1830 




1490 


1540 




1599 


1658 




1701 






. 1780 






1617 


1688 




1712 


1790 




1721 


1765 




1732 


1811 




1768 


1842 




1750 


1817 




1769 


1832 




1773 


1838 
258 



D 

Fr. Dacier, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar 

Svve. Dalin, Glaus Von, the father of Swedish poetry 

Amer. Dallas, James Alexander, secretary treasury U. S. 

Amer. , Commodore A. J., naval commander 

Eng. Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician . 

Ger. Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer 

Eng. Dampier, William, an eminent navigator 

Eng. Daniell, Jolin F., chemist 

Eng. , W., R. A., Author of pictorial works on India 

Ger. Dannecker, sculptor (' Ariadne,' &c.) 

Ital. Dante Alighieri, ' the sublimest of the Italian poets ' 

Eng. D'Arblay, Madame (Fanny Burney), novelist 

Eng. Darwin, Erasmus, a poet, physician, and botanist . 

Aust. Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary, count de, military commander 

Fr. Daunou, P. C. F., statesman and ZiYeraieijr 

Amer. Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthful poetess of uncommon genius 

Amer. Davies, Samuel, president of Princeton College — theol. writer 

Ital. Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian 

Eng. Davis, John, a navigator — discoverer of ' Davis' Straits ' 

Eng. Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist 

Amer. Deane, Silas, minister of the U. S. to France 

Amer. Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American war 

Fr.' Debrue, William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer 

Swiss. Decandolle, A. P., botanist, 

Amer. Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the U. S. navy 

Eng. Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer 

Fr." Delarabre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer 

Fi. Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist 

Fr. DeliUe, James, a celebrated poet 

Fr. Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer 

Gr. Democritus, a celebrated philosopher 

Gr. Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators 

Eng. Denham, lieut. colonel Dixon, an enterprising traveller 

Ital. Denina, Charles John Maria, an historian 



1651 


1720 


1708 


1753 


. 1759 


1817 


1791 


1844 


1766 


1844 


1699 


1778 


1652 


1711 


1790 


1845 




1837 


. " 1758 


1841 


1265 


1321 


1752 


1840 


1721 


1802 


1705 


1766 


1761 


1840 


1808 


1825 


. 1724 


1761 


1576 


1631 




1605 


. " 1778 


1829 


1758 


1789 


•s 1751 


1829 


1731 


1782 


1778 


1841 


1779 


1820 


1661 


1731 


1749 


1822 


1794 


1843 


1738 


1813 


1683 


1768 


B. c. 46.0 




. B. c. 381 B 


c. 322 


1786 


1828 


1731 


1813 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



669 



KATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Russ. Derzhaviiie, Gabriel R., a poet and statesman 

Fr. Desaix, Louis Cliaiies Anthony, military commander 

Fr. Descartes, Rene, an eminent philosopher . 

Fr. Dessaix, J. M., count, marshal of France 

Afr. Dessalines, John .Tames, emperor of Hayti 

Fr. Destouches, Philip INericault, dramatic writer 

Dutch. DeurhofF, William, founder of a sect, and an author 

Amer. Dewees, W. P., medical writer 

Dutch. De Witt, John, an eminent statesman 

Port. Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope 

Eng. Dibdm, Charles, a dramatic and musical composer 

Eng. , Thomas, dramatist and song writer (son of Charles) 

Eng. , Rev. Thomas F., bibliographer 

Eng. Dick, Thomas, author of ' Christian Philosopher ' 

Eng. Dickens, Charles, novelist 

Fr. Diderot, Denis, first editor of ' Encyclopsedie Methodique ' 

Fr. Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-founder 

Fr. , Firmin, publisher, and member of Deputies 

Fr. , Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller 

Egypt. Didymus, who wrote from 3000 to 6000 works 

Pruss. Diebitsch-Sabalkanski, count, miliiary commander 

Pruss. Dieffenbach, J. F., surgeon .... 

Ger. Dindorf, -William, phirologist 

Span. Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander 

iVIace. Dinocrates, an architect — (built Alexandria, &c.) 

Gr. Dion Cassius, author of Roman history 

Gr. Dio Chrysoslom, a rhetorician and philosopher 

Gr. Diodorus Siculus, a historian 

Gr. Diogenes, the Cynic, a philosopher 

Gr. Diogenes Laeriius, biographer 

Gr. Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, critic and historian 

Gr. , a geographer 

Eng. Dodd, Dr. WHliam, miscellaneous writer . 

Eng. Doddridge, Philip, a gifted aird pious divine and writer 

Ger. Doebereiner, J. W., ctieinist 

Tial. Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer 

Ital. Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country (Genoa) 

Scotch. Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator . . 

Gr. Draco, an Athenian legislator 

Eng. Drake, Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator 

Dutch. Drebbel, Cornelius Van, inventor of the thermometer 

Fr. Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer 

Eng. Dryden, John, an eminent poet 

Fr. Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author 

Fr. Duchesne, Andrew, an historian 

Fr. Duclos, Charles Pineau, an historian 

Fr. Duguescland, Berlrand, military commander 

Fr. Dumas, Alex., novelist, traveller, &c. 

Fr. , J. B., chemist 

Fr. Dumont, John, traveller and political writer 

Fr. d'Urville, J. S. C, circumnavigator 

Fr. Dumourier, Charles Francis Duperier, military commander 

Scotch. Dunbar, William, a poet 

Scotch. Duncan, William, logician and translator 

Scotch. , Adam, viscount, a successful admiral . . 

Amer. Dunlap, William, painter and historian 

Fr. Dupin, Louis EUies, an ecclesiastical historian 

Fr. , A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman 

Fr. , Charles, baron, jurist and statesman 

Fr. Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &c. (at Philadelphia) 

Fr. Dupuytren, surgeon and anatomist 

Fr. Duquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral 

Eng. Durham, .1. G. Lambton, earl of, governor general of Canada 

Fr. Duroc, Michael, duke of Friull, military commander 

Amer. Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer 





BORN. 


DIED. 


1743 


1816 




1768 


1800 




1596 


16S0 




1768 


180G 




1680 


1754 




1650 


1717 




1768 


1841 




1625 


1672 
1500 




1748 


1814 
1841 
1849 




1713 


1784 




1730 


1804 




1764 


183G 




1790 




f. r 


.c. 30 






1785 


1831 




1795 






1802 






1775 


1825 


f. I 


. c. 350 
f. 30 


155 


f. 


B. c. 10 




E 


. c. 413 B. 

f. 140 


c. 323 
52 




1729 


1777 




1702 


1756 




1780 






1468 


1560 




1474 


1521 




f. 623 






1545 


1596 




1572 


1634 




1631 


1700 




1803 






1584 


1640 




1704 


1772 




1314 


1380 




1803 






1800 


1726 




1790 


1842 




1739 


1823 




1465 


1535 




1717 


1760 




1731 


1804 




1766 


1839 




1637 


1719 




1783 






1784 






1760 


IS'M 




1778 


1S35 




1610 


1688 




1792 


1840 




1772 


1813 




1752 


1817 



Ger. Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian 

Irish. Edgeworth, Maria, novelist 

En;. Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior . 



1674 

(aboiit) 1770 

1330 



1376 



670 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Edwards, Jonathan, an able divine and metaphysician 



Gr. 

Gei-. 
Gei-. 

Ens. 



-, Bryan, an liistorian 

-, W. F., anatomist and physiologist (bom at Jamaica) 

-, Milne (son of the last), naturalist 



Eginhard, an historian 

Ehrenberg, C. J., naturalist 

Eichborn, F. C, theologian and jurist 

Eldon, Lord, lonl chancellor of England 
Scotch. Elgin, T. Biince, earl of, diplomatist — remover of ' Elgin Tiarbles 
Eng. Elizabeth, queen ..... 
Araer. Elliot, John, ' the apostle to the Indians' 
Amer. Elliott, J. D., commodore in American navy 
Amer. EUsv?orth, Oliver, a distinguished chief justice of the U. S. . 
i5i!!i'. Emerson, Williain, an eminent mathematician 

Emmet, Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator 

Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher 

Enfield, William, miscellaneous writer . _ . 

Eon De Beaumont, Chevaher, an eccentric writer 

Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general 

Epictetus, a Stoic philosopher 

Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of philosophers 

Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and author 

Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet .... 

Ericeira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian 

Erigena, John Scotus, a learned writer of the ninth century . 

Erman, A. G., 'Travels in Siberia,' &c. 

Ernesii, John, Augustus, an eminent crhic 

Scotch. Erskine, Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator 

Span. Escobar, Y. Mendoza Anthony, a celebrated casuist 

Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity 

Ess, L. Van, theological writer .... 

Essex. Robert Devereux, earl of, a warrior 

Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman 

Euclid, an eminent geometrician 

Eugene, Francis, prince, a great warrior (in the German service) 

Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician 

Euripides, a celebrated tragic poet 

Eusebius, bishop of Cjesarea, a learned father of the church, and 
ecclesiastical historian 

Eutropius, an historian 

Eutycnes, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect 

Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer 

Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diploinatist 



lush. 

Oer. 

Kiig. 

Im-. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Dutch, 

Span. 

Span. 

tng. 

Pruss. 

Ger. 



Fr 
Ger. 

Etig. 

Aust. 

Afric. 

Fr. 

Swiss, 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Rom. 
(lom. 
Eng. 
Amer, 



f. B 



BOKN. 


DIED. 


1703 


1757 


1743 


1800 


1777 





339 



1750 


1838 


1771 


184] 


1533 


1603 


1604 


1690 


1785 


1845 


1745 


1807 


1701 


1782 


1764 


1827 


1741 


1797 


1728 


1810 


B. 


c. 363 


40 




342 B 


c. 371 


1467 


1536 


1525 


1595 


1614 


1699 


1806 




1707 


1781 


1750 


1823 


1589 


1669 


1772 


1840 


1770 




1567 


loot 


300 




1663 


1736 


1707 


1783 



1620 
1790 



1651 
1847 



Eng. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

Hal. 

Ital. 

Pruss. 

Eng 

Et«. 

Ital 

Irish. 

Port. 

Irish. 

Ger. 

S'^ng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Swe. 

F.ng. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Span 

Ital 



F 

Faber, George Stanley, theological writer 
Fabius, Quintus M. V., a skilful warrior 
Fabricius, John Albert, a critic and bibliographer 

, John Christian, a celebrated entomologist 

Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer 

Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher 

Fairfax, Thomas, lord, a general in the civil war 

Falconer, William, a poet .... 

Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice (beheaded) 

Faraday, Michael, chemist .... 

Faria Y. Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet . . 

Farquhar, George, a dramatist 

Faust, John, one of the inventors of printing 

Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator 

Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer 

Feiielon, Francis de Salignac de la Motte, an able writer, and one of 

the most virtuous of men 
Fei'ber, John James, an eminent mineralogist 
Ferguson, James, a self-educated astronomer, philosopher, &c 

. , Adam, an historian and moral philosopher 

Ferreras, John de, a celebrated historian 
Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest — cardinal, archbishop of Lyons 
Feurbach, Paul John A. von. statesman and jurist 
Feyjoo Y. Montenegro, an able mi.sccllaneous writer 
Ficino. Marsilius, a Platonic | hilosopher 



B 


c. 204 


16C8 


1736 


1742 


1807 


1732 


1803 


1686 


1736 


1611 


1671 


1730 


1769 




1355 


1790 




1588 


1647 


1678 


1707 




1466 


1721 


1777 


1632 


1693 


>I 

1651 


1715 


1743 


1790 


1710 


1776 


1724 


1816 


1652 


1735 


1763 


183S 


1775 


1833 


1701 


1764 


1433 


1409 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



671 



NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Fieldin?, Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist 

Ital. Fiesco,"John Louis, tiie conspirator against Doria 

Eng. Flavel, Jolm, an eminent nonconformist divine 

Fr. Flecliier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate 

Ger. Fleisclier. H. L., orientalist 

Eng. Fletcher, .John, a dramatist . 

Fr. Fleury, Claude, a divine and historian 

Fr. — , Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman 

Amer. Flint, Rev. Timothy, novelist and historian 

Fr. Florian, .John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer 

Ger Flligel, G. L., philologist and historian 

Ger. FoUen, C. T. C, theologian and philologist (in U. S.; 

Fr. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. P'oote, Samuel, a comic writer and actor . , 

Ital. Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer 

Eng. Ford, John, an early dramatic writer 

Amer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman 

Eng. Fosbrooke, Rev. T. D., archjeologist (Ency. Antiq.) 

Eng. Foster, John, essayist .... 

Fr. Fouche, Joseph, duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist . 

Fr. Fourier, Charles, Ibunder of the ' social ' system 

Eng. Fox, John, a divine, author of the ' Book of Martyrs ' 

Eng. , George, the founder of the Society of Friends, or Quakers 

Eng, , Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orators 

Irish. Francis, Sir Philip, political writer 

Amer. Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman 

Pruss. Frederick II., the Great, king — an able general and author 

Ger. Freytag, G. W. F., Arabic Dictionary, &c. 

Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebraled navigator 

Fr." Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet 

Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist 

Eng. Fuller, Thomas, a divine and historian 

Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister 

Amer. Fulton, Robert, the introducer of steamboats in America 

Fr. Furitiere, Antony, a philologist 



BORN. 

1707 

1627 
1632 
1801 
1576 
1640 
1653 
1780 
1755 
1802 
1796 
1657 
1721 
1688 
1586 
1780 
1770 

1763 
1772 
1517 
1624 
1748 
1740 
1706 
1712 
1778 

1333 

1780 
1608 
1754 
1767 
1620 



a 

Fr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author 

Fr. Gail, J. B., philologist ..... 

Fr. Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian 

Amer. Gaines, Maj. Gen. E. P., military commander 

Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician 

Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer 

Ger. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the science 

of phrenology ..... 

Swiss-Amer. Gallatin,""AIbert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnol 

Scotch. Gait, John, novelist ..... 

Ital. Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher — discoverer 

of galvanic electricity ..... 

Port. Gama, Vasco de, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope 

Ger.* Gans, Edward, jurist ..... 

Span. Garcia, Manuel, musical composer .... 

S|3an. Garcias Lasso, de la Vega, ' the Prince of Spanish poetry ' . 

Fr. Gamier, Cotmt Germain, jurist .... 

Eng. Garrick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist 

Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry Prince of 

Wales for a misdemeanor .... 

Fr. Gassendi, Peter, a celebrated philosopher 

Amer. Gates, Horatio, a distinguished ofBcer in the revolution 

Eng. Gay, John, a popular poet ..... 

Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F., chemist .... 

Ger. Gellert, Christian Furchtegott, a poet and miscellaneous writer 

Bar. Genghis Khan, a celebrated conqueror 

Fr. Genlis, Stephania Felicite, countess de, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Geofl'rey ol Monmouth, an historian of the 12th century 

Fr. Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c. 

Rom. Germanicus, Tiberius Drusus Csesar, military commander . 

Fr. Gerson, John Charlier de, an ecclesiastic and author 

S.viss Ge-siner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist 

Ger. ■ — .John Matthias, a philolnijist .... 

A>ner GeiTy, Elbridge, a di.=ii::i;nislio:l p:iiri.M. \-ire-|")rr:.«ldeiit U. S. 



1670 
1755 
1728 
1777 
131 
1564 

1758 
1761 
1779 

1737 

1798 
1779 
1503 
1754 
1716 

1350 
1592 
1728 
1688 
1778 
1715 
1164 
1746 

1770 

1363 
11516 
1691 



672 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Xtal. Giannone, Peter, an historian .... 

Eng. Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of English historians 

Amer. Gibson, Col. Jolm and Col. George, both officers in the Revolution 

Eng. Giffbrd, William, a critic and poet 

Eng. , John, an historical and political writer 

Eng. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in America 

Eng. Gill, .lohn, a divine, oriental scholar, and author 

Scotch. Gillies, John, ' History of Greece,' &c. 

Ital. Gioja, Melchioi-, writer on economical sciences 

Swe. Gmelin, John Frederick, a chemist 

Fr. Godfrey of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the crusades 

Amer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, &c. 

Eng. Godwin, William, novelist and metapliysiciau 

Ger. Goetlie, a celebrated dramatist 

Ita). Goldoni, Charles, ' the Italian Moliere ' 

IrisI) Goldsmith, Oliver, a celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer 

Dutch. Golius, James, an orientalist and lexicographer 

Span. Gonsalvo of Cordova, a celebrated warrior 

Gr. Gorgias, an orator and sophist, f. B. C. 5th century 

Fr. Gourgaud, Gen., military commander under Napoleon 

Eng. Gower, John, one of the earliest English poets . 

Rom. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat 

Rom. Caius Sempronius 

Ger. GrKfe, or Grasvius, an erudite classic writer 

Scotch. Grahame, James, author of 'History of the United States' 

Scotch. Grahame, James, a poet .... 

Scotch. Grant, Anne (of Laggan), novelist, essayist, &c. 

Eng. Granville, John Carteret, earl, a statesman 

Ital. Gi-aiian, a monk, compiler of the canon law, f. 12th century 

Irish. Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman 

Dutch. Gravesande, Wm. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher 

Eng. Gray, Thomas, a poet ..... 

Gregory Nazianzen, St., Christian writer 

Gregory of Nyssa, St., do. . 

Fr. Gregory (of Tours), St., an historian 

Fr. Gregory I., the Great, pope, an author 

Ital. Gregory VII., the Great, pope (Hiklebrand), a celebrated despot 

Scotch. Gregory, James, a philosopher and mathematician . 

Scotch- Gregory, David, do. do. 

Irish. Gregory, George, D. D., a miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Gregory, Olinihus, mathematician and religious writer . 

Amer. Greene, Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution 

Eng. Grey, lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition 

Eng. Grey, Earl, statesman— whig premier for William IV. 

Ger Griesbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist 

Amei'. Grimke, Thomas S., jurist 

Ger. Grimm. J. L. C, miscellaneous writer 

Dutch. Gronovius, James, -in erudite critic 

Ger. Grotefend, G. F., p. Tologist 

Dutch. Grotius, or De Groot, Hugh, an eminent scholar 

Fr. Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of-France 

Amer. Grundyi Felix, senator of the U. S. tTenn.) 

Ger. Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist 

Ital. Guarini, John Baptist, a poet 

Ger. Guericke, Otto, exp. philos. — inventor of the air-pump 

Ital. Guicciardini, Francis, an historian 

Nor. Guiscard, Robert, a Norman warrior 

Fr. Guise, Francis of Lorraine, duke of, a celebrated warrior 

Fr. Guise, Charles of. Cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman 

Fi". Guise, Henry, of Lorraine, duke of, an ambitious warrior 

Fr. Guizot, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician 

Eng. Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician — inventor of the ' Gunter's scale,' &c, 

Swe. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, an able warrior 

Scotch. Guthrie, William, author of a history of England, Scotland, &c, 

Ger. Guttemberg, John, one of the inventors of printing . 

I'russ. Gutzlaff, Charles, traveller and historian of China 



BORN. 


SIBD. 


1676 


1758 


1737 


1794 


1757 


1826 


1758 


1818 




1583 


1697 


1771 


1747 


1836 


1767 


1829 


1748 


1805 




1100 




1830 


1755 


1836 


1749 


1831 


1707 


1793 


1731 


1774 


1596 


1667 


1443 


1515 




1402 


B 


c. 133 


B. 


c. 121 


1632 


1703 


1765 


1811 


1755 


1838 


1690 


1763 


1750 


1820 


1683 


1742 


1716 


1771 


328 


389 


331 


396 


544 


593 


544 


604 




1085 


1648 


1685 


1661 


1710 


1754 


1808 


1774 


1841 


1741 


1786 


1537 


1554 


1764 


1845 


1745 


1812 


1786 


1834 


1785 




1645 


1716 


1775 


1836 


1583 


1645 


1766 




1777 


. 1840 


1616 


1664 


1537 


1612 


1602 


16S6 


1482 


1540 


1015 


10S5 


1519 


1563 


1525 


1574 


1550 


1588 


1787 




1581 


1619 


1594 


1633 


1708 


1770 


1400 


146S 



Pers 
Ger. 



Hafiz, Mohammed, a poet — the Anacreon of Persia 
Halm. Simon Frederick, an historian 



1389 
1729 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



67£ 



WATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ger. Halineinann, founder of ' Homoeopathy ' in medicine 

Ger. Hahn-IIahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and novelist 

Eng. Hakluyt, Richard, author of voyages, &c. of the English 

Eng. Hale, Sir Matthew, an eminent and incorruptible judge 

Eng. Halford, Sir Henry, physician and medical writer 

Scotch. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c. 

Eng. Hall, Rev. Robert, theologian and pulpit orator 

Eng. Hallam, Henry, historian 

Swiss. Haller, Albert Von, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Halley, Edmund, an eminent astronomer and mathematician 

Amer. Hamilton, Alexander, a statesman — first secretary of treasury, U. S. 

Irish. Hamilton, Elizabeth, a talented miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Hamilton, Thomas, Captain, novelist, ']\Ien and Manners in America 

Gei". Hanmier, Von, baron, historian and orientalist 

Eng. Hampden, .John, a celebrated patriot 

Amer. Hancock. John, a distinguished patriot — president of Congress 

Ger. Handel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest musical composers 

Nor. Hansteen, C, mathematician and astronomer . 

Eng. Harley, Robert, earl of O.'cford, a celebrated statesman 

Sar. Haroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of learning 

Amer. Harlan, Richard, M. D., naturalist . ~ . 

Eng. Harris, James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, &c. 

Amer. Harrison, Gen. W. H., military commander, and pres. U. S. 

Amer. Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College 

Eng. Harvey, William, discoverer of the circulation of the blood 

Ger. l.ase, Henry, classical antiquarian 

Eng. Haslam, John, writer on insanity 

Eng. Hastings, Warren, governor-general of British India 

Eng. Hastings, rnarquis of, military commander 

Ger. Hauser, Casper, a mysterious ' wild-boy ' 

Fr. Haussez. Baron, minister of Charles X. — traveller 

Fr. Hauy, Renatus Justus, mineralogist 

Eng. Hawke, Edward, lord, a brave and successful admiral 

Eng. Hawkesworih, Dr. John, miscellaneous writer . 

Eng. Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator — originator of the slave trade 

Ger. Haydn, -loseph, a celebrated musical composer 

Eng. Hayley, William, a poet and miscellaneous writer . 

Amer. Hayne, Robert V., governor of South Carolina, and senator of U. S; 

Eng. Hazlitt, William, essaj^ist and critic .... 

Eng. Heber, Reginald, a divine, and poet 

Ger. Hederich, Benjamin, a lexicographer .... 

Ger. Hedwig, John, a physician and botanist 

Ger. Heeren, A. H. L., historian ..... 

Ger. Hegel, G. W. F., metaphysician .... 

Ger. Heine, Henry, poet and literateur .... 

Gr. Heliodorus (of Emessa), the first romnnce writer, flourished in the 4th 

Ger. Helvicus, Christopher, a chronologist .... 

Eng. Hemans, Felicia D., poetess .... 

Ger. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antirjuarian, and theologian 

Fr. Henry IV., an able and popular monarch . 

Ens. Henry," Robert, an historian ..... 

Amer Henry. Patrick, an orator and patriot 

Gr. Heniclitus, a philosopher, flourished before Christ 

Ger. Herder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer 

Ger. Hermann, J. G. J., philologist .... 

Ger. Hermann, Ch. F., philologist, 'History of Philosophy,' &c. 

Gr. Hermogenes, a rhetorician, flourished .... 

Gr. Herodian, an historian .... 

Gr. Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works are extant, 

Fr. Herold, L. G. F., musical composer 

Span Herrera, Anthony, an historian .... 

Eng. Herrick, Robert, a poet ..... 

Eng. Herschel, Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers 

Jew. Herschell, Dr. Solomon, Chief Rabbi of the Jews in England 

Kng. Herschell, Sir J. F. W., astronomer and natural philosopher 

Eng. Hervey, James, a pious and ainiable divine and w^riter 

Gr. Hesiod, a poet, conteinporary of Homer, flourished 

Ger. Heyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer . 

Eng. Hickes. Georss. a theologian and philolosist 

Fr. Hilaire, Geof St.. naturalist . ^ . 

Eng Hill, viscount, military commander (Peninsula and Wnlerloo) 

Ens Hill, sir John. n holanisi and niiiliirarious wriier 

20 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1755 


1843 


1805 




1553 


1616 


1609 


1676 


1766 


1844 


nsH 


1844 


1764 


1831 


1708 


1777 


16.56 


1741 


1757 


1804 


1758 


1816 


' 1789 


1842 


1774 




1594 


1643 


1737 


1793 


1684 


1758 


17S4 




1661 


1724 




808 


1796 


1843 


1670 


1719 


1773 


1841 




1688 


1569 


1658 


1789 


1&12 


L764 


1844 


-1733 


18U 


1754 


1825 




1833 


1778 




1742 


1822 


1713 


1781 


1715 


1773 


1520 


1595 


1732 


1809 


1745 


1820 


1791 


1835 

1QQ0 


1783 


1826 


1675 


1748 


1730 


1799 


1760 


1842 


1770 


1831 


1799 




century. 




1581 


1617 


1794 


1835 


IS02 




1553 


1610 


1718 


1790 


1736 


1799 


504 




1744 


1803 


1772 




1804 




180 




. f. 230 




, B. 0. 484 




1792 


1833 


1559 


1625 


1591 




1738 


18C2 


. ■ 1760 


f^2 


1713 


17."P 


B.C. 907 




1729 


1S12 


1642 


171.^ 


1772 




1772 


184^' 


1716 


177.- 



674 



THE world's progress. 



VATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

.tew. Hlllel, the eUler, one of the compilers of the Talmud 

Amer. Hillhouse, James A., poet 

Gr. Hippocrates, 1 he father of medicine 

Eng. Hoadley, William, a celebrated prelate and author 

Amer. Hobart, .Tohn Henry, bishop of New Yoi-k 

Mng. Hobbes, Thomas, a philosopher and translator 

l'\-. Hoche, Lazarus, a military commander 

Swiss Hofei', Andrew, a Tyrolian patriot 

i'A'iS. Hofland, Barbara, novelist 

(.'er. Hoffmann, E. T. A., novelist . 

SmicIi. Hogg, James, 'The Ettrick Shepherd' 

I) n. Holberg, Louis, baron de, an historian 

; ; I'.'. Holcroft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer 

Hwi. Holingshed, a chronicler 

(Ills' Holland, Lord, statesman and literateur 

lOuu'. Holland, Philemon, a translator 

Amer. Holmes, Abiel, D. D., ' Annals of America ' 

Scotch. Home, John, a divine, dramatist, and historian 

(ir. Homer, the " greatest of poets," [supposed to have] flourished 

Ens. Hone, William, author of ' Every Day Book' and political v/orks 

Eng. Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval officer 

Eiig. Hood, Thomas, poet and humorist .... 

Diifch. Hoogvliet, Ai'nold, a poet 

F.ns. - ■ ~ - 

Eng. 

En?. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Kng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Horn. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Pruss, 



Hook, Robert, a mathematician .... 

Hook, Theo. E., novelist and humorist 

Hooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman History . 

Hooker, Sir W. J., botanist 

Hooker, Richard, an eminent divine 

Hoole, John, a poet and translator .... 

Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs 

Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer . . 

Hopkins, Samuel, an eminent divine and author 

Hopkinson, Joseph, jurist and statesman . 

Horace, Quintus Flaccus, an eminent poet 

Home, George, a learned prelate 

Horsley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician . 

Hossack, David, M. D., medical and scientific writer 

Howard, John, a celebrated philanthropist 

Hudson, Henry, discoverer of " Hudson river" 

Huet, Peter Daniel, an erudite prelate and author . 

Hugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman 

Hull, Commodore Isaac, naval commander (Const, and Guer., &c.) 

Humboldt, F. H A., baron, traveller— geog. and nat. philosopher 
Scotch. Hume, David, an historian and philosopher 

Hunniades, John, a celebrated warrior 
Eng. Hunt, Leigh, poet and essayist 
Eng. Husklsson, Rt. hon. William, an able statesman 
Gef. Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer . 
Iri.sh. Hutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer 
Amer. Hutchinson, Thos., a distinguished gov. of Massachusetts, and historian 
Scotch. Hutton, James, a geologist and philosopher 
Eng. Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician 
Dutch. Huygens, Christian, a scientific author 
Ind. Hyder Ali, a celebrated warrior . 



BORK. 
B.C. 112 

17S9 
3. c. 460 
1676 
1776 
]r,33 
1768 
1765 

1776 
1772 
1685 
1744 

1773 
1551 
1763 

1724 
;. 907 

1734 
1778 
1687 
1635 
1788 



1.553 
1717 
1495 

1721 
1770 
B. c. 65 
1730 
1731 
1769 
1726 
f. 1600 
1630 
1802 
1775 
1769 
1711 



1769 
1376 
1694 
1711 
1726 
17.37 
1629 



1841 

1761 
1830 
1679 
1797 
ISIO 
18-14 
1822 
1S35 
1754 
1809 
1582 
1840 
1636 
1S.!7 
1808 

1842 
1816 
1845 
1763 
1702 
1S41 
1763 

1600 
1803 
1555 
1831 
1803 
1842 

B.C. S 

1792 
1805 
1835 
1790 

1721 



1776 
1456 

1S.'1 1 
1416 
1717 
1 It^O 
1797 
1823 
1705 
1782 



Gr. Ibycus, a lyric poet .... 

Span. Ignatius De Loyola, the founder of the .Jesuits . 

Ell?. Inchbald, Elizabeth, a dramatist and novelist 

Ainer. Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape paihter . 

Eii'i Ireland, W. H., author of the 'Shakspeare Forgeries' 

Rii2. Irving, Rev. Edward, theological writer 

(U\ Is£eus, an orator .... 

(7r. Isocrates, an orator .... 

Span. Iturbide, emperor of Mexico 



f. B. c. 550 

1491 
1756 
1801 

1792 
B. c. 418 
B.C. 436 

1784 



1821 
1S40 



Amer. Jackson, Gen. Andrew, military commander, Pres. U. S. 
Ger. Jacobi, Fred. H,, philosopher, novelist, &c. 
Ger, Jacobs, Fred., classical philologist 



1767 1845 

1743 1819 

1764 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



675 



KATION NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Jdcotot, Jean J., educational writer 

Dutch. Jacquin, Niciiolas Josepii, a botanist 

Ger. Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar 

Eng. James, G. P. R., novelist and historian 

Fr. Janin, Jules, literateur .... 

Dutch. Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect 

Fr. Jasmin, Jacques, a barber— poet 

Ainer. Jay, John, a distinguished patriot and statesman 

Amer. Jefferson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d president of the 

Scotch. Jeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic 

Eng. Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine inoculation 

Eng. Jenyns, Soame, a poet and miscellaneous writer 

Jerome, St., one of the fathers of the church 

(ifi-. Jerome, of Prague, a x-eformer, companion of Huss 

lOiiif. Jewel, .lohn, a learned prelate and author . 

Kr. Joan of Arc, " the greatest of heroines" 

Eng. Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writer in the cause of liberty 

Eng. Johnson, Samuel, " the colossus of English literature" 

lial. Jomelli, Nicholas, a dramatic and musical composer 

Swiss. Jomini. Henry, baron, military writer 

Eng. Jones, Inigo, an eminent architect 

Eng. Jones, William,- a divine and author 

Eng. Jones, Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer 

Scotch Jones, John Paul, a captain in the navy of the United Slates 

Eng. Jonson, Benjamin, a celebrated poet and dramatist . 

Eng. Jortin, Dr. John, a learned theologian and author 

Josephine, empress of the French (born in Martinico) 

Jew. Josephus, a celebrated historian and warrior 

Fr. Joutfroy, Theo. S., metaphysician and statesman 

Fr. Jourdan, J. B., marshal of France 

Ger. Juan, or John, of Austria, don, a warrior . 

Jew. Jndah, Hakkadosh, a famous rabbi, and Talmudist 

Dan. Juel, Nicholas, a celebrated admiral 

Julian, Flavins Claudius, a Roman emperor and author 

Fr. Julien, A. J., orientalist 

Ger. Junge, Joachim, philosopher .... 

Dutch. .lunius, Adrian, a voluminous writer 

Fr. Junot, Andoche, duke d'Abrantes, military officer 

Fr. Junot, Madame, duchess d'Abrantes, biography, &c. 

Fr. Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist .... 

Gr. Justin Martyr, one of the fathers of the church 

Rom. Justin. Latin historian .... 

Rom. Juvenal, Decius Junius, the \r ^=;t vehement of satirists 



United States 



f B.C. 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1770 


. 1840 


1727 


1817 


1750 


1817 


1801 




1585 


1633 


1798 




1745 


1829 


1743 


1826 


1773 


18.50 


1749 


1823 


1704 


1787 




420 




1416 


1.522 


1571 


1410 


1431 


1G49 


1703 


1709 


1784 


1714 


1774 


1775 




1572 


1652 


172(5 


1800 


1746 


1794 


•.736 


1792 


.574 


1637 


1698 


1770 


1761 


1814 


37 


95 


1796 


1842 


1762 


1833 


1546 


1578 


129 


194 


1629 


1697 


331 


363 


1799 




1587 


1C57 


1512 


1575 


1771 


1813 


1784 


18-39 


1748 


1836 


91 


165 


200 





123 



K 



Ger. 
Ger. 
Fr. 

Scotch. 

Ger. 

Russ. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ens. 

Krig. 

Amer. 

(;er. 

Snitch. 

i;i-h.' 

Vavz. 

Prnss. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Scot<^.■.. 

Eng. 



Kaempfer, a naturalist, traveller, and historian . 

Kaestner, Abraham Goihelf, a mathematician and astronomer 

Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause 

Kames, Henry Home, lord, a judge and author 

Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician 

Karamsin, Nicholas M., historiographer of the empire 

Kean, Edmund, tragedian .... 

Keats, John, a poet ..... 

Keith, James, an officer in the Russian and Prussian service 

Kelly, Michael, a composer and singer 

Kemble, John Philip, a celebrated tragedian 

Kempis, Thomas i, supposed author of the " Imitation of Christ' 

Kennet, White, a learned prelate and author 

Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and biblical critic 

Kent, James, jurist — chancellor of N. Y. 

Kepler. John, an eminent astronomer 

Kerr, Robert, a miscellaneous writer . 

King, Rufus. statesman and diplomatist 

Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican Antiquities 

Kitchinei', William, writer on cookery 

Klaproth, Henry J., philologist and ethnologist . 

Kleber, John Baptist, military officer 

Klopstock, " the Milton of Germany" . 

Knox, John, the great champion of the reformation 

Knox. Dr. A'icesimns a divine ;ind miscellaneous writer 



1651 


1716 


1719 


1799 


1717 


1780 


1696 


1782 


1724 


1804 


1765 


1826 


1787 


1833 


1796 


1820 


1696 


1758 


1762 


1.526 


1757 


1823 


1380 


1471 


1660 


n-29. 


1718 


n& 


1763 


1847 


1571 


1630 




1814 


1755 


1827 


1795 


1S.37 




1827 


1784 


1835 


1754 


1800 


1721 


1803 


1505 


1.572 


3752 


1821 



676 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Knox, Henry, militaiy officer and statesman 
Ger. Koch, Christopher William, an historian 
Fr. Kock, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist 

Polish. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, a warrior and patriot 

(Served in the American army during the revolution.) 
Ger. Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick, Fer. Von, an historian, &c. 
Ger. Kunth, Charles S., botanist 
Russ. Kutosoff, Michael L. G., field marshal 



onK. 


DIED. 


1750 


1806 


1737 


1813 


1794 




1746 


1817 


1761 


1819 


1788 




1745 


1813 



Fr. Laborde, Alex. L. G., comte de, traveller, &c. . . . 

Fr. Lacepede, Bernard G. S. de la Ville, count de, naturalist 

Fr. Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and literaieur 

Lactantius, L. C., a father of the church ; styled the Christian Cicero 

Fr Lacroix, Silvestre F., mathematician 

Fr. Laennec, R. T. H., an eminent physician 

Fr La Fayette, G. M., marquis, &c., military commander and statesman 

Fr. La Fayette, George W., statesman 

Fr, Lafontaine, "an inimitable fabulist" .... 

Gel. La Fontaine, Aug. H. .?., author of 200 volumes, miscellaneous 

Fr. Lafitte, Jacques, wealthy banker and stiitesman 

Ital. Lagrange, Joseph Louis, an able mathematician 

Fr. La'Harpe, Jolin Francis de, a dramatist, critic, &c. 

Swiss. La Haipe, F. C, statesman and author 

Fr. Lalande, Joseph J. le Francis de, astronomer 

Fr. Lamarck, J. Li. A. P., naturalist .... 

Fr. Lamarque, Maxim., a general of the revolution of 1789 

Fr. Lamartine, poet, historian, traveller, and statesman 

Eng. Lambert, A. B., botanist . . . ■ . 

Eng. Lamb, Chai-les, poet and essayist 

Fr. Lammenais, F, R., abbe de, theological and political writer 

Eng. Lancaster, Joseph, founder of system of Education 

Eng. Lander, Richard and John, travellers in Africa 

Fr. Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts 

Eng. Lane, Edward William, orientalist— author of Modern Egyptians, &c 

Ital. Langfranc, a learned archbishop of Canterbury 

Eng. Langton, Stephen, cardinal, and archbishop of Canterbury 

Eng. Lansdowne, Win. Petty, marquis of — premier 

Eng. Lansdowne, Heniy Petty, marquis of, Pres. of Council . 

Fr. Laplace, marquis Peter Simon, an eminent astronomer and geometrician 

Eng. Lardner, Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine 

Fr. Las Casas, biographer of Napoleon, &c. 

Nor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian 

Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate— martyred for being a reformer 

Eng. Laud, William, a prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition 

Amer. Laureiis, Henry, a patriot and statesman 

Fr Lavalette, M. C., count de, military commander 

SwijB. I.avater, John Caspar, a celebrated physiognomist 

Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., a celebrated chemist 

Eng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh 

Fr." Lebrun, Pontius D. E., a poet 

Swiss. Leclerc, John, an eminent critic 

Amer. Ledyard, John, an intrepid and enterprising traveller 

Amer. Lee, Chanes, an officer in the revolution 

Amer. Lee, Richard Henry, president of congress . 

Amer. Lee, Arthur, M. D., a statesman 

Amer. Legare, Hugh S., jurist, statesman, and literaieur 

Fr. Legendre, mathematician 

Amer. Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous writer 

Ger. Leibnitz, Godfrey William, an able and learned philosopher 

Ens. Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist 

Scotch. Leighton, Robert, an able prelate 

Eng. Leland, John, an eminent divine and author 

Irish. Leland, Thomas, an eminent divine and author 

Ens. Lempriere, John, a biographer and lexicographer . 

DuTch. Lennep, David J. von., jurist and poet 

Ital. Leo X., pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts 

Ger. Leo, Henry, historian .... 

Gr. Leonidas I., king of Sparta — the hero of Thermopylae . 

Fr. Lesage, Alain Rene, a novelist and dramatist 





1842 


1756 


1825 




325 


1765 


1843 


1781 


1826 


1757 


.834 


1621 


1695 


1756 


1831 


1768 


1844 


1736 


1813 


1739 


1793 


1754 


1838 


1732 


1807 


1745 


1829 


1770 


1832 


1802 




1761 


1842 


1775 


1834 


1782 




1771 


1839 




lS.3i 




1820 


"; 1005 


1639 




1228 


1737 


1805 


1780 




ian 1749 


1827 


1684 


1768 


1763 


1842 


1800 




1470 


1.5.';5 


. 1573 


1645 


1724 


1792 


1769 


1830 


1741 


1801 


1743 




1729 


1807 


1657 


1736 




1788 




1782 


17.32 


1794 


1740 


1782 


1797 


1843 


1753 


1833 


1802 


1840 


1646 


1710 


1752 


1842 


1613 


16&1 


1691 


1766 


1772 


1785 




1824 


1774 




1475 


1521 


1799 




f. B. c. 491 




1668 


1747 



BIOGIIAVHICAL INDEX. 



677 



HATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Scotch. Leslie^ .John, mathematician and natural philosopher 

Ft. Levazac, .]ohn P. B. L. cie, a grammarian 

Amer. Lewis, Maj. Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &e. 

Eng. Lewis, Matthew Gregory, miscellaneotis writer 

Ger. Lichtenberg, George C, experimental philosopher 

Ger. Liebig, . I ustus, baron, chemist 

Eng. Lightloot, John, a learned divine and author 

Dutch. Ligne, Charles Joseph, military officer, and author 

Dutch. Limborch, Philip, a theologian and author 

Eng. Lingard, John, author of ' History of England ' . 

Fr. Lingueet, Simon N. H., political writer, and historian 

Swed. Linnseus, Charles Von, the most celebrated of naturalists 

Hung. Liszt, Francis, performer on piano 

Eng, I,ister, Thomas Henry, novelist, and biographer of Clarendon 

Ger. Littrow, John J., writer on matliemalics and astronomy 

Eng. Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, premier 

Amer. Livingston, Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman 

Amer. Livingston, William, a poet . 

Rom. Livius. or Livy, Titus, a celebrated historian 

Fr. Lobau, Count, marshal of France 

Eng. Locke, John, an eminent philosopher and metaphysician 

Scotch. Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist — editor of ' Quarterly' 

Russ. Lomonozotr, Michael V., a poet and historian 

Irish. Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, a statesman 

Gr. Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, a critic and philosopher 

Span. Lope, De Vega Carpio, Felix, a poet and dramatist 

Scotch. Loudon, J. C, voluminous writer on horticulture, agricult.,and 

Fr. Louis, Baron, eminent surgeon 

Eng. Lowlh, Robert, an eminent divine and author 

Lucan, Marcus Annaeus, a Latin poet 
Gr. ■ Lucian, a celebrated writer 
Rom. Lucilius, the earliest Roman satirist . 
Rom. Lucretius, Caius Titus, an eminent poet 
Rom. LucuUus. a wealthy warrior 

Ger. Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant reformation 
Fr. Luxemburg, duke of, a military officer 

Gr. Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator 
Scotch. Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller 
Gr. Lysander, a famous Spartan general 
Gr. Lysias, an orator .... 
Eng. Lyttleton, George, lord, a poet and historian 



1754 
1773 
1742 
1803 
1602 
1735 
1633 

. 1736 
1707 
1811 
1801 
1781 
1770 
1764 
1723 

1770 
1632 
1794 
1711 
1769 
f. B. C.250 
1562 
architect. 1783 

1710 

120 

B. c. 148 

. B. c. 95 

B.C. 115 

1484 

1628 

B. c. 898 

1797 



DIED. 

1832 
1813 
1332 
1818 
1790 

1675 
1814 
1712 

1794 

1778 

1342 

1828 
1836 
1790 
17 
1838 
1704 

1765 
1822 

1635 
1843 
1837 
1787 
.37 
210 
B. 191 

c. 49 
1546 
1695 



B. G 



,459 
1709 



B. c. 395 
1763 



M 

Eng. Macaulay, T. Babington, essayist, historian, critic, and statesman . 

Scotch. McCrie, Thomas, D. D., biographer of Knox 

Eng. McCuUoch, John, M. D., geologist, &c. 

Scotch. MaccuUoch, political economist and statistician 

Fr. Mac Donald, marshal of France .... 

Amer. Mac Donough, Thomas, commodore, victor on Lake Champlain 

Ital. Machiavel, Nicholas, a celebrated writer on polities, &c. 

Scotch. Mackenzie, Henry, " the Addison of the North" 

Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of Travels 

Eng. Mackintosh, Sir James, a celebrated literary character 

Scotch. Macknight, James, a divine and author 

Scotch. Maclaurin, Colin, a mathematician .... 

Eng. Mac Lean, L. E. L. (Miss Landon), poet and novelist 

Scotch. Maclure, William, geologist, <fec. .... 

Amer. Macomb, Maj. Gen. Alex., military commander 

Scotch. Macpherson, James, a miscellaneous writer 

Rom. Maecenas, Caius C, the minister of Augustus, and patron of literature 

Amer. Madison, James, 4th President of United States 

Port. Magellan, Ferdinand, a celebrated navigator 

Fr. Magendie, Francois, physiologist .... 

Irish. Maginn, William, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic 

Sar. Mahomet, or Mohammed, the founder of the religion which bears his name 

Turk. Mahomet II., 7th Turkish sultan— conqueror of'Constantinople 

Ital. Maio, Angelo, discoverer and editor of Latin classics 

Fr. Maimbo\trg, Louis, an historian .... 

Jew. Maimonide.'3, Moses, a celebrated rabbi .... 

Fr. Mamtenon, Frances d'Aubignc, queen . . . 



1772 


1835 


1773 


1835 


1765 


1840 


1773 


1825 


1469 


1527 


1745 


1831 




1849 


1766 


1832 


1721 


1800 


1698 


1746 


1804 


1838 


1763 


1840 


1782 


1841 


1738 


1796 




B.C. 9 


17E1 


1836 




1521 


i7a3 




1793 


1842 


569 


632 


1430 


1481 


1610 


1686 


11.31 


1204 


1635 


1719 



678 



THE world's progress. 



NJITION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Maittaii-e, Michael, a bibliographer, &c. 

Eng. Malcolm, Sir John, History of Persia and India 

Ital. Malibran, M. F. Madame, vocalist 

Eng. Malraesbury, William of, an historian 

Eng. Malone, Edward, a dramatic commentator 

Ital. Malpighi, Marcellus, a naturalist and anatomist . 

Ger. Malte-Brun, Conrad, a poet and geograplier 

Ger. Malte-Brun, M., geographer .... 

Eng. Malthus, T. R., political economist 

Pars. Manes, or Manichoeus, founder of the Manicheean sect 

Ger. Mansfield, Ernest of, a warrior 

Eng. Mantell, G. A., geologist 

Ital. Manutius, Aldus, a celebrated piiiiiter and author 

Ital. Manzoni, author of 'I Promessi Sposi ' 

Fr. Marat, John Paul, an infamous revolutionist 

Aust. Maria Louisa, Empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Pi 

Span. Mariana, John, a celebrated historian . 

Amer. Marion, Francis, a distinguislied officer in the revolution 

Rom. Marius, Caius, a famous general and demagogue 

Eng. Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, an able warrior 

Fr. Marmont, marshal of France, and traveller 

Fr. Marmontel, John Francis, a celebrated writer 

Eng. Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller 

Eng. Marsden, oriental traveller and historian 

Amer. Marsh, James, metaphysician 

Eng. Marsh, Herbert, bishop of Peterborough, theological writer 

Fr. Mars, Mademoiselle, actress .... 

Amer. Marshall, John, chief justice of U. S., biographer 

Rom. Martial, Marcus Valerius, an epigrammatist 

Span. Martinez, de la Rosa, don F., statesman and Uterateur 

Ger. Martins, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller 

Prus. Martos, Ivan P., sculptor .... 

Iial. Martyr, Peter, a reformer and theologian . 

Eng. Mason, John, a divine and author 

Eng. Mason, William, a divine and poet 

Amer. Mason, John INI., an eminent divine 

Fr. Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals 

Fr. Masillon, John Baptist, an eloquent divine 

Eng. Massinger, Philip, a dramatist 

Amer. Mather, Cotton, a divine .... 

Irish. Maturin, Charles Robert, a divine, dramatist, novelist, and poet 

Eng. Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist 

Fr. Maupertius, Peter L. M., a geometrician and astronomer 

Fr. Maury, John Siffrein, a cardmal and statesman . 

Eng. Mawe, Joseph, a mineralogist 

Fr. Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, an able statesman 

Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks 

Ital. Medici, Lorenzo d', a poet— governor of Florence, and patron of the 

Ger. Meiners, Christopher, an historian 

Ger. Melancthon, Philip, a celebrated reformer 

Gr. Menander, a comic poet 

Ger. Meninski, Francis M., a learned orientalist 

Dutch. Mercator, Gerard, a geographer 

Fr. Merimee, Prosper, novelist 

Ital. Metastasio, Peter B., a celebrated poet . 

Aust. Metternich, Prince, statesman and diplomatist 

Dutch. Meursius, John, an erudite critic 

Ger. Meyerbeer, musical composer 

Fr. Mezerai, Francis Eudes de, an historian 

Ital. Mezzofanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist . 

Gr. Miaulis, naval commander 

Ital. Micari, Guiseppe, historian 

Ger. Michaelis, John David, a learned orientalist and critic 

Fr. Michaud, Joseph, historian 

Fr. Michelet, Jules, historian .... 

Eng. Middleton, Conyers, a divine and an elegant writer 

Fr. Mignet, F. A., historian .... 

Port. Miguel, Don, rival of Don Carlos for the throne of Portugal 

Scot. Mill, Jas., historian of British India and political economist 

Fr. Millevoye, Charles Hubert, a poet 

Pr. Millin, Aubin Louis, a naturalist, &c . 

Eng. Millman, Rev. H. H., poet and historian 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1668 


1747 


1808 


1836 




1143 


1741 


1812 


1628 


1694 


1775 


1826 




1834 


239 


274 


1585 


1626 


1447 


1515 


1754 


1793 


1787 




1537 


1624 




1795 


B.C. 153 


B.C. 86 


1650 


1722 


1723 


1799 




1847 


1755 


1836 


1794 




1758 


1839 


1755 


1835 


40 


100 


1786 




1753 


1835 


1500 


1561 


1706 


1763 


1725 


1797 


1770 


1829 


1758 


1817 


1663 


1742 


1584 


1639 


1663 


1728 


1782 


1825 


1776 


1835 


1698 


1759 


1746 


1817 


1755 


1829 


1602 


1661 




1709 


s 1448 


1492 


1747 


1810 


1497 


1560 


B.C. 342 


B. c 290 


1623 


1698 


1512 


1594 


1800 




1698 


1782 


1773 




1579 


1639 


1791 




1610 


1683 




1849 


1772 


1835 




1839 


1717 


1791 




1839 


1798 




1683 


1750 


1796 




1775 


1836 


17S2 


1816 


1759 





BIOG[lAPHICAL INDEX. 



679 



NATION 

Fr. 

Ens. 

End-. 

Gi-r 

Eng. 
Fr. 

Span. 

Amei". 

En,i. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Sar. 

Turk. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Itiil. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Ger. 

Scot. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Swiss. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Gr. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Millot, Clautle Francis Xavier, historian 

Mills, Charles, historian .... 

Milner, .Joseph, author of Church History 

Miltiades, an illustrious Athenian general 

Milton, .John, the limner ofBriiain 

Mirabeau, H. C'^iiquetti, count de, a celebrated character in the Revolu 

tion, and author ..... 

INIiranda, Francis, a revolutionary general 
Mitchell, Samuel L., celebrated jihysician and naturalist 
Mitchell, Thomas, clas.=!iral scholar and critic 
Mitford, Mary Russell, novelist and essayist 
Mitlbrd, William, an historian and philologist . 
Mithridates, kiiig ol'Ponius, a warrior 
Mitscherlich, E., chenjisi .... 
Mohammed Ben Abd Al Wahab, Shiek, founder of the sect of Wahabite 
Mohammed Ali, Pacha of Egypt .... 
Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist 

Mole, M. L. comte. statesman .... 
Moleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, an historian 
Muliere, .John Bapiist, a celebrated dramatist 
Mouse, Gaspar, an eminent geometrician 
Monk, George, duke of Albemai-le. military officer . 
Monroe, James, a sluie;-iiuui. ulh pie.'ident of the United States 
Monstrelet, Engucrrand de, a chronicler 
Montagu, Lady Mary Wni-tloy, an elegant writer 
Montaigne, Michael de, an ejnnient essayist 
Montebello, .John Lannes, duke of, marshal 
ftlontecuculi, KaymuiiJ, a warrior 
Montesquieu, Charles, baron de, an able writer . 
Montgomery, Kichard, an intrepid military officer . 
IMoatL'uniery, .liimes, j)oet .... 
Montholon,"cum;c. secretary and biographer of Napoieon 
Monti, Viiiceut, a poet .... 

Montmorenci, Anne de, marshal 
Montpensier, Madame, author of Memoirs, <fcc. 
Moore, Sir .John, general .... 

More, Sir Thomas, chancellor, 
Moore, Thomas, poet, biographer, and Iiistorian 
More, Hannah, poet, essayist, and moralist 
Moreau, John Victor, a celebrated general 
Morsan, lady Charles, author ol' novels, travels, &c. 
Morier, James novelist, " Hajji Baba," &c. . . . 1780 

Morris, Robert, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and a financier 1703 



Morris, Gouverneur, a distinguished statesman 

Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist 

Morse, Jedediah, a geographer and statistical writer 

Mortier, marshal of France, killed by Fieschi 

Moschus, a bucolic poet .... 

Mosheim, John Laurence, an ecclesiastical historian 

Motherwell, William, poet .... 

Mouradgea, D'Ohason, an Armenian historian . 

Mozart, John C. W. T., an eminent composer 

Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Natural History, &c,. 

Muller, John Von, a celebrated historian 

Muller, C. O., historian, archaeologist, classic 

Murat, Joachim, an intrepid marshal, and king of Naples 

Maratori, Louis Anthony, an historian 

Murphy, Arthur, a dramatist and translator 

Murray, Lindley, a grammarian 

Murray, Alexander, a self-taught linguist . 

Murray, William Vans, a statesman 

Murray, John (the elder), eminent publisher 

Musajus, an Athenian poet .... 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1726 


17,Nl 


17SS 


18-0 


1744 


17!!7 




B.C. -189 


1C08 


167-1 


1749 


17'.il 


1750 


18ii, 


176.S 


18 1 


1783 


18 :. 


1734 


IS - 


c. 123 


B.C. >M 


1794 




f. 1650 




1769 




1774 


IS.J'.I 


1781 




1754 


1817 


1022 


1673 


1746 


l'^18 


1608 


lo: .1 


1759 


1S31 


1390 


1453 


1690 


1762 


1533 


1592 


1769 


1809 


1609 


16S1 


1689 


1755 


1737 


1775 


1771 




±783 




1753 


1828 


1493 


1567 


1627 


1693 


1761 


J 809 


1480 


1535 


178f 




174.4 


1833 


1763 


1813 



1752 

1761 

1768 

f. B. 0. 160 

1695 

1740 
1756 
1777 
1752 
1797 
1771 
1672 
1727 
1745 
1775 
1761 
1778 
f. B. c. 1243 



N 



Pers. Nadir Shah, or Thamas Kouli Khan, a warrior and king 

Scotch. Napier, John, baron, inventor of logarithms 

Fr. Napoleon I., (Bonaparte,) ... 

Pers, Narses, a warrior, in the service of Justinian I., the emperor 

Dutch. Nassau, prince Maurice of, an able general 



1688 1747 

1550 1617 

1769 1821 

507 
1567 162£ 



680 



T.rCE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Pers. Nassir Eddyn, a celebrated astronomer 

Eng. Neal, Daniel, author of History of tiie Puritans, &c. 

Ger. Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian . . 

Fr. Necker, James, an eminent financier and statesman 

Eng. Neele, Henry, a poet and miscellaneous writer . • m • 

Eng. Nelson, Horatio, viscount, a celebrated admiral 

Rom. Nepos, Cornelius, an historian .... 

Russ. Nesselrode, count Charles R., statesman and diplomatist 

Ger. Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c. 

Eng. Newton, Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers 

Eng. Newton, Thomas, a learned prelate .... 

Eng. Newton, .John, a Calvinistic divine and writer 

Fr. Ney, Michael, marshal, " the bravest of the brave" 

Eng. Nicholson, William, a writer on natural philosophy and chemistry , 

Eng. Nicholson, Peter, architect and practical mechanic 

Amer. Nicklin, P. H., bookseller and miscellaneous writer 

Ger. Nicolai, Chris. Fred., a bookseller and author 

Ger. Niebuhr, Garsten, a celebrated traveller " . 

Ger. Niebuhr, B. G., a statesman and historian 

Pol. Niemcevvicz Jidius U., mil. com. and author . 

Swe. Nilston, Sven, zoologist .... 

JFr. Nodier, Charles, novelist ..... 

Eng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman 

Eng. North, Frederick, lord, prime minister of Geo. III. 

Eng. Northcote, .lames, artist and biographer 

Eng. Nott, John, a poet and translator .... 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1201 


1274 


1678 


1743 


1789 


1850 


1732 


1804 


1798 


1828 


1758 


1805 


B.C. 30 


1755 




1782 




1642 


1727 


1704 


1782 


1725 


1807 


1769 


1815 


1753 


1815 


1786 


1842 


1733 


3811 


1733 


1815 


1776 


1830 


1756 


1841 


1787 




17a3 




1797 




1732 


Z792 


1746 


1837 


1751 


1826 



o 



Eng. Gates, Titus, the infamous pretender of the " Popish Plot" . 

Eng. Ockley, Simon, an orientalist 

Arab. Odenatus, a warrior, the husband of Zenobia 

Fr. Odillon-Barrot C. H., statesman 

Ger. Oken, Louis, naturalist ..... 

Ger. Olbers, H. W. M., astronomer 

Eng. Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and education 

Gr. Oppian, a poet ..... 

Dutch. Orange, William of Nassau, prince of, the founder of the Dtitch i 

Span. Orfila, M. J. B., chemist and toxicologist 

Dutch. Origen, one of the fathers of the church 

Enff. Orme, Robert, an historian .... 

Eng. Ormond, James Butler, duke of, a statesman 

Gr. Orpheus, a poet, sometimes styled " the father of poetiy" 

Port. Osorio, Jerome, a philosopher, historian, and theological writer 

Amer. Otis, James, a patriot and statesman 

Amer. Otis, Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist 

Eng. Otway, Thomas, a celebrated dramatist 

Fr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France 

Rom. Ovid, Publius Naso, a poet 

Eng. Owen, John, an eminent divine 



publ 



1619 


1705 


1678 


1720 




267 


1791 




1758 






I8i0 


1771 




f. 150 




ic 1533 


1584 


1787 




185 


253 


1728 


1801 


1610 


1688 


1506 


1580 


1725 


1772 


1767 


1848 


1651 


1685 


1767 




B. c. 43 


17 


1765 


1822 



Eng. Paine, Thomas, a political and deistical writer 

Ven. Paez, military commander, and president of Venezuela 

Ital. Paganini, Nicolo, a famous violinist 

Eng. ■ Paley, William, an eminent divine and author . 

Fr. Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, a satirist 

Pruss. Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist 
Paoli, Pascal, a Corsican patriot and general 

Can. Papineau, L. J., politician and " patriot" 

Rom. Papinian, jEmilius, a civil lawyer 

Swiss. Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de H., an alchemist 

Eng. Paris, Matthew, an historian 

Scotch. Park, Mungo, a celebrated traveller 

Eng. Parkes, Samuel, a chemist and author 

Ital. Parma, Alexander Farnese, duke of, a warrior 

Eng. Parry, captain Edward, arctic navigator 

Fr. Pascal, Blaize, eminent as a geometrician and writer 

Pruss. Paskewitch, Ivan F., prince and military commander 



1736 


1809 


1787 




1784 


1835 


1745 


1805 


1730 


1815 


1741 


1811 


1726 


1807 


1789 




145 


212 


1493 


1541 




1259 


1771 


1804 


1759 


1825 




1592 


1790 




16:33 


1662 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



G81 



MATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Pasquier, Etienne D., couiu, chancellor or France 

Ger. Passow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicographer 

Rom. Paterculus, Caius Velleius, an historian 

Gr. Pausanias, a topographical writer 

Port. Pedro, don, claimant of the throne of Portugal . 

Eng. Peel, sir Robert, statesman 

Brit. Pelagius, a monk, founder of a sect 

Ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot 

Gr. Pelopidas, an illustrious Theban general 

Eng. Penn, William, the founder and legislator of Pennsylvania 

Fr. Perefixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian . 

Gr. Pericles, an able Athenian orator and statesman 

Fr Perrier, M. Casimir, a statesman 

Fr. Perouse, John F. Galaup, tie la, a navigator 

Rom,. Persius Flaccus, Aulus, a satirist 

Swiss. Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education 

Fr. Peter the Hermit, the first mover of the Crusades 

Russ Peter I., the Great, a warrior and statesman 

Eng. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of, a warrior 
Petion, Alexander, a mulatto, president of Hayti 

Ital. Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets 

Fr. Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. and historian 

Rom. Phcedrus, a fabulist ..... 
Philip II., king of Macedon, a warrior 

Eng. Phillips, sir Richard, bookseller and compiler . 

Gr. Philoposmen, a celebrated general 

Gr. Phocion, an eminent Athenian 

Photius, a learned patriarch of Constantinople 

Amer. Physic, Philip Syng, M. D. . 

Fr. Picard, Louis Benedict, a dramatist and novelist 

Fr. Pichegru, Charles, an eminent general 

Amer. Pickering, Timothy, a distinguished statesman 

Amer. Pickering, John, philologist .... 

Gr. Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets 

Scotch. Pinkerton, John, a fertile and eccentric author • 

Amer. Pinckney, William, a distinguished orator and diplomatist 

Span. Pinzon, Vincent Yanez, a navigator, discovered Brazil . 

Fr. Piron, Alexis, a poet, dramatist, and wit 

Gr. Pisistratus, sovereign of Athens 

Amer. Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician 

Eng. Pitt, Christopher, a poet and translator 

Eng. Pitt, William, a celebrated statesman 

Gr. Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages 

Span. Pizarro Francis, the conqueror of Peru 

Gr. Plato, an illustrious philosopher — founder of the academic sect 

Rom. Plautus, a comic poet ..... 

Scotch. Playfair, John, an eminent mathematician and natural philosophei 

Rom. Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of Natural History 

Rom. Pliny, the younger, a warrior and author . 

Egypt. Plotinus, a Platonic philosopher 

Gr. Plutarch, a celebrated biographer 

Fr. Poisson, D. S., mathematician 

Eng. Pole, Reginald, a cardinal and statesman . 

Fr. Polignaa Melchior de, a cardinal and statesman 

Fr. Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charles X. 

Amer. Polk, James K., president of the United States 

Ital. Polo, Mark, a celebrated Venetian traveller 

Gr. Polybius, an eminent historian 

Rom. Pompey, Cneus, a statesman and warrior . 

Pol. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, an able general 

Eng. Pool, Matthew, an able divine and author . 

Eng. Pope, Alexander, a celebrated poet 
Porphyry, a Platonic philosopher 

Eng. Porson, Richard, an eminent hellenist and critic 

Ital. Porta, John Baptist, a natural philosopher 

Eng. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist .... 

Eng. Porter, sir Robert Ker, author of travels, &c. 

Eng. Porter, Jane, novelist .... 

Eng. Porteus, Beilby, an eminent prelate 

Eng. Potter, Robert, a divine, poet, and translator 

Russ. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist 

Eng. Prideaux, Humphry, a learned divine 

29* 



BORN. 

1767 

1786 

about B. c. 20 

f. about 120 



1788 
354 
1789 

1644 
160.5 
B. c. 490 
1777 
1741 
34 
1745 



DIED. 

1833 



1834 
1850 



1672 

1658 
1770 
1304 
1778 
f. 30 
B. c. 383 

B. c. 253 
B. c. 400 

1768 
1769 
1761 
1746 
1772 
B. C. 522 
1758 
1765 
f. 1500 
1689 

1765 

1699 

1759 

B.C. 650 

1475 

B. c. 430 

B. c. 227 

1749 

23 

61 

203 

50 

1781 

1500 

1611 

1780 

1795 

1250 

B. c. 205 

B.C. 106 

1763 

1624 

1688 

233 

1759 

1540 

1780 
1776 
1731 
1721 
1768 
1648 



B. c. 364 
1718 
1670 

B. c. 429 
1832 
178S 
62 
1827 
1115 
1725 
1735 
1818 
1374 



s o. J36 

B.C. 183 

B. c. 318 

891 

1837 

1824 

1804 

1829 

1846 

B c. 442 

1826 

1822 

1773 

B. c. 527 

1847 

1748 

1806 

B. c. 570 

1541 

B.C. 347 

B.C. 184 

1819 

79 

115 

270 

120 

1558 
1741 

1849 
1523 
B.C. 123 
B. c. 48 
1814 
1379 
1744 
304 
1808 
1616 
1832 
1842 
1850 
1808 
1804 
1842 
1724 



682 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

EnR. Priestley, Joseph, an eminent philosopher and writer 

Prior. Matthew, a poet and statesman . 

Proclus, a Platonic philosopher .... 

Procopius, an historian .... 

Propertius. Sextus Aurelius, a poet 
Egypt Ptolemy, Claudius, an eminent astronomer and geographer 
Ger. Puckler-Muskau, H. L. H., prince of, author of travels, &c., 

Puffendorf, Samuel, a publicist and historian 

Pulci, Louis, a poet ..... 

Putnam, Israel, a distinguished officer in the revolution 

Pyrrho, a philosopher, founder of the Skeptic sect . 

Pyttiagoras, a celebrated philosopher . 



Eng. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Rom 



Ger. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Gr. 





BORN. 




DIED. 




1733 




1804 




1664 




1721 




410 




487 




410 




487 


B 


c. 52 

70 
1785 


B 


c. 12 




1632 




1694 




1432 




14S7 




1718 




1790 


f. B 


c. 300 






B 


c. 586 


B. 


c. 497 



Fr. ftuatremere, E. M., orientalist 

Belg. Q.uetelet, L. A., mathematician and statisticiaa 

Span. Quevedo De Villegas, Francis, a poet 

Fr. Quinault, Philip, a lyrical dramatist . 

Fr. Cluinet, Edgar, literateur 

Span. Quintana, M. J. poet 

Rom. Quintilian, Marcus Fabius, a celebrated orator 



1782 




f796 




1580 


1645 


1635 


1668 


1772 




42 


122 



B. 



Fr. Racine, John, an eminent dramatist 

Eng. Radclilfe, Anne, a celebrated romance writer 

Dan. Rafn, C. C, historian and antiquary 

Amer. Raguet, Condy, political economist 

Eng. Raleigh, or Ralegh, sir Walter, " a man illustrious in arms and literature" 

Hind. Rammohun, Roy. philanthropist 

Scotch. Ramsay, Allan, a poet ..... 

Amer. Ramsay, David, an historian .... 

Amer. Randolph, Peyton, first president of Congress 

Amer. Randolph, John, eccentric statesman . " . . 

Pruss. Ranke, Leopold, historian .... 

Fr. Raoul, Rochette, archaeologist and traveller . 

Dan. Rask, E. C, philologist and lexicographer . . . 

Fr. Raspail, F. V., chernist and radical statesman . 

Prass. Rauch, metaphysician ..... 

Pruss. Raumer, Frederick Von, liistorian and traveller 

Amer. Rawie, William, jurist ..... 

Eng. Ray, John, a naturalist and author 

Fr. Raynal. William Thomas Francis, an historian and philosopher 

Eng. Reed, Isaac, a critic and editor 

Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopedia, &c. 

Eng. Reeve, Clara, a novelist .... 

Fr. Regnard, John Francis, a comic writer 

Scotch. Reid, Thomas, a celebrated metaphysician 

Fr. Remusat, J. P. A., historian and linguist . 

Eng. Remiie, ,Iohn, an eminent engineer 

Fr. Retz, John F. P. de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis XV. 

Eng. Ricaut, sir Paul, a traveller and historian 

Eng. Richardson, Samuel, an eminent novelist . 

Fr. Richelieu, A. J. du Plessis, cardinal and duke, a statesman 

Ger. Richter, John Paul Frederick, a novelist, &c. 

Span. Riego Y Nunez, Raphael de, a patriot 

Ital. Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, a political reformer 

Amer. Rittenhouse, David, a philosopher and astronomer 

Ger. Ritter, Aug. H., history of philosophy 

Ger. Ritter, Charles, Geographer .... 

Eng. Robertson, William, a celebrated historian 

Fr. Robespierre, F. M. J. I., the " terrorist" of the Revolution 

Fr. Rochelbucauld, Liancourt, F. A. F , duke de la . 

Fr. Rochej iquelin, H. de la, a royalist leader 

Amer. Rodgex-s, John, commodore in llie American navy 

Eng. Rodney, George Brydges, lord, an able admiral 

Eng. Rogers, Samuel, poet ..... 

Fr. RoTand de la Platriere, J. M., a revolutionist and author . 

Fr. KoUin, Charles, a celebrated historian 



leb^ 


1699 


1764 


1823 


1795 




1784 


1842 


1552 


1618 


1776 


1&33 


1685 


1758 


1749 


1812 


1723 


1775 


1773 


1833 


1795 




1790 




1784 


1832 


1794 




1759 


1830 


1628 


1705 


1713 


1796 


1742 


1807 


1743 


1825 


1723 


1S03 


1647 


1709 


1710 


1796 


1788 


1832 


1761 


1821 


1614 


1679 




1700 


1689 


1761 


1585 




1763 


1825 


1783 


1825 




1354 


1731 
1791 


1796 


1779 
1721 


1793 


1759 


1794 


1747 


1827 


1773 


1794 


1771 


1838 


1717 


1792 


1733 


1793 


1661 


1741 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



683 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Romaine, William, a divine and author 

Rom. Romulus, the founder and first king of Rome 

Eng. Rooke, sir George, an admiral 

Rom. Roscius, Q.uintus, an actor of proverbial talent 

Eng. Roscoe, William, a biographer and miscellaneous writer 

ital. Rosellini, Ippolito, author of " Monuments of Egypt," &c. 

Ger. RosenmUUer, E.F.C., orientalist 

Fr. Rosseau, John Baptist, a poet 

Fr. Rosseau, Johp James, an eloquent and paradoxical writer 

Ital. Rossini, musical composer 

Ger. Rotteck, historian ..... 

Eng. Rowe, Nicholas, a poet and dramatist 

Amer. Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, count, an officer (in foreign service) and 

philosopher ..... 

Ger. Rupert, prince, a warrior 

Amer. Rush, Benjamin, an eminent physician and author . 

Eng. Riissel, lord William, one of the martyrs of liberty 

Eng. Russel, Lady Rachel (wife of the last), author of '' Letters" 

Eng. Russell, William, an historian . . 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1714 


1795 




B. 0. 716 


1650 


1708 




B.C. 61 


1751 


1831 


1800 




1768 


1835 


1670 


1741 


1712 


1778 


1792 




1775 


1840 


1673 


1718 


1753 


1814 


1619 


1682 


1745 


J813 


1641 


i683 




1723 


1746 


1794 



s 



Fr. 
Pers. 

Ital. 
Eng. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Pruss. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Swe. 

Ger. 

Pruss. 

Gei-. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Scotch, 

Fr. 



Sacy, Sylvester, baron de, orientalist , 

Sadi, orSaadi, a poet .... 

Saint Real, Cssar Vichard, abbe de, an historian 

Saint Vincent, Jolm Jervis, earl of, admiral . 

Saladin, Sultan of Egypt and Syria, a celebrated warrior 

Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, a statesman 

Sail ust, Caius Crispus, an historian 

Salmasius, Claudius, a scholar and author 

Salvandy, N. A., comte de, statesman . 

Salverte, miscellaneous writer 

Sand-, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist 

Sanderson, John, Uterateur . . , 

Sands, R. C, poet and Uterateur 

Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, naval officer 

Sanson, Nicholas, a geographer and engineer 

Sappho, a poetess . . . . 

Sarpi, Peter, known as father Paul, a patriot and historian 

Saurin, James, a divine and sermon writer 

Savigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law . 

Saxe, Maurice, c.ount de, a celebrated' general in the French service 

Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, a warrior 

Say, Thomas, naturalist .... 

Scaliger, Julius Cffisar, a learned critic 

Scandenberg (real name George Castriot), an Albanian prince and 

Scapula, John, a lexicographer . . . 

Scheele, Charles William, an eminent chemist . 

Schelling, F. W. J. von, metaphysician 

Schill, Ferdinand Von, an intrepid and patriotic officer . 

Schiller, John Frederic C, an eminent historian and dramatist 

Schlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist 

Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian . 

Schlosser, M. S. F., historian 

Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, an historian 

Scholl, historian ..... 

Schomberg, Armand Frederick, a warrior 

Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist 

Sclirevelius, Cornelius, a lexicographer . . 

Schulembourg, John Matthias, a warrior 

Schumacher, H. C, astronomer .... 

St\VL\t.z,C. G., exilic anAliterateur . . , 

Schuyler, Philip, an officer in the revolution 

Scioppius, Caspar, a philologist and grammarian 

Scipio, Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus, an able warrior 

Scipio, .aEmilianus Publius, an able warrior 

Scott, Michael, a philosopher — supposed magician . 

Scott, Thomas, a divine, and biblical commentator 

Scott, sir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous, and popwlar wri 

ters of modern times .... 

Scribe, A. E., dramatist .... 



1758 


1838 


, 


1296 


639 


1693 


1734 


1823 


1137 


1193 


3550 


1612 


f. B. C. 86 B. 


C. 35 


1588 


1653 


1795 




1771 


1839 


1804 




1785 


1844 


1790 


1832 


1623 


1672 


1600 


1667 


i. B. 0. 606 




1552 


1623 


1677 


1730 


1779 




e 1696 


1750 


1600 


1639 


1737 


1834 


1484 


1558 


warrior 1404 


1467 




1600 


. ■ 1742 


1786 


1775 




1773 


1809 


1759 


1805 


1767 


1845 


1768 


18.34 


1776 




1736 


1794 


1765 


1833 


. 1619 


1690 


1770 


1838 


1615 


1667 


1661 


1747 


1780 




1747 




1731 


1804 


1576 


1649 


B 


c. 189 


3. 


0. 128 




1291 


. * 1747 


1821 


lar wri- 




1771 


1832 


1791 





684 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Sebastiaiii, marshal of France, Statesman 

Eng. Seeker, Thomas, an eminent prelate 

Amer. Sedgwick, Theodore, statesman and political economist 

Fr. Segur, count Louis de, a diplomatist and writer 

Tr. Segur, P. P. de, historian 

Rom. Seneca, Lucius Anneeus, a celebrated philosopher, statesman, and moralist, 

Ger. Sennefelder, inventor oflilhography 

Span. Sepulveda, John Ginez de, an historian 

Rom. Sertorius, Quintus, a warrior ; 

Fr. Sevigne, Mary de, marchioness of, an epistolary writer 

Eng. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, eajl of, a statesman 

feng. Shakspeate, William, the greatest of tiramatic poets 

Eng. Sharpe, Granville, a ishilanthropist 

Eng, Shaw, George, a naturalist 

Eng. Shelley, Percy Bysshe. an eminent poet and atheist . 

Eng. Shenstone, William, a'poet . 

Eng. Sheridan, Thomas, an actor and author 

Eng. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, a dramatist and orator 

Eng. Sherlock, Thomas, a prelate 

Amer. Sherman, Roger, a patriot and self-taught statesman 

Eng. Shovel, sir Cloudesley, an able naval officer 

Eng. Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses 

Eng. Sidmouth, viscount (H. Addington), statesman 

Eng. Sidney, sir Philip, an accomplished officer and author 

Eng. Sidney, Algernon, a martyr of liberty and an author 

Ger. Siebold, Ph. F. Von, botanist and naturalist 

Eng. Simpson, Thomas, a mathematician 

Eng. Simpson, Robert, mathematician . 

Hind. Sing, M. rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashemire 

Swiss. Sisraondi, .i. C. L, Ustorian . 

Ger. Sleidan, John Philipson, an historian 

Eng. Sloane, sir Hans, an eminent naturalist 

Eng. Smart,Christopher, a poet and translator 

Eng. Smeaton, John, an eminent civil engineer . 

Scotch. Smellie, William, a naturalist 

Eng. Smith, William, a divine and translator 

Scotch. Smith, Adam, a celebrated writer on morals and political 

Eng. Smith, Charlotte, a poetess 

Eng. Smith, sir James E., botanist and naturalist 

Amer. Smith, general Samuel, military commander and statesman 

Eng. Smith, rev. Sidney, essayist, critic, and moralist 

Erig. Smith, sir William Sydney, military commander 

Eng. Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institution, 

Eng. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, a novelist and historian 

Pol. Sobieski, John IIL, king of Poland, a warrior 

Ital. Socinus, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect 

Gr. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers 

Gr. Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens 

Gr. Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet 

Fr. Soulie, M. F., novelist 

Fr. Soult, marshal of France, and statesman 

Eng. South, Robert, an eminent divine .... 

Amer. Southard, Samuel L., secretary of the navy and senator of U. S., N. J. 

Eng. Southcott, Joanna, a fanatic (her sect not yet extinct) 

Eng. Southey, Robert, poet, historian, biographer 

Eng. Spenser, Edmund, an eminent poet 

Eng. Spencer, earl of, statesman 

Amer. Spencer, Ambrose, chief justice of New York 

Span. Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, a warrior 

Ger. Spurzheim, Dr., a celebrated phrenologist (died at Boston) 

Fr. Stael, Madame de, a talented writer 

Eng. Stackhouse, Thomas, a diVine and author . 

Fr. Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, an authoress 

Eng. Stanhope, Charles, earl, a politician and inventor 

Eng. Starahope, lady Hester, eccentric traveller 

Anier. Stark, John, a distinguished officer in the revolution 

Itish. Steel, sir Richard, an essayist and dramatist 

Irish. Sterne, Lawrence, a miscellaneous writef . 

Pruss. Steuben, Fred. W. A., baron, who generously aided the American cause 

Scotch. Stewart, Dugald, an eminent philosopher and writer 

Amer. Stone, Wm. L., historian of " Six Nations," " Brandt," and " Redjacket' 

Russ. Storch, Henry F., political economist .... 



economy 



United States 



BORN. 

1775 
1693 
1780 
1753 

B.C. 2 

1490 

1627 
1621 
1564 
1734 
1751 
1792 
1714 
1721 
1751 
1678 
1721 
1650 
17.55 
1757 
1554 
1620 
1796 
1710 
1687 
1779 
1773 
1506 
1660 
1722 
1724 
1740 
1711 
1723 
1749 
175"9 
1752 
1768 
1764 

1721 
1629 
1539 
, c. 470 
c. 598 
0. 495 
1800 
1769 
1638 
1787 
1750 
1775 
1553 
1758 
1765 
1571 
1776 
1693 
1680 
1766 
1753 
1776 
1728 
1671 
1713 

1753 

' 1793 

1766 



1768 
1839 
1830 

65 
1S34 
1572 
B.C. 73 
1696 
1683 
161'3 
1813 
1813 
1822 
1763 
1788 
1816 
1761 
1793 
1705 
1831 
1844 
1580 
16S3 

1761 
1768 
1839 
1842 
1556 
1752 
1770 
1792 
1795 
1787 
1790 
1806 
1828 
1839 
1845 
1840 
1835 
1771 
1696 
1594 
B.C. 400 

404 



1842 
1814 
1843 
1598 
1835 
1848 
1630 
ia32 
1750 
1752 
1817 
1816 
1839 
1822 
1729 
1763 
1764 
1828 
1844 
1835 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



685 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence 

Eng. Stowell, lord, jurist .... 

Gr. Strabo, an eminent geographer 

Eng. StralTord, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, a statesman . 

Ger. Strauss, David F., author of skeptical " Life of Christ" 

Eng. Stuart, James, an architect and author 

Scotch. Stuart, Gilbert, an historian 



Fr. 

Fr. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Dan. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Russ. 

Swe. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Rom. 



Suchet, Louis Gabriel, a celebrated marshal 

Sue, Eugene, novelist .... 

Suetonius, Tranquillus Caius, an historian 

Suetonius, Paulinus, a warrior 

Suhm, Peter Frederick, an eminent historian 

Suidas, a Greek lexicographer 

Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, a warrior and statesman 

Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, a poet 

Suvaroff, or Suwarrow, prince Alexander, a celebrated and cruel 

Swedenborg, Emanuel, iounder of a sect 

Swift, Jonathan, a celebrated satirist 

Sydenham, C. W. Poulett, lord, governor-general of Canada, &c. 

Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, a warrior, and a brutal usurper 



BORN. 

1779 

1746 

19 

1593 

1808 

1713 

1742 

1772 

1804 

f. 100 

37 

1728 

f. about 1000 

1560 

1515 

warrior 1730 

1689 

1667 

1793 

c. 137 



DIED. 

1845 
1836 

1C4] 

1788 
1786 
182(5 



1793 

1641 
15-17 
ISOtl 
1772 
1745 
1841 
B.C. 78 



T 



Rom. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Swiss 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Dan. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Hind. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

■tins. 

Ei:^. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

W. Ind 

Fr. 

Rom. 



Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, an eminent historian . . .56 

Talleyrand, prince, statesman and diplomatist . . 1754 

Talma, Francis J o.seph, one of the greatest of actors . . 1763 

Tamerlane, Timur Beg, or Timour, a celebrated Tartar prince and conqueror 1336 
Tasso, Bernardo, a poet — author of Amadis de Gaul . . 1493 

Tasso, Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets . . 1544 

Tauchnitz, Karl, an eminent publisher at Leipsic 

Taylor, Jeremy, a prelate and eloquent writer . . . 1613 

Taylor, Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . . . 1758 

Taylor, Zachary, maj.-gen. U. S. army, victor in Mexico, president of U. S. 1784 



Telford, Thomas, civil engineer 

Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty 

Temple, sir William, a statesman and writer 

Tenterden, Charles Abbott, lord, jurist, chief justice, K. B. 

Tennyson, Alfred, poet ..... 

Terence, or Terrentius, a comic writer . . . b. 

Tertullian, Q,. S. F., one of the most learned of the fathei's of the churcli 

Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture 



1757 



1628 
1762 



1.35 
1838 
1826 
1405 
1569 
1595 
1836 
1667 
1835 
1850 
1834 
1354 
1698 
1832 



192 
160 
1752 



Thales, one of the seven sages — founder of the Ionic school of philosophy, b. c. 639 b 



Themistocles, an illustrious Athenian 

Thenard, chemist and statesman ..... 
Theocritus, a pastoral poet . . . . . f. e. c. 285 

Theodosius, Flavius, a Roman emperor and warrior . . 346 

Theophrastus, a celebrated philosoJDher . . . .b. c. 371 

Thespis, a poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy . . b. c. 576 

Thibaudeau, A. C, count, historian .... 
Thierry, Jacques N. A., historian . . . . 1795 

Thiers, Adolphe, hisi jrian and statesman . . . 1797 

Thiersch, F. W., Gree^ philologist, &c. . . . . 1784 

Thomson, James, a popular poet .... 1700 

Thomson, Dr. Thomas, chemist . . . - . 

Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor .... 1771 

Thucydides, an historian . . . . b. c. 469 

Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, a warrior and emperor . b. c. 34 

TibuUus, Aulus Albius, an elegiac poet . . , f. b. c. 30 

Tieck, Louis, a poet and novelist .... 1773 

Tillotson, John, an eminent prelate .... 1630 

Tippoo Saib, Sultan of Mysore, India, a warrior . . 1739 

Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavius, an emperor, the father of his people 40 
Tomline, George, a prelate and writer .... 1750 
Tompkins, Daniell)., vice-president of the United States . 1774 

Tooke, John Home, a politician and philologist . . , 1736 

Tooke, William, a miscellaneous writer . . . 1744 

Toplady, Augustus M., an eminent divine .... 1740 
Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist . . 1783 

Toussaint rOuverlure, negro president of Hayti . .. . 1745 

Tracy, A. L. C. D., comte de, Writer on education and philosophy 1754 

Trajan, Marcus U. C, an able emperor and warrior . . 52 



245 

1828 

543 

B. c. 535 B. c. 470 



395 



1748 

1844 

B. c. 400 

37 



1694 
1799 
81 
1787 
1825 
1812 
1820 
1778 
1S40 
1803 
ia36 
117 



686 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Pruss. Trenck, Frederick, baron de, celebrated for his adventures 

Dutch. Tromp, Martin H., a celebrated admiral 

Amer. Trumbull, .lonathan, a statesman 

Amer. Trumbullj John, a poet ; born in Connecticut 

Araer. Trumbull, col. .John, statesman and historical painter 

Eng. Tucker, Abraham, a metaphysical writer 

Fr. Turenne, Viscount de, an eminent warrior 

Fr, Turgot, Anne Robert James, a statesman 

Eng. Tyrrell, James, an historian .... 

Gr. Tyrtffius. a poet 

Scotch. Tytler, William, an historical and miscellaneous writer 

Scotch. Tytler, Alexander Fraser, an historical and miscellaneous writer 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1726 


1794 


1597 


1653 




1809 


1750 


1831 


175G 


1S13 


1705 


1774 


1611 


1675 


1727 


1781 


1642 


1718 


171 1 


\7'.i:i 


1747 


isi.; 



u 



Span. 
Irish. 



Ulloa, don Anthony de, a navigator and author 
Usher, James, a learned divine and historian 



1716 

1580 



nor- 

1656 



Fr. Vaillant, Sebastian, an eminent botanist 

Dutch. Valckenaer, I.ouis Caspar, an able philologist and critic 

Fr. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses, f. in 12th century. 

Rom. Valerius Maximus, an historian . . . . f. 

Iial. Valla, Laurence, an eininent philologist 

Eng. Vancouver. George, a navigator 

Ens. Vane, Sir Henry, an advocate of republicanism 

Rom. Varro, Marcus T., " the most learned of the Romans" 

Ger. Vater, John Severinus, an eminent philologist 

Fr. Vauban, S. le P. de, marshal, a military engineer 

Fr. Vendome, Louis Joseph, duke of, a warrior 

Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter 

Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral .... 

Fr. Vertot, Rene Hubert, abbe de, an historian 

Rom. Vespasian, Titus Flavins, a warrior and emperor 

Ital. Vespucius Americus, a navigator whose name was unjustly given to the 

new world ..... 

Eng. Victoria Alesandrina, queen of Great Britain 

Ital. Vida, Mark Jerome, a Latin poet 

Fr. Villars, Louis Hector, duke of, an able general 

Fr. Villemain, minister of public instruction, and historian . 

Eng. Vince, Samuel, an eminent mathematician 

Rom. Virgil, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of the Roman poetf 

Fr. Volney, count de, a celebrated writer 

Fr. Voltaire, Francis iMarie Arouet de, a celebrated poet, philos., and historian 



1609 


1722 


1715 


1785 


30 




1406 


1457 


17.50 


1798 


1612 


1662 


116 


B.C. 27 


1771 


1826 


1633 


17U7 


1654 


1712 


1789 




1684 


1759 


1655 


1735 




79 


1451 


1516 


1819 




1490 


1566 


1653 


1734 


1791 






1821 


. 70 


B !. 19 


17-57 


1820 


1694 


1778 



w 

Eng. Wakefield, Gi .?rt, a scholar and critic 

Eng. Walker, John, a lexicographer 

Scotch. Wallace, William, a patriot and hero 

Ger. Wallenstein, A. V. E., a celebrated general 

Eng. Waller, sir William, a parliamentary general 

Eng. Waller', Edmund, an elegant poet 

Eng. Walpole, Robert, earl of'Oi ford, a statesman 

Eng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Orford, an author 

Eng. Walsingham, sir Francis, a statesman 

Eng. Walton Izaak, an angler and biographer 

Eng. Walton, Brian, a divine and orientalist 

Eng. Warburton, William, an eminent prelate and writer 

Amer. Ward, Artemas, an officer in the revolution . 

Eng. Warren, sir John Borlase, a naval officer 

Eng. Warton. Joseph, a poet and critic .... 

Eng. Warton, Thomas, poet and critic 

Anier. Washington, George, the father of his country 

Amer. Washington, Bushrod, justice of Supreme Court of the United Slato; 

Scotch. Watson, Robert, an historian .... 

Cng. Watson, Richard, an eminent prelate and writer 

Scotch. Watt, James, a celebrated natural philosopher and engineer 



1756 


1801 


1732 


1807 


1276 


1305 


1583 


1634 


1597 


166S 


1603 


1687 


1676 


1745 


1718 


1797 


1536 


1590 


1593 


16S3 


1600 


1661 


1698 


1779 


1748 


ISIW 


1754 


1822 


1722 


ison 


1728 


1790 


1732 


1799 


1759 


lts29 


1730 


1780 


1737 


1816 


1736 


1819 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



687 



NA riON NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 

Scoirh. Watt, Robert, a bibliographer ..... 1774 

Eng. Walts, Dr. Isaac, a divine, poet, and miscellaneous writer . 1674 

Ger. Weber, Carl Maria Von, an eminent composer . . . 1786 

Amer. Webster, No;ili, author of English Dictionary . . . 175S 

Irish. Wellesley. marquis of, gov.-gen. ol'India and lord lieutenant of Ireland 1760 

Irish. Wellington, duke of, military commander and statesman . . 1769 

Eng. Wells, Edward, a theologian and scholar .... 166.3 

Ger. Werner, Abraham Theophilus, a mineralogist . . . 1750 

Ger. Werner, Fred. L. Z., a poet and dramatist .... 1763 

Eng. Wesley, .lohn, the founder of the Meihodist Society . . 170.3 

Eng. Westall, Richard, historical painter .... 176.5 

Amer. Wheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator . 17S5 

Eng. Whislon, William, a divine, mathematician, and translator . . 1667 

Eng. Whiiby, David, a learned divine .... 1638 

Eng. White, Henry Kirke, a poet ..... 178.5 

Anier White, William, one of the two first bi.^hops of the P. E. church in U. S. 1747 

Eng. Whitefield, George, founder of the Calvinistic Methodists . . 1714 

Eng. Wicklitfe, or Wiclif, John, the morning star of the reformation . 1324 

Ger. Wieland, Christopher M.. an able. and fertile writer . . 1733 

Eng. Wiffen, J. H., poet and historian .... 1792 

Eng. Wilberforce, William, statesman and philanthropist . . 1750 

Anier. Wilde, Richard Henry, a poet and liternleur . . . 1789 

Eng. Wilkes, .John, a celebrated political character . . . 1717 

Scotch. Wilkie, sir David, historical painter .... 1785 

Eng. Wilkins, sir Charles, oriental philologist .... 

Eng. Wilkinson, sir . I. G., historian of Egypt and archBeologisl 

Eng. Williains, Helen Maria, a miscellaneous writer . . . 1762 

Anier. Williamson, Hugli, physician and historian of North Carolina . 1735 

Amer. Wilson, Alexander, a celebrated naturalist . . . 1766 

Eng. Windham, William, a statesman . . . . 1750 

Amer. Wirt, William, attorney-general of the United States, and biographer . 1772 

Amer. Wistar, Caspar, an eminent physician and anatomist . . 1761 

Amer. Witherspoon, John, an able divine and patriot . . . 1722 

Amer. Wolcott, Oliver, a patriot — signer of the Declaration of Independence 1727 

Eng. Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, a poet . . , 1733 

Eng. Wolfe, James, a distinguished general . . . 1726 

Ger. Wolff", John Christian, a philosopher and matliematician . . 1679 

Eng. WoUaston. William Hyde, an experimental philosopher . 1766 

Eng. Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, a celebrated statesman . . . 1471 

Eng. Wordsworth, William, poet ..... 1770 

Amer. Worth, W. J. major-general, United States army . . . 1794 

Eng. Wren, sir Christopher, a celebrated architect . . . 1632 

Aust. Wurmser, D. S., field-marShal, Austrian army . . . 1717 

Eng. Wyatt, sir Thomas, poet and statesman . . . 1503 

Eng. Wycherley, William, dramatic poet .... 1640 

Eng. Wykeham, M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanthropist 1324 

Amer. Wythe, George, an eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot 



DIED. 

1819 
1748 
1826 
1843 
1812 

1727 
1817 
1823 
1791 
1837 
1848 
1752 
1726 
1SU6 
1836 
1770 
13-S4 
1813 
18.36 
1830 
1847 
1797 
1841 
1836 

1827 
1819 
1813 
1810 
1835 
1818 
1794 
1797 
1818 
1759 
1754 
1828 
1530 
1850 
1849 
1723 
1797 
1540 
1715 
14ai 
1806 



Fr. Xavier, St. Francis, " Apostle to the Indies" 

Gr. Xenocrates, a philosopher .... 

Gr. Xenophenes, a philosopher — founder of the Eleatics 

Gr. Xenophon, a celebrated philosopher, historian, and general 

Span. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, an eminent statesman . 



1506 
. 406 



1552 
I. 314 



. 446 B.C. 360 
1457 1517 



Eng. Young, Edward, a poet and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Young, Arthur, an agricultural writer 

Eng. Y'oungi Thomas, a physician and philosopher 

Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, a leader in the modern Greek revolution 
S]ian Yriarte, don Thomas de, an eminent poet . 



1681 


1765 


1741 


1820 


1774 


1829 


1792 


1828 


1750 


1790 



Iial. Zaccaria, Francis A., a voluminous writer 

Gr. Zeno, of Elea, a philosopher . 

Gr. Zeno, the founder of the sect of Stoics 



1714 1795 

B.C. 463 
B. c. 362 B. c. 264 



688 



Tllb; WORLDS Plt.OGK.ESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. 

Ital. Zeno, Apostolo, an eminent writer .... 1B68 1750 

Zenobia, Septimia, qtieenof Palmyra, a conqueror, and patroness ofthe arts 300 

Swiss. Zimmerman, John George, a miscellaneous writer . . . 1728 1795 

Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist . , . 1743 1815 

Ger. Zinzendorf, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians . . . 1700 1760 

Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian . . . , . 1730 

Zoroaster, a famous Eastern philosopher .... 

Swiss. Zuinglius, Ulric, an enlightened reformer . ' . 1484 1531 



PAINTERS, ENGRAVERS, SCULPTORS, ETC. 

THE MOST EMINENT IN THEIR DEPARTMENTS. 



NATION. 

Gr. 



Gr. 
Gr. 



Iial. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

<.;r. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Flem. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Iial. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Flem. 

Do. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Dutch 

Dutch. 

Flem. 

Ital. 

Eng 

Ital. 

Ital 

Eng. 
Gr. 

Ital. 



NAME AND PROFESStON. 

Agailiarcus, the inventor of perspective scenery 
ni theatres .... Painter - 

Ageldas .... Sculptor 

Agesander (sculptor of "Laocoon and his Chil- 
dren ") - - • - Sculptor ■ 

Albano, Francis ("the painter of the d'ncfist ")Painter 



i. B. c. 5th cent. 



Alberii, Leo Baptist, a Florentine 

Alheninelli, Mariuito - 

Alcamenes (pufiil of Phidias) 

Allan, Sir William - - ■ - 

AUston, Washingtiin 

AiiErelo, MichaefdUionarotii), a pre-eminent 

Angelo, Michael (Caiaviiiiirlo) 



Pa. Sc. Sf Archil- 
Painter 

Sculptor f. B. 

Painter - 

Poet ^ Histor. Painter 
Pa. Sc. 4" Architect 
Painter 



Apelles, the most celehiaied of ancient painters Painter • f. B. 

Apollodorns, an Athenian - - - Pointer • f. B. 

Appiani, of Milan - - - Painter 

Arisiides, of Thebes - - - Painter - f. B. 

Audran, Gerard, a celebrated - • Histor. Engraver 

Baccio, Delia Porta (known as San Marco) - Painter 

Bacon, .Tohn .... Sculptor • 

Balen, Henry Van - - - - Painter 

Bandinelli, Baccio ... Sculptor - 

Banks, Thomas .... Sculptor 

Barry, James .... Painter ' 

Bartolini - - . - - Engraver 

Bartolomeo, Fra, di St. Marco - . Painter 

Baioni, Pompey . - - - Painter 

Beechy. Sir Wm. - - - Landscape Painter - 

Bella, Stepha--,o Delia, a Florentine - Engraver ' 

Berchem, Nicolas - - • Engraver 

Bird, Edward . . Painter 

Blake, William, .... Painter 4" Engraver 

Both, .lohn and Andrew - ■ Painters 

Bourdon, Sebastian - - - Painter Sp Engraver 

Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London) Painter - 

Boydell, John (a printseller, and lord mayor of 

London) . - - . Engraver 

Bramante D'Urbino, Francis L. (1st of St. Peter's 

Church) .... Architect 

Brontel, Francis - - - Painter- 

Brill, Maahew .... Painter 

Brtiges, John of, or John VanEyck - Painter 

Boonavotti, see Angelo. 

Burnett, James - - . - Landscape Painter 

Cagliari, Paul (known as Paul Veronese), a cele- 
brated ----- Painter - - - 1532 

Cagliari, Benedict, Carletto, and Gabriel, bro- 
thers and sons of Paul. 

Calcott, Sir A. W. - - . Landscape Painter 1779 

Callirnachus .... Sculptor ^ Architect i. a. 6. 5^0 

Cambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese - - Painter - 1527 



. c. 5th I 

1578 
1400 

c. 450 
1781 
1779 
1474 
1569 

c. 330 

c. 408 
1751 

c. 240 
1640 
1469 
1740 
1560 
1487 
1745 
1741 

1469 
1708 
1753 
1610 
1624 
1772 
1757 
1610 
1616 
1756 

1719 

1444 

f. 1635 

1550 

1370 

1788 



1660 
1490 
1520 

1850 
1843 
1563 
1609 



1817 

1703 
1517 
1799 
1632 
1559 
1805 
1805 

1517 
1787 
1893 
1684 
1689 
1819 
1826 
1650 & 56 
1671 
1811 

1804 

1514 

1584 
1441 

1816 

1588 



1844 
158S 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



689 



NATION 

Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 



Fr. 

Span. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Flem. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

En?. 
Gr." 

Dutcli, 

En?. 

Swiss 

Eng. 

lial. 

Ens. 

UhI 

It<il. 

Ual. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ual. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Canaletto, Anthony, a Venetian - 
Canova, Antonio, 
Caravaggio, see Angelo. 
Caracci Lodovico ^ - 

Agostino 

Annibale 

Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing 

ill Chiaro-oscuro — with three plates — to imi- 
tate drawings - - - - 
Casas, Louis JVancis - 
Castillo Y Saavedra, Anthony 
Cavendone, James 
Cellini, Benvenuto, a Florentine 
Champagne, Philip de - 
Chares - - . 
Cosway, Richard 
Chantry, sir Francis 
Chaudet, Anthony Denis 
Cimabue, Giovanni, a Florentine 
Claude Gele — called Claude Lorraine 
Cleomenes, an Athenian (TheMedicean Venus) 
Clevenger .... 
Cole, Tiiomas 

Collins, William ... - 

Constable, John 

Cooper, Samuel .... 
Copley, John Singleton (bom in Boston) - 
Corregio, Ant. (founder of the Lombard school) 
Cortona, Pietro da, a Tuscan 
Courtois, James (known as 11 Borgognone) 
Couston Nicholas (also his brother William) 
Cuyp, Jacob G., . 
Cuyp, Albert (son of above) 
Cuyp, Benjamin .... 
Daniel, Thomas 

Dannecker, John Henry — (Adriadne, &c.) 
David, James Louis, a celebrated 
David (Founder of recent French school) 
Delaroche, Paul 

Denner, Baithaser . - - 

Dinocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexan- 
dria, <fec.) .... 
Doici, Carlo - - . - 
Domenichino (excelled in expression) 
Donatello, or Donato, a Florentine 
Douw. Gerard .... 
Dubuffe .... 
Dufresnoy, Charles Alphonso 
Dunlap, William 
Durer, Albert (and author) 
Eberhardt .... 
Eginton, Francis (r(:Storer of the art of paint- 
ing on glass) .... 
Etty, William 

Eupompus (lounder of school at Sieyon) 
Eyck, John Van (said to have invented paint- 
ing in oil) .... 
Flaxman, John 

Fuseli, Henry (resided in England) - 
Gainsborough, Thomas ^ - 

Ghiberti, Laurence, a Florentine 
Gibson .... 

Giiirdani, Luke (The Proteus of painting) 
Giorgione, Barbarelli - 
Giotto (one oi the earliest modern) . 
Giraldon, Francis 
Girodet — TrlD^ori. Aime Louis 
Gniigon. Jnhii ('• The French Pliidias ") - 
Gueicino (real n;\\\w Franris Ilarbieri) 
Guiilo Kfui (excelled iji bt-auiy (if exjiression 
nn.l grace) . - - . 





BORN. 


DIED. 


Landscape Painter ■ 


1697 


1718 


Sculptor 


1757 


1822 


Painter 


1555 


1619 


Painter 


158S 


1601 


Painter 


1560 


1609 


About 1700 




. 


1846 




Painter Sf Architect - 


1756 


1827 


Painter - 


1603 


1667 


Fresco Painter 


1577 


1606 


Engraver ^ Sculptor 


1500 


1570 


Painter 


1604 


1674 


Painter f. s.c. 300 




Painter 


1740 


1826 


Sculptor { - 


1781 


1841 


Painter 


1763 


1810 


Painter 


1240 


1300 


Painter 


1600 


1682 


Sculptor - f. B. c 


. 180 




Sculptor 




1844 


Land. ^ Hist. Painter 


1802 


1848 


Land. Sf Fam. Life Pa. 


1788 




Painter 


1776 


1837 


Miniature Painter ■ 


1689 


1776 


Painter 


1737 


1815 


Painter 


1493 


1534 


Painter 


1596 


1669 


Painter 


1621 


1673 


Sculptor 


1658 


1731 


Landscape S^ Cattle Pa. 


1568 


1649 


Landscape Sr Cattle Pa. 


1606 


1667 


Historical Painter - 


1650 




Landscape Painter 




1840 


Sculptor t 


1758 


1841 


Painter 


1750 


1825 


Sculptor 


1780 




Historical Painter 






Portrait Painted- 


1685 


1747 


Architect - f. B. 


c. 330 




Scripture Painter 


1616 


1680 


Painter 


1581 


1611 


Sculptor 


i:383 


1466 


Familiar Life Painter 


1613 


1674 


Historical Painter 






Painter 






Historical Painter - 


176G 




Pa. Eng. Sc. ^ Arch. 


1471 


1528 


Sculptor 






Painter 


1737 


1805 


Historical Painter 


1789 


'849 


Painter 






Painter 


1370 


U4\ 


Sculptor 


1755 


1826 


Painter 


1741 


182.- 


Landscape Painter - 


17-.?7 


17.^S 


Sculptor 


1378 


1 iriC, 


Sculptor 






Painter 


16-29 


I7i)i 


Painter 


1477 


I.MI 


Painter, Sculp. Sf Arch. 


1276 


i;',:i;. 


Sculptor 


1630 


171.-. 


Painter 


1767 


1824 


Sculptor 




|.»2 


Painter 


1590 


liiiiO 


Painter 


1574 


.0-12 



690 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Ilarlow, George Henry 

En?. Ilaydon, R. B. 

En?. Heath, Charles 

En:j. Hilton, William 

Flem. Hobbema, Mymlerhout - - 

Ens. Hogarth, William 

Swiss. Holbein, Hans ... 

Off. Hollar, Wenceslaus (executed 2400 plates) Engraver 

\'\i:n\. Honthorst, Gerard (called Gherarda dal Notte) Painter 



Diiicli. Houbralren, Jacob (600 portraits) 

h'l- Houdon (executed statue of Franklin) 

!■',• Houel, John (Picturesque Travels, &c.) 

.Ain'r. Inman, Henry 

I) 1 rh. Huysum, John Van (flowers and fruit) 

i, i L. Jones, Inigo .... 

I'fMi. Jordaens, Jacob • 

I ■ . Julio, Romano 

S'vi-:s Kauffman, M. A. Angelica C. (in England) 

(J I-. Kiieller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England) 

Eii_' Landseer, Edwin - 

I). Itch. Lairesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition) 

I'r. Landon, C. P. (more eminent as an author 

works on the fine arts) 

i;ii'^. Lawrence, sir Thomas 

l''r. Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis XIV ) 

Ger. Lely, sir Peter (painter to Charles H. ofEnglan 

Er. Le Sieur, Eustace (the French Raphael) • 

Fr Leyden, Lucas, Dammesz - 

Eng. Liverseege, Henry 

Gr. Lysippus (made 600 statues) 

Amer. Malbone. Edward G. ■ 

Flem. Matsys. Quintin - 

l.al. Masaccio .... 

Ger. Mayer .... 

-tal. Mazzuolo, Francis 



ier. Mengs, Anthony R. (the Raphael of Germany) Painter 



Fr 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Eng. 

En?. 

En?. 

Eng, 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Iial. 

Span. 

Or. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Hal, 

Swiss. 

f;r. 



I) ach. 

I',-. 

Iiai. 

(^ I-. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Gi- 



Mignard, Peter 

Mind, Gottfried 

Moreland, George 

Murillo, Bartholomew S. 

Newton, Gilbert Stuart 

NoUekins, Joseph 

Nonhcote, James - 

Opie, John 

Ostade. Adrian Van (interiors) 

Ostade, Isaac (winter scenci) - ■ Painter 

Owen, William .... Painter 

Pajou, Augustin - . - Sculptor 

Palladio, Andrew - • - Architect 

Palomino de Castro Y Velasco, A. A. ■ Painter 

Parrhasius, of Ephesus - • - Painter 

Peale, Charlej W. - 

Perrault, Claudius (designed the Front of tl 

Louvre) .... Architect 

Perugino, Peter (the master of Raphael) - Painter 

Petitot, John (excelled in enamel) - Painter 

Phidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) Sculptor 

Picart, Bernard - - - Engraver 

Pigalle, John Baptiste - - ■ Sculptor 

Pifes, Roger de (an author and painter) - Painter 

Piranesi, John Baptiste (16 vols, folio) - Engraver 

Polyclbtus (statue of Juno at Argos) - Scidptor 

Ponlenone, Regillo da . . • Painter 

Potter, Paul (unequalled in animal painting) Painter 

Pous.sin, Nicholas (excelled in landsc. painting) Painter 

Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) landscape ■ Painter 

Pra.xiteles .... Sculptor 

Pratt. Matthew - • - Painter 

Prudhon. of Cluny - - - Painter 

Pugel, Peter - - - - Sculp. Pa. 4" Arch 

Pythasoras ■ - - - Sculptor 



BOUN. 

1787 
1786 

1786 
1611 
1697 



Painter 

Historical Painter 

Engraver 

Historical Painter 

La?idscape Painter 

Painter 

Portrait 4" Historical Pa. 1493 
1607 
1592 
1698 
1746 
1736 
1801 
1682 
1572 
1595 
1492 
1747 
1648 



Eng7-aver • 

Sculptor 

Painter <5" Engraver 

Portrait S; Landsc. Pa. 

Painter 

Architect 

Painter 

Painter 6f Architect • 

Poetical Painter - 

Painter 

Animal ^ Historical Pa. 

Painter Sf, Engraver 1640 

Painter 

Portrait ^ Hist. Painter 1769 

Painter . ■ ■ 1619 

d) Painter ■ 1618 

Painter - - 1617 

Painter ij" Engraver 1494 

Painter - 1803 
Sculptor - f. B. c. 324 

Miniature Painter - 1777 

Painter - 1460 

Painter ■ • 1402 
Sculptor 

Painter ■ - 1503 



Painter 

Painter 

Painter 

Painter 

Historical Painter 

Sculptor 

Painter ' 

Painter ' 

Familiar Life Painter 



1729 
1610 
1768 
1764 
1613 
1785 
1737 
1746 
1761 
1610 



1617 
1769 
1730 
1518 
16.53 
f. B. c. 420 
Histor. ^ Portrait Pa. 1741 

1613 
1446 
1607 
B.C. 498 
1663 
1714 
1635 
1707 
B. c. 430 
1584 
1625 
1594 
1613 ■ 
f. B. c. 350 
1734 
1760 
1622 



DIED. 

1819 

1846 
1849 
1839 
1699 
1764 
1554 
1677 
1660 
1780 
1828 
1813 
1846 
1749 
1652 
1670 
1546 
1807 
1723 

1711 

1826 
18.30 
1690 
1680 
1655 
15:33 
1832 

1807 
1529 
1427 

1540 
1779 
1695 
1814 
1804 
1682 
1835 
1823 
1831 
1807 
16S5 
1671 
1825 
1809 
1580 
1726 

1827 

1688 
1.524 
1691 
c. 431 
1733 
178.-. 
1709 
1778 



16.54 
1665 
1675 

1805 
1823 
1G»1 



bio(.'i;aphical index. 



691 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Raphael (real name Sanzio) a pre-eminent Painter 

Renibnindi, Paul - - - - Painter 

Reynolds, sir Joshua - - - Painter 

Roland, Pliilip L. (Homer in the Louvre) Sculptor 

RoTiiney, George ... - Painter 

Rosa, SaWator (scenes of gloom) - Painter 



/<ATION 

lial. 

Iial. 

En^. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Iial. 

Eng. 

Flem. Rubens, Peter Paul, a celebrated 

Scotch. Runciman, Alexander 

Dutch. Ruysdael, Jacob 

D'.itcli. Ruysdael, Solomon 

Eng. Rysbrach, John Michael (works in Westmin- 
ster Abbey) .... 

Ital. Sanmicheli, Michael 

1 1 ill. .Sarto, Andrea del — see Vanucchi 

lial. Scamozzi, Vincent 

Oer. Schadow Rudolf 

Dutch. Schalken, Godfrey (candlelight scenes) 

Gr. Scopas 

Eng. Sharp, William . - . - 

Sherwin, John Keyse - 

Smybert, John . . . -■ 

Snyders, Francis (landscape and animal)_ 



Eng. 
A mer. 
Flem. 
Fr. 
Dutch 



Rovvlandson, Th. (caricature— Dr. Syntax, &c.) Painter ^ Engraver 
~ ~ ' ' ' ' Painter 

Painter 

Landscape Painter 
Painter 

Sculptor 
Architect 

Architect 
Sculptor 
Painter 
Sculptor 
Engraver • 
Engraver 
Painter 
Painter 
Soufflot, J. G. (church of St.Genevieve at Paris) Architect 



Spaendonck, Gerradvan (flower) 



Scotch. Stransre. Robert 



Painter 

Engraver 

Painter 



I5ng. Strutt^ Joseph (an author and painter) 

Eng. Stuart, James (author of the " Antiquities of 

Athens") .... Architect 

Amer. Stuart, Gilbert (pupil of Benjamin West) Portrait Painter 

Flem. Teniers, David, the elder (pupil of Rubens) Painter 

Flem. Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) Painter 

Dap.. Thorwaldsen Albert - - - Sculptor 

Gr. Timanthes (contemporary with Parrhasius) Painter • i 

Ital. Tintoretto (a Venetian— pupil of Titian) - Painter 

Ital. Titian (the greatest painter of Venetian school) Painter 

Amer. Trumbull, John . - - - HistoricahPainter 

Eng. Vanbrugh, sir Jn. (Blenheim and Castle Howard)j47T/ji7ec« 

Dutch. Vandervelde, William (marine and battle) - Painter - 

Dutch. Vandervelde, the younger - Painter 

Dutch. Vandervelde, Adrian - - • Landscape Painter 

Dutch. Vanderwerf, Adrian - - Historical Painter 

Flem. Vandyke, sir Anthony (the greatest of portrait 

painters) .... Portrait Painter 

Vannucchi, or .Andrea del Sarto - - Painter 

Van Vitelli, Louis, a Neapolitan - - Architect 

Vasari, George (a biographer of artists) - Architect Sf Painter 

Vasi, Joseph, a des^igner and - - . Engraver - 

Velasquez, James R. de Sylvia Y - Painter 

Vernet, Joseph .... Painter 

Vernet, Horace - - - Historical Painter 

Ver Bryck C. - - - - Landscape Pai7iter 

Verrochio, Andrew (inventor of the method of 

taking the features in a plaster mould) - Sctdpitor 
Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari) 

Vertue, George (500 plates) - - Engraver - 

Visnola, James (Caprarola palace and St. 'Peie,x's)ArcIiiteCt 

Viiici, Leonardo da - - - Painter 

Vitruvius (temp. Augustus) - - - Architect 

Volimto. John .... Engraver 
Vouet, Simon, founder of Fr. sch. (temp. Chas. 1.) Painter 

Wailly, Charles de - . - Architect 

Warren, Charles (perfecter of engraving on steel) Engraver 

We.=t. Beniamin - - - »^ ■ ■ 

i-h. Wilkie, David 
r. Wilson, Richard 
WooUet, William 
Dutch. VVouvermans, Philip • 
Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher (S'. Paul's, &c.) 
Ens. Wvatt, Jame.'s (Pantheon. Kew Palace. &c.) 
I'al. /ahlhi, Nicholas 



Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Sic. 

Span. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Am. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ens. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

(Jr. 

I'll. 

I'r. 

Iliitr^ 

.Amer. 

S'- 

!■:, 

I'll 



Painter 

Familiar Life Painter 

Landscape Painter 

Engraver ■ 

Painter 

Arcfiilect 

Architect 

Architect 



BORN. 

1483 
1606 
1723 
1746 
1734 
1614 
1756 
1577 
1736 
1636 
1616 

1694 
1484 

1550 
1786 
1643 
c. 460 
1740 

17-28 
1579 
1714 
1746 
1721 
1749 

1713 
1756 
1582 
1610 
1772 
. c. 420 
1512 
W80 
1756 
1672 
1610 
1633 
1639 
1654 

1598 
1488 
1700 
1512 
1710 
1599 
1714 

1813 

1422 

1684 
1507 
1452 
s. c. 30 
1733 
1582 
1729 

1738 
1785 
1713 
1735 
1620 
1632 
1743 
lfi74 



DIED. 

1520 

1647 
1792 
1816 
1802 
1673 
1827 
164G 
1785 
1684 
1670 

1770 
1559 

1616 

1822 

1706 

0. 353 

1824 
1790 
1751 
16.57 
1781 
1822 
1722 
1802 

1788 
1828 
1649 
1694 
1844 

1594 
1579 
184 
1726 
, 1693 
1707 
1672 
1718 

1641 
1530 
1773 
1574 
1782 
1660 
1789 

1844 



1756 
1573 
1519 

1S03 
1649 
1798 
1823 
1820 
1841 
1782 
1785 
166S 
1723 
ISl'3 
1750 



692 THE world's progress. 

NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. 

Gr. Zeuxis, a celebrated ancient - - Painter - b. c. 490 b c. 400 

Ger. Zincke .... Enamel Portrait Pa. 1684 1767 

Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Taddeo - - Painter ■ ■ 1529 1566 

Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Frederigo - Painter ■ ■ 1539 1619 

Ital Zuccarelli - - • Painter - 1710 1786 



ADDENDA 

TO 

THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

(December, 1851.) 

[In addition to a brief record of the more important occurrences and statistics of the years 1850 
and 1851, the following pages contain some corrections ef errors in the previous editions. Some 
other inaccuracies have been corrected in the body of the work. In selecting the names for the 
Biographical Index, it was difficult to draw the line. While it was desirable to include those 
names which the general reader would be likely to look for, th«re was still no space for all those 
to be found in a biographical dictionary : in endeavoring to condense the list, however, many 
names were omitted (some from mere oversight) which, on a further collation, are now added to 
this appendix. 

It will be obvious, however, that whatever care and diligence may he bestowed upon a volume 
of this kind, entire perfection and completeness cannot reasonably be expected; and, in acknow- 
5edging the gratifying reception so promptly given to the book, the editor begs to say, that he will 
be greatly obliged by any essential additions or corrections which may be contributed for future 
editions.] 



ADMINISTRATIONS of the United States— (p. 152) On the death of Pre- 
sident Taylor, July 9, 1850. 

Millard Fillmore, of New-York (Vice-President) became President. He appointed, soon 
after, the following Cabinet, viz. : 

Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, Secretary of State.. 

Thomas Corwin, Ohio, Secretary of Treas. 

Charles M. Conrad, Louisiana, Secretary of War. 

William A. Graham, North Carolina, Sec. of the Navy. 

A. H. H. Stewart, Virginia, Sec. of Interior. 

Nathan K. Hall, New- York, Post Master Gen. 

John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, Attorney General. 

William R. King, Alabama, was elected Pres't of the Senate, 

and became acting Vice Pres't of U. S. 

Howell Cobb, Georgia {continued in office} ) Speakers of H. Rep». 

Linn Boyd, Kentucky, Dec. 1851. S *^ 
Omissions 071 ;;«.o-e 152, " World's Progress." 

Hugh S. Lesrare, S.Carolina, May 9, dierf June 20, 1843, ? oopo nfsjmfa 

John C. Calhoun, S. Carolina, March 6, 1844, to Mar. 1, 1845, \ *^"- °' °"*"'- 

Geo. M. Bibb, Kentucky, June 15, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. of Treas. 

Wm. Wilkins, Pennsylvania. Feb. 15, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. of War. 

Thos. W. Gilmer, Feb. 15, 1844, died Feb. 28, 1844, ? S... „f -v,-,, 

John Y. Mason, Virginia, Marcb 14, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1S15, \ "^^ °' ^^^^^- 



2 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [aME 

AFRICA. The British forces defeated with considerable loss in their engage- 
ment with the Caffres of South Africa, Dec. 29, 1850. The Catfres attack 
Fort White, Cape of Good Hope, Jan. 3, 1851, but are repulsed, with loss 
of 20 killed. Jan. 7 — the CafFres, in their attack on Fort Beaufort, are 
completely routed, and their chief Hermanns and his son killed. 3000 
Caffres attack the colonists near Fort Hare, Jan. 23. but are driven back 
with loss of 100 killed. Feb. 23d — Col. Somerset burns Fort Hamilton, 
which had been abandoned by the British, killing 90 Caffres, and taking 
230 prisoners. J. G. Richardson, the African traveller, dies at Ungurta, six 
days distance from Kouka, the capital of Bornou, March 4, 1851. 
ANGLO-SAXONS. It may be assumed, on the most moderate data, that up- 
wards of 51,000,000 of the human race now speak the language of Shaks- 
peare, Bacon, and Newton. 
ARCTIC EXPEDITION. Dispatches received by British Government, Sept., 
1851, confirming the statement that traces of Sir J. Franklin's party had 
been discovered, showing that they had passed their first winter, 1845-6, in 
the bay between Beechey Island and Cape Riley, and that their departure 
had been sudden. The vessels. Advance and Rescue, nobly dispatched by 
Mr. Grinnell in aid of this expedition in May, 1850, were frequently in com- 
munication with the British party, and returned to New-York Oct., 1851. 
ADVERTISEMENTS. The number of advertisements in the 159 London 
papers, in 1850, was 891 650, the duty on which at Is. 6d. each, amounted to 
i;66,873 15s. In the 222 provincial papers, 875,631 advertisements ; in 102 
Irish papers, 236,128 ; and in the Scottish papers, 249,141. The Times sup- 
plement, Jan. 23, 1843, contained 1706 advertisements, one page of which, 
embracing six columns, yielded i;108. 
AGRICULTURE, U. S., 1851. The following are the number of farms in 
several states, as reported in the last census : — 

New- York - - - 174,234 I Maryland .... 21,950 
Pennsylvania - - - 127,733 | New Jersey • . . 24,504 
Ohio .... 146,821 I Delaware - . - . 6,225 
Indiana .... 101,973 | Michigan . - . 34,699 
Vir=2inia . . - . • 76,794 Wisconsin - - . 22,062 

Illinois 71,062 Iowa .... 15,500 

Kentucky- - ■ - 77,290 | 

ALABAMA, Nov., 1851. The governor, in his message, recommends a dis- 
criminating tax on all articles from those states that continue slave agi- 
tation. The population of this state, 1850, according to census returns, 
was:— White, 426 515; Free colored, 2,250. Total free, 428,765; Slaves, 
342,894. Fed. Rep. Pop. 634,501. 

ALFRED THE GREAT. A medal commemorative of the 1000th anniversary 
of this monai-ch was struck in 1849, with the legend, " Alfred and his chil- 
dren, the British Empire, United States and Anglo-Saxons every where !" 

ALMANACS. The almanac was canonized as St. Ahnachius, in the Roman 
Calendar. — H. Wharton s Life of Loyola, 1688. Almanacs first printed at 
Constantinople, Sept., 1806. Regiomantus supposed to be indebted for his 
formula, 1474, to the Persian almanacs. — Encij. Mdrop. The popular al- 
manac in Shaksx>eare's time was that of Leonard Digges. — C. Knight. In 
1851, Dr. McGowan, laboring in China for the Missionary Union, prepared 
a philosophical almanac in the language of that countrj^ exhibiting to the 
Chinese the realities of science, and particularly detailing the principles of 
•**--=} Magnetic Telegraph. — A''. Y. Express. See World's Progress, p. 162. 

aflERICAN FLAG. Previous to 1776 the colors used in this country exhib- 
ited a snake with 13 rattles, in a crimson ground interlaced with white, by 



ast] addenda to the world's puogeess, 1850-51. 3 

some supposed in compliment to France, but more recently by others as re- 
presenting those in the armorial bearings of Gen. Washington. A descrip- 
tion of this flag is given in a London paper, published in 1776. On the 14th 
June, in the succeeding year, the American Congress " Resolved, that the 
flag of the 13 Unitsd States be 13 stripes, alternate red and white ; that the 
union be 13 stars, white, on a blue field — representing • a new constellation.' " 
Anew '-star-spangled banner" made its appearance on the river Thames 
(London), October, 1851, showing five stars emblematical of the British 
colonies New South Wales, Victoria (Hong Kong), South Australia, Van 
Dieman's Land, and West Australia. 

AMERICAN LITERATURE. The first English work Avritten in America was 
Sandy's Translation of the Metamorphoses ; Dr. W. Vaxighan's poem of the 
Golden Fleece was written about the same time. Joceiyn, who wrote the 
New England Rarities, and his Two Voyages, brought over a version of part 
of the Psalms, by Quarles, which, if approved by the Minister at Boston, 
was to have succeeded Stcrnhold and Hopkins in the New World. The first 
work printed was the ■' Freeman''s Oath," Cambridge, 1639 ; the second an 
Almanac, calculated for Nevf England, by Pierce, a mariner ; and the third 
" The Psalms, neioly turned into metre." — Dr. Holmes's Amcrico^n Annals. 

AMUSEMENTS, Public, New York, April, 1851. 

Nine Theatres, with audiences nightly of - - - - 15,900 

Four Minstrel Concerts ""..... 2,300 

Three Panoramas, « ii .... gOO 

Nightly audiences at Public Amusements in New- York 18,800 

The average nightly receipts, exclusive of Astor Opera House (not 
obtained), amounted to $'5,800. 

AMUSEMENTS, London. The amount annually expended in London for 
sight-seeing, theatres, &c., is estimated at about four millions sterling. — Art 
Journal. 

ARMY, (Standing), U. S. A. June, 1850, the regular army of the United States, 
including 882 commissioned officers, consisted of 10,320 men : distributed, 
eastern division, in the Atlantic States ; Avestern, west of the Alleghanies ; 
and the Pacific division in Oregon and California. Expenses of the war 
department j^ear ending June 30, 1849, partially including those of the 
Mexican war, amounted to S17;290,936. ' 

ARMIES, European, 1851. Great Britain, 114,451, infantry and cavalry effect- 
ive ; France, 408 000 (exclusive of National Guards, who number over 
2,000,000) ; Russia, 674,000; Austria. 405,000; Prussia, 121.000, which last 
with Au.stria, has an effective organization of the Landwehr, similar to the Na- 
tional Guards of France. 

ARMORIES, U. S. There are five armories in the United States, viz. : Harper's 
Ferry, Virginia; Springfield, Massachusetts; Alleghany, Pennsylvania; 
Washington, District of Columbia ; and Watervhet, New-York. For the fiscal 
year ending January 30, 1850, the manufactory of weapons of war is reported 
as 28,115 percussion muskets; 2,000 percussion cavalry musketoons ; 2,676 
percussion rifies ; 110,487 fiint lock muskets altered to percussion. 

ASTRONOMY. The planet Uranus, was discovered through observation 
of the perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn ; and similar movements in 
Uranus led M. Leverrier to determine by calculation the existence of a new 
planet. This remarkable theoretic conclusion was verified on the night of 
Sept. 23d, 1846, by M. Galle, at Berlin, the new planet {Neptune) being found 
in the position and with the diameter announced by Leverrier , one of the 
noblest achievements of modern times. M. Arago calculates the distance of 



4 ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS. 1850-5 1, [baN 

this planet from the sun af 1,250,000,000 leagues, or about 3,125,000,000 
miles ! Periodic time nearly 166 years. Its volume is about two hundred 
and thirty times that of the earth. Thus, during the year 1846, the bounds 
of our solar system have been nearly doubled. The discovery of Neptune 
marks, in a signal manner, the maturity of astronomical science. The 
Parthcnope, a new planet discovered by M. de Gasparis, at Naples, May, 
1850 ; the name of the Victoria, discovered b}' Mr. Hind in same year, was 
changed for that of Clio ; the Ei(eria planet, discovered by de Gasparis, at 
Naples, November, 1850. Another discovered by Mr. G. P. Bond, of 
Cambridge; United States, August, same year ; and one by Dr. Peterson, of 
Altona, situate near the North Pole. 

ATTORNEY-GENEEAL, U. S. A. Appointed by the President, and is one of 
the members of the Cabinet. He is the legal adviser of the executive gov- 
ernment. The first attorney-general of the United States was William Bi-ad- 
ford, appointed by Washington. 1789. (See Administrations.) There are 
also District Attorneys for the United States, appointed by tlie President, 
for the several districts in each State of the Union. In each State there is 
also an attorney-general of the State ; in some States appointed by the gov- 
ernor and legislature, in others elected by the people. 

AUSTRIA. Ultimatum of the Austrian government delivered at Berlin, Nov. 
6, 1850. directing that Prussia evacuate Hesse, dissolve the Erfurt league, 
&c., which is replied to by the Prussian king signing an order for calling out 
the whole military force of the monarchy. The Russian ambassador at Vi- 
enna, Nov. 11, announces that the continuance of the Russian policy in the 
electorate will be considered by his government a causus belli. Protest of 
France, and remonstrance of Lord Palmerston at Vienna, Dec. 1850, against 
the proposed extension of the Germanic confederation beyond the Alps. The 
Austrians complete their military possession of Hamburg, Jan. 31. 1851, and 
Feb. 2 proclaim their resumption of seignorial rule of the King of Denmark. 
The Emperor estabhshes a council of the empire by imperial decree, April 
1851. The German diet, July 17. in answer to Lord Palmerston's protest 
against annexing the non-German provinces of Austria to the German Fed- 
eration, reply '• that no foreign interference should be allowed in a purely 
Germanic question." August 20, the Emperor, by cabinet letters, declares 
" that his ministers are responsible to no other political authority than the 
throne," and the minister-president is directed to take into consideration the 
possibility of carrying out the constitution of March, 1849. 

BALLOONS. Mr. Green and the Duke of Brunswick in April 1851, crossed the 
British channel from Hastings, and in 5 hours landed safely near Boulogne; 
greatest altitude mid-channel was 4000 feet. Mr. Green ascended on horse- 
back from Vauxhall, July 1850 ; since then M. Poitevin has made several 
ascents en-cheval, and in a carriage and pair (July 1851), sometimes accom- 
panied by his wife, &c. — In one ascent he carried up a live ostrich. Lt. Gale 
(the Mazeppa of the Bowery Theatre) left Bordeaux with his balloon Sept. 
1850, and was found dead the next morning in a field, dreadfully mutilated. 
Several hazardous ascensions have since been made in France, one by an 
aeronaut with his head downwards. 

BAL riMORE, U. S. A. Population, by the census of 1850, 169,000, being a 
gain of 66 per cent, in ten years. 

BANKS, PENNY. These were first instituted at Greenock in Scotland. Of 5,000 
deposits the aggregate amount of nearly .£1,100 gives an average of about 4s. 
6d. each. In London and the provincial towns they are becoming very pop- 
ular. In Whitechapel, 8000 deposits in nine months showed an accumulation 
of nearly £2,000 or about 5s. each. 



bis] 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



try, to March 1851. 



Maine - 

New Hampshire - 

Massaciiusetts - 

Boston 

Vermont 

Rhode Island 

Providence 

Connecticut 

New-York 

New- York city 

New .Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Philadelphia 

Wisconsin - 

Texas 

Maryland - 

Ballimore 

Iowa 

Mississippi 

Virginia 

North Carolina - 

South Carolina 

Georgia - 

Ohio 

Indiana - 

Kentucky - 

Tennessee 

District of Columbia 

Delaware 

Missouri 

Michigan 

Louisiana - 

Alabama 



Total - 
Boston, Banker's Mag. 1851. 



itioQ of the Bankin 


% interests in this c 


To. Bks. 


Circulation. 


Specie. 


Capital. 


32 


$2,300,000 


$424,000 


$.3,148,000 


- 22 


1.700,000 


150,000 


2,205;000 


102 


9,600,000 


645,000 


16,405,000 


- 30 


6.000,000 


2,100,000 


21,760,000 


27 


2,300,000 


120,000 


2,195.000 


- 38 


1,100.000 


130,000 


3,037,865 


23 


1,400,000 


130,000 


8,159,037 


14 


5,200,000 


880,000 


20,9^9,732 


152 


18,000,000 


880,000 


20,949,732 


- 28 


6.400,000 . 


10,740,000 


27,300,330 


25 


2,900,000 


690,000 


3,646,7';0 


- 58 


7,000,000 


2.-500,000 


8,009,781 


15 


4,130,000 


4,000,000 


10,518,700 


1 






225,000 


I 






300,000 


12 


i',2i6i6o"6 


'400,066 


1,997,079 


12 


2,068,000 


2,127,000 


1,997,079 


1 






200,000 


1 






100,000 


35 


7,000,060 


2,300,666 


9.913.100 


19 


3,500,000 


1,600,000 


3,650^000 


14 


6,090,000 


2,200,000 


11,431,183 


17 


1,000,000 


1,600,000 


5,329,213 


- 57 


10,366,000 


2,750.000 


7,425,171 


14 


3,300,800 


1,280,000 


2,082,910 


- 23 


6,680.000 


2,680,000 


9,180 000 


21 


4,000,000 


1,500.000 


7,16.5,197 


4 


900,000 


300,000 


1,182,300 


9 


900,600 


250,000 


1,440,000 


6 


2,600,000 


1,900,000 


2,258.751 


6 


650,000 


116,000 


1,150.000 


5 


4,200,000 


7,300,000 


13,267,120 


2 






200,000 


- 863 


$120,505,400 i 


5:51,446,000 S 


(230,897,500 



BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES. The receipts of some of the principal Benevolent 
Societies of New- York, for the year ending April 30th, 1851, were: 

American Tract Society, $310,618 09 

" Bible " 276,852 53 

" B. C. For. Miss. 8 months, 176,676 83 

" Home Missionary Society, 150,940 25 

" and Foreign Chrislian Union. 11 months, - - - 56,265 82 

" and Foreign Bible Society, ....... 29,648 28 

" Baptist Home Missionary Society, ..... 19,2-52 61 

" Seaman's Friend Society, 22,000 00 

" Society for Melior. condition of Jews. - - - - " 11,193 02 

New- York State Colonization Society, - ' 22,000 00 

" Association for Improving the condition of the Poor, - 32,327 31 

" Society, Relief Widows and Orphans of Medical Men, amount 

of funds, Nov. 1851, 10,292 94 



$1,118,067 68 

BIBLE SOCIETIES. Tlie first that ever existed, was established by some Ro- 
man Catholic Prelates, in France in 1774. — Chambers's Ed. Jl. Tlie British 
and Foreign Bible Society has distributed during the 45 years ending Jan. 
1. 1851, more tha.n twenty- i/iree millions of copies, in one hundred and forty 
different languages. 

BISHOPRICS, English Colonial.— Nova Scotia, established 1787 ; Quebec and 
Montreal, united 1793; Calcutta, 1814; Barbadoes and Jamaica, 1824; 
Madras, 1835 ; Sidney and Bombay, 1836 ; Toronto and Newfoundland, 



6 ADDENDA TO THE WOE-Ld's PROGRESSj 1850-51. [bRI 

1839 ; New Zealand and Jerusalem, 1841 : Gibraltar, Antigua, Guiana, and 
Tasmania, 1842 ; Fredericton and Colombo, 1845 ; Newcastle, Adelaide, Mel- 
bourne, and Capetown, 1847 ; Hong-Kong and Prince Rupert's Land, 1849 ; 
Lyttleton, 1850.— iV. Haven CL Rev. 
BOOKS, U. S. — The number of volumes published during the year ending 
June 30th, 1851, is estimated to have been 1,261, forming 1,176 distinct 
works ; which were 

Novels and Tales, 249 

Theological and Religious 170 

Histories and Travels 121 

Biograpliical, 96 : Poetry and Hymns, 80 176 

Science, Natural History, &c. 83 

Classics, Educaiion, &c. 84 

Law, 43; Medicine, 47; Agriculture, 20 110 

Practical Mechanics 18 

Arts, Music, and Architecture 57 

Political Economy, Commerce, and Miscellaneous - - - 193 

Total 1,261 

"Book Trade." 
BOOKS Imported into United States for the year ending June 80, 1851 : — 

In Hebrew, $74 00 

Latin and Greek, 2,027 00 

English, - 341,755 00 

Other Languages, 115,486 00 

Periodicals and Illustrated Newspapers, 4,328 00 

Periodicals and other works in course of publication, - - 2,88100 

Total, $466,531 00 

Books exported during same period, .... $119,47500 

American Almanac, 1852. 

BOOKS, German. — Since the Easter Fair at Leipsic, 1851, not less than 3,860 
new books had been published, up to Nov. ; and 1150 were then in prepar- 
ation for issue. — Illus. News. 

BOOKS, London, 1850 about 4,400 were published, of which the Papal Question 
furnished 180 in one month; fiction, 500; law, 250; and travels, 200; the 
remainder miscellaneous. — Illus. Netus. 

BRITISH MUSEUM. The total income for the year 1850, was £55,686 17s. Id. ; 
and the actual expenditure within the same period, £47,463 5s. lOd. 

BOSTON, U. S. A. Population by the census of 1850, 135,000, being an increase 
of 42,000, or about 45 per cent, in ten years. 

BRIDGES. The Suspension Bridge over the Niagara river, near the Falls, com- 
pleted July 28, 1848. C. E. Ellett was the engineer. The Britannia Tubular 
Bridge, over the Menai Straits, between Caernarvon and the Isle of Anglesea, 
completed October, 1850, Mr. Stephenson engineer, at an outlay of nearly 
£600,000. A suspension bridge over the Ohio, at Wheeling, span 1010 feet, 
being 152 feet longer than the Friburg bridge, Switzerland, was completed 
by Mr. Ellett, 1850. Remington's bridge, at Montgomery, Ala., on the same 
plan as that he exhibited in London about two years ago, though slight in 
appearance, is of extraordinary merit for its strength and ingenuity. The 
floating bridge, for passage of railroad cars across Lake Champlain, went 
into operation 1st Sept., 1851. 

BRITAIN, GREAT, and BRITISH ISLES. The returns of forty thousand enu- 
merators show the population of this country, in March 1851, to be, males 
10,192,721 ; females, 10,743,747, being an increase during the last 50 years 
of 98 per cent. ; the average of annual rate of increase during that period, 
is 1'37- This amount is exclusive of absent soldiers and sailors, the number 
of whom is estimated at 167,604. In Scotland, the rate of increase for the 



car] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. T 

half century preceding 1851, is 78 per cent. ; present popnlation, 2.865,421. 
The population in Ireland 6,515,794, compared with that of 184], viz., 
8.175.124, shows a total decrease of 1,659,330 souls. The returns of the Brit- 
ish metropolis, including parts of Middlesex, Surrey and Kent, give a total 
population of 2,361,640, the preponderance in which is females. — Parliamen- 
tary Returns. 
BUILDING (Benefit) SOCIETIES. First established at Kircudbright, Scot- 
land, 1815 ; after 1830 they increased rapidly. — Scratchleifs Treatise on B. B. 
Societies. Several have been in successful operation in New- York since 1848. 

CALCULATING MACHINE. A very superior one exhibited in the Crystal 
Palace, 1851. by J. A. Statfel, of Warsaw. This extraordinary machine was 
the effect often years undiminished study and application ; by it any errors 
may be corrected and the operator warned of any surplus calculation. — Itlus. 

News. 

CALIFORNIA, State op, U. S. A. Constitution ratified by the people, Nov. 
13, 1849. The State admitted into the Union by vote of the United States 
Senate, Aug. 13, 1850, and on Sept. 9, 1850, the California Senators, Dr. Wm. 
M Gvvin and Col. J. C. Fremont, took their seats. The number of emigrants, 
to California, passing Fort Laramie, and registered to June 20, 1850. are, men, 
82,740 ; women. 494 ; children, 591 ; of mules, 6,725 ; oxen, 21.418; cows, 
3.185 ; horses, 28,798 ; and wagons, 7,586. The census returns for 1850, in- 
dicate a white population of 165,000 and 1,800 colored, making the fractional 
representative enumeration 74,000 and thus securing a second Representa- 
tive in Congress. — Daily Times. First overland party of the season, 1851, 
arrives at Placerville July 17. in 77 days from St. Joseph's. Gov. McDougal 
issiies a proclamation, July 21, against " Vigilance Committees," calling upon 
all good citizens to sustain the laws. From Jan. to 31 Oct. 1851, inclusive, the 
number of vessels at Boston. New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New 
Orleans, show an evident decrease in tlie clearances and cargoes for that 
country. — Boston Price Current. Great fire in San Francisco, Sept. 17, 1850, 
loss $300,000 ; more than 200 houses destroyed by fire in Nevada City, esti- 
mated loss, S'l, 300,000. Another fire at San Francisco May. 3, 1851, several 
lives lost and many injured, 2,500 buildings consumed, and from one to five 
millions of property destro3'ed. A fire at Stockton, May 14, total loss 
$1,500,000. Sliock of an earthquake felt at San Francisco, May 15. Jenkins 
hung at San Francisco and the police driven back by the " Vigilance Com- 
mittee," June 10, 1851. Another Are (the sixth) at San Francisco, June 22. 
500 houses burned, and $3,000,000 property consumed. " Jim Stuart" hung 
at San Francisco, July 11, 1851, being the second execution by the " Vigi- 
lance Committee." At Saci'amento, Aug. 21, a prisoner under sentence of 
death, but reprieved by the Governor, is forcibly executed by the citizens. 
Aug. 24, Whittaker and McKenzie taken by force from the jailer at Saa 
Francisco, and publicly executed b}^ the " Vigilance Committee." Aug. 30, 
a fire consumes part of Marysville, California. California Fleet. — The whole 
number of clearances from the United States for California, in the year 1850, 
was 565, of which 181 were from New York, and 170 from Boston. 

CANADA. A memorial for annexation to the United States received, in five 
hours, the signatures of 300 merchants, land-owners, and professional men, 
in Montreal,''Oct. 10, 1850. 

CARDINAL WISEMAN, born at Seville, created cardinal January, 1848, public 
assumption in London, 1850. The operations of the Catholics arising from 
this creation produced great excitement in England. A London bookseller 
issued a catalogue of more than 1700 English works on Popery, which he 
offered for sale. — See Westminster. 



8 ADDENDA TO THE WOKLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. j COA 

CARPETS IN NEW- YORK. Prior to 1760 they were not known, but in the 
papers of that date Matthew Wilders advertises a variety imported from 
Scotland. — Noah's S. Times. 

CATHOLICS, 1851. Prelates in the U. States— Archbishops, 16 ; Bishops, 85 ; 
Vicars Apostolic, 10. — Ami de Religion. The total income received by three 
Catholic institutions in Low. Canada, was stated by the Montreal Courier, 
of March, 1851, to be larger than the whole Provincial revenue. Real es- 
tate in the Papal dominions is stated at $195,000,000. — II Cailnlico Christiano 
{Maltese paper), 1851. The number of Catholics in the United States is esti- 
mated at 1,233,350 {Am. Almanac), while the entire Catholic population of 
the world, Greek and Roman, is judged by Ungewitter and Dr. Baird to 
amount to nearly 200.000,000. The great " aggregate meeting" of Roman 
Catholics from all parts of the United Kingdom for inauguration of the 
Catholic Defence Association, held at Dublin, August 19th, 1851. The 
Duke of Norfolk, whose ancestors for centuries observed the Roman Catho- 
lic faith, secedes to the Protestant Church, Sept., 1851. 

CHICAGO. From the returns of eight of the largest establishments in this 
city, the business operations for 1851 were : — Cattle slaughtered, 30.800 ; 
barrels beef packed, 59 600 ; barrels tallow, 7,342 ; hides, 30,800 ; tons of 
salt used, 2,023 ; number of hands employed, 463. — Chicago Trib. and N. 
Y. Daily Times. 

CHILI. Suspension of " discriminating duties" upon Chilian vessels deter- 
mined by U. States Nov. 1, 1850, so long as the equality of maritime imposts 
is maintained between the two countries. Don Manuel Montt inaugm-ated 
President Sept. 18, 1851, 

CHINA. The progress of the disturbance in the southern provinces escites 
serious alarm in the Imperial Court, Pekin, June 23, 1851. 

CHOLERA appeared on the island of Jamaica, West Indies, in the autumn of 
1850, and before the 1st December, more than 6,000 persons had fallen vic- 
tims. It also appeared in California, Oct. 22, 1850. In the city of Mexico, 
2,700 persons died of cholera in four weeks — May and June, 1850. 

CHURCH OF ENGLAND. Great escitement and agitation in England re- 
specting a dispute on doctrine between the Bishop of Exeter and Rev. Dr. 
Gorham, one of his clergy. The Privj' Council's decision in favor of the 
latter, afterwards ratified by the courts, March 8, 1850. According to evi- 
dence of Mr. Baines before Committee H. Commons, 1851, there were in 
Gt. Britain 13,193 places of worship dissenting from the tenets of the Es- 
tablished Church ; to which may be added R. Catholic chapels 597, minor 
sects and Jews 550 ; making the total of nonconformist churches 14,340. 

CINCINNATI, the " Queen of the West,' had by the census of 1850. a popula- 
tion of 115,590. In 1840, it was 46,382. Increase, in ten years, 69,208, or 
about 150 per cent. 

CLOCKS. Between 200,000 and 300,000 clocks are manufactured annually in 
the State of Connecticut ; the brass works being made by machinery with 
mathematical precision. Chauncey Jerome of N. Haven makes upwards of 
800 per day, some of which he sells at sixlij cents each wholesale, warranted. 
An astronomical clock exhibited in Crystal Palace, by Dr. Henderson of 
Liverpool, requires winding up but once in a century. It was commenced 
in 1844, and finished for the Great Exhibition. — Illus. News. 

COALS. Comparative view of the areas of coal lands, and the production, la 
1845, of the six principal producing countries. 



com] 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



Countries. 


Square Miles, 
of Coal For- 
mation. 


Tons of Fuel 

produced in 

1845. 


Relative 

parts of 

1,000. 


Official estimated Value at tlie 
Places of Production. 




American 
Dollars. 


Pounds Ster- 
ling. 


Great Britain... 

Belgium 

United States... 


11,859 

518 

133,132 

1,719 

not defined. 


31,500,000 
4,960,077 
4,400,000 
4,141,617 
3,500,000 
659,340 


642 
101 
89 
84 
70 
14 


45,738,000 
7,689,900 
6,6.50.000 
7,663,000 
4,122,945 
800,000 


9,4.50,000 
1,660,000 
1,373,963 
1,603,106 
856,370 
165,290 


Prussian States. 
Austrian States. 


Total 




49,161,034 


1,000 


72,663,845 


15,108,729 



COAL FIELDS, 1851. East of the Mississippi, 124,735 square miles ; west of 
ditto, 8,379 square miles. This is all bituminous. The anthracite of Penn- 
sylvania is about 437 square miles. In Europe & Brit. America we find : — 
Great Britain and Ireland, anthracite, .... 3,720 sq. miles. 

" " bituminous, - - - 8,139 " 

British America, " .... 18.000 " 

Spain, " ... 3^408 « 

France, " .... 1,719 « 

Belgium, " ... _ 518 " 

Scientific American. 
The very general substitution of coal for wood as fuel, and its emploj^ment 
in the manufacture of iron and in the production of steam and gas, have, of 
late years, given an amazing impulse to the trade in this article. Coal was 
discovered in Mansfield, Massachusetts, about 1835, but the efforts to ren- 
der the same available Avere only eflSciently applied by the Mansfield Mining 
Co., in 1848, which establishment it is expected will work the mine to much 
public advantage. The main shaft is 171 feet from the surface, and four 
other shafts lead from this, making the entire length 1,100 feet. — Boston 
Traveller. The amount of Pennsylvania anthracite coal sent to market 
in 1850 was 3127,083 tons. Coal-field found at Port Philip, V. D. Land, 
June, 1851. surpassing any of those in the sister colonies. 

COAL, GT. BRITAIN. The present home consumption is about thirty-two 
millions of tons annually : export about six millions. — Anderson's " Course 
of Creation." 
COD FISHERY. The total amount of tonnage employed in the cod fishery of 
Marblehead, Mass., from 1794 to 1850, was 28,233,507. Number of vessels 
rating over fifty tons each, 8147 ; under fifty tons, 1007. Vessels lost in 
1846, eleven — A^. Y. Sun. 
COFFEE AND TEA. Value of imported into the United States of America, 
For the year ending, June 30, 1849 :— Coffee, $9.058,352 ; Teas, $4,071,789. 
" " 1850: " 11,234,835; " 4,719,232. 

" " 1851: " 12,851,070; " 4,798,005. 

Courier. 
COINAGE OP THE U. S. Mint and Branches, for the year ending December 
31, 1849. Gold, value S'9, 007,761 ; silver, S2. 114,950 ;'copper. $-41,984 ; total, 
Sll, 164,695. The amount of coinage at Philadelphia, 1851, from January 
to November 5 inclusive, was : gold. i$46. 139,131 ; silver, S246.650; silver 
three cent pieces, $146 653; copper, $91,988; total, $46,624,422.' The Cali- 
fornia gold deposited at the Mint during that period was $42,512,588. — 
'Pfibune. 
COMMERCE, Internal, of the United States, 1851. The aggregate value of 
the lake trade, as appears by returns made at the bureau of Topographical 
Engineers, amounts to the enormous sum of $186,485,269, or more, by 
$40,000,000, than the whole foreign export trade of the country. The aggre- 
1* 



10 ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [cOT 

gate tonnage is 203,041 tons, of which 35,904 is foreign. The net value of the 
commerce of the western rivers is $256,233,820; the value of vessels, 
$18,661,500. The gross value of the internal commerce of the United States 
may be estimated at $795,654,744. 

COMMERCIAL Tonnage, the, of England is stated at 3,130,000 tons. If so, 
the United States will stand as the first commercial nation in the world, as 
her tonnage on the 30th of June. 1850, was as follows : registered tonnage 
in foreign trade, 1.585. 711 tons; vessels in coasting trade, 1.797,824 tons; 
fishing vessels, 151,918; in whale fishery, 146,016 tons. Total, 3,681,469 
tons. 

CONVENTION of Delegates from Southern States in defence of the slavehold- 
ing interest, at Nashville, June 3, 1850 ; and again November 12, 1850. 

COPPER. The Connecticut mines are stated by Professor Silliman to extend 
over thirty miles south of Bristol, and would employ, it' thoroughly worked, 
30,000 miners. The net profits in 1849 were $120,000; and the yield in- 
creases in value everj' foot the miners proceed. From Lake Superior the 
shipments of copper, till the close of navigation, 1850, were 2,680,000 lbs. — 
Ann. Scientific Discovery. 

COSTUME, Bloomer. The male costume was entirely adopted by Miss Web- 
ber, an agriculturist of Belgium, in 1850; and a jjartial modification by Mrs. 
Bloomer, of Seneca Falls, New-York, in 1851. Attempts have been made 
for its general adoption, both in this country and in England; but the pro- 
priety of female opinion has hitherto been against it. 

COTTON. First exported from this country to Liverpool in 1784, when eight 
bales were seized by the customs, who disputed its positive shipment from 
the United States. In 1791 the exports to Great Britain were about 
2,000,000 ; the shipments now made exceed 800,000,000 lbs. With the ex- 
ception of Liverpool, moi-e cotton is shipped from New Orleans to Boston 
than to any other part of the world. — V. Flax-Cotton. The quantity 
received in England from the United States has increased from seventy 
millions of pounds in 1849, to nearlj^ one hundred and twenty millions in 
1850 ; the former being about 9 per cent, of the Avhole quantity imported by 
that country, the latter about 18 per cent. — Morning Express. The ratios 
of cotton imported by Great Britain in the five years 1844-49 were : America 
78i per cent., India 10^. Brazil 7, Egypt, 3J, West Indies and miscellaneous 
OJ per cent. "If we could derive a larger supply than we now do from 
our own colonies, equally good and cheap with that from the United 
States, it would be nationally beneficial in many ways." — Companion to 
British Almanac. 1851. The exports of cotton from the United States in 1850 
were valued at $72,000,000. The value of entire product of United States 
cotton goods for year ending June 30, 1851, was $61,859,184. — Herald. 

COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The follow- 
ing is the estimated number of spindles in actual operation : Great Britain, 
17-500.000; France. 4.300.000; United States. 2.500 000; Zohvereiu States, 
815.000; Russia, 700,000: Switzerland, 650,000; Belgium. 420,000; Spain, 
300,000; Italy, 300,000. Total, 28,985,000. ' 

COTTON MANUFACTURES in the United States. It is estimated that the 
annual product of all the cotton mills in the United States is 250,000,000 
yards, and the consumption of cotton 600,000 bales; 100,000 bales of which 
are consumed south of the Potomac and in the Western States. The value 
of this amount of cotton when manufactured, is supposed to be upwards 
of sixtj^-seven millions. Convention of cotton planters at Macon, Georgia, 
October 28, 1851. 



dec] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 11 

CUBA. Trial of General Lopez and others, engag-ed in the Cuban expedition, 
commenced in Circuit Courr, New Orleans, December 17, 1850. General 
Quitman, of Mississippi, arrested by United States Marshal February 3, 
1851, on charge of setting on foot a military expedition against Cuba ; he 
issues a paper to the people of Mississippi, resfgning his office as Governor. 
Proclamation by the President United States, April 25, warning all persons 
within jurisdiction of the States from aiding or engaging in any expedition 
against Cuba. Arrest of OSullivan and others, April 26, on charge of being 
concerned in a Cuban military expedition then fitting out in New- York. 
Steamer Pampero, with Lopez and 400 to 500 volunteers, sails from New 
Orleans, Aug. 3 ; disembark at Cabanos on the 12th ; Col. Crittenden, on his 
route to join Lopez then in advance, is attacked by 500 Spanish troops and 
his forces scattered. Lopez having repulsed Gen. Enna, at Las Posas, retreats 
to the mountains ; is taken by bloodhounds on the 29th, and publicly garot- 
ted at Havana, September 1. Col. Crittenden puts to sea, but is captured 
with 50 of his comrades on the 15th Aug. ; the whole are carried to Havana 
and shot the next day. The remaining followers of Lopez, after enduring 
great privations, are captured or surrender, and all but three or four con- 
demned by the governor to 10 years' labor on the public works in Spain, for 
which country they are shipped September 1, under escort. Great excite- 
ment at New Orleans, Aug. 21, growing out of the above ; the Spanish resi- 
dents attacked, and the Spanish Consul placed in city prison for safety. 
Mr. J. S. Thrasher, late editor of the '-Faro Industrial," arrested at Ha- 
vana, and after a trial resulting in his conviction, sent to Spain 24th Nov., 
1851. The American prisoners in Spain pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851. 

DAGUERREOTYPES. Of the innumerable variety of specimens of this Art, 
those of the United States are considered superior for brilliancy and execution. 
It is estimated that not less than 15,000 persons are connected with this Art 
in the U. States, and that the amount of material annually consumed in their 
operations exceeds ^900,000. The nearest approach to success in Daguer- 
reotypes in natural colors is that of M. Niepce the original inventor of the 
Art — Daguen'e having only perfected the discoveries of that gentleman. Da- 
guerre died in Paris, July 1851. ' Hill's " discoveries " in colored Daguerreo- 
typy decided by a committee of " New York State Daguerreotype Associa- 
tion," 18th Nov. 1851 to be " an unmitigated delusion." 

DEBTS OF THE STATES IN THE AMERICAN UNION, 1851. In round 
numbers the debts of the different States for the year 1851, are estimated as 
follows : — 

Maine, $850,000 ; New Havnpsliire, ^76,790 ; Vermont, none ; Massachusetts, $6,000,000 ; 
Rhode Island, none ; Connecticut, none ; New- York, $24,000,000 ; New .Jersey, $67, 000; 
Pennsylvania, «54O,000,000: Delaware, none; Maryland, .$15,000,000; North Carolina, 
$977,000 ; South Carolina,' .'J2.300,000 ; Georgia, $1,800,000 ; Florida, none ; Alabama, $8,- 
900,000; Mississippi, $7,270,000; Louisiana, $16,283,000 ; Texas, $11,000,000; Arkansas, 
S3,850,000; Tennessee, $3,3-37,000; Kentucky, $4,497,000; Ohio, $49,000; Indiana, 
$6,530,000; Illinois, $5,590,565; Michiean, $2,800,000; Missouri, $156,000; Iowa, 
$55,000; Wisconsin, none ; California, $650,000. 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. In March 1851 the Legislature of 
North Carolina accepted a Report affirming as a well-ascertained historical 
fact that tlie celebrated Mecklenburg; Declaration was published in June, 
1775, — large portions of which were embodied in Mr. Jefferson's Declaration 
of the following year. A resolution was passed that the Governor cause to 
bo transmitted the block of mai'ble presented by Lincoln county for the 
Washington Monument with the arms of the State and the following inscrip- 
tion sculptured thereon, — "North Carolina, Declaration of Independence, 
Mecklenburg, May 20, 1775. 



12 ADDENDA TO THE WOULd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [EDIT 

DEMOCRACY of England, France and the United States— Compared. 

Votes Votea 

Conntry. Pop. No. Votes, to Country. Pop, No, Votes, to 

Pop. ■ Pop. 

England, 17,000,000 630,721 1 in 26 I Great Britain P ooficn nnn sqa •571 i in 49 

Wales, 850,000 37,924 1 in 23 and Ireland, \ '^°P^"i"^ bdy,d71 1 m 4^ 

Scotland, 2,800,000 72.720 1 in 38 I France, 34,000,000 250,000 1 in 137' 

Ireland, 8,000,000 98,006 1 in 81 | United States, 20,000,000 2,750,000 i in 7 

DENMARK. Battle of Idstedt, between the Danes and Schleawig-Holsteiners ; 
Danes lose 116 killed and 2,373 wounded, Holsteiners retire, but advantage 
about equal, July 25, 1850, See Germany, Austria, &c. The Government 
of Schleswig-Holstein yields to the Commissioners of the Germanic Confed- 
eration, Jan. 10, 1851. The Danish mining operations in Greenland 1851 pro- 
duced large quantities of copper ore, yielding about sixty per cent. 
DIAMONDS. The Koh-i-noor, or " Mounlain of Light," valued at £2,000,000, 
received in England from India, July, 1850. The actual value of this Dia- 
mond tested by Mr. Jeffrey's tables is ^£260,000. It is however exceeded 
by the famous Portugal Diamond, weighing 1,680 carats; this Diamond has 
never been cut or polished, and is valued by the Portuguese Government at 
£5,644.000! The Durra-i-Noor or Sea of Light, the property of the East 
India Company, a blue Diamond belonging to the Queen, another in Mr. 
Hope's collection (177 grs.) with several parti-colored, and a green diamond 
owned by the King of Saxony, are among the most remarkable gems of the 
present day. Several pink diamonds were exhibited in the " Crystal Pal- 
ace," also a Black diamond weighing 350 carats, the property of Mr. Joseph 
Mayer. 
DIRECTORY, New York City. The earliest published was in 1786, a 
small volume of 82 pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street ; the 
names of the individuals and firms include about 900, and occupy 33 pages, 
the remainder being filled with general statistics of the City, U. S. Govern- 
ment, Post Office regulations, &c. In his address the Editor states it was the 
" first Directory ever attempted in this country." The N. Y. Hist. Society 
possesses a complete set from its first publication to 1851. • 
DOLLAR. This word is said to have originated from the following circum- 
stance. In 1516 a silver mine was discovered at St. Joachim's Thai (or dale) 
in Bohemia, the proprietor of which issued a number of silver pieces which 
were called Joachim's Thaler; by subsequent corruptions this word became 
Dollar, the mark $ is simply a monogram of the letters P. S. — i. e, Peso the 
Spanish v/ord for Dollar. 
DRAMATIC FUND ASSOCIATION. This benevolent institution for the re- 
lief of decaved or disabled members of the profession, in this country, was 
founded in New York, April 1848. 
EARTH, Rotation of the. M. Foucault's public demonstration in Paris, May 
1851, of the rotation of the earth, was preceded by a similar exhibition bj 
M. Guyot, Paris, 1836. 
EDUCATION. General convention of the friends of education in the United 
States, at Philadelphia, Oct. 19, 1849, and again, Aug. 1850. The report of 
the Board of Education of New York, for 1851, shows the number of children 
attending the 207 schools in that district, as 107,363. Yearly outlay, 
$274,794; average expense of each child for the scholastic year of 204 days, 
is $6 86. The London Athenjeum in referring to this report states that the 
governmental cost of each criminal in Great Britain is, from first to last, 
nearly £400 ! and nobly endorses that great truth in political economy, 

* Before the late revolution. At the election in December, 1851, the sufTrage was nominally 
• universal,' and the number of votes was about 8,000,000, 



ERi] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. IS 

that " The cheapest system of police is education !" Students in New-York 
Free Academj^, 1851, 382 ; professors and tutors 17. — F. A. Catalogue {See 
Schools.) In the United States there are 217 colleges and professional schools, 
120 colleges proper, 43 theological, 17 law, 37 medicine. Of the colleges 13 
are Baptist, 8 Episcopalian. 13 Methodist, and 11 Roman Catholic. The 
number of volumes in the diflerent collegiate libraries is 871,800. — American 
Almanac. 

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The crude idea was started by Schwenter, a Ger- 
man, in 1636. — Lond. Pldlos. Jaur. In 1684 the celebrated Hooke presented 
a communication to the Royal Society, " showing how to communicate one's 
mind at great distances, not by sound but by sight!" — Chambers. In 1774, 
Le Sage of Geneva submitted a plan for an electric telegraph, to Frederick 
the Great, as '' the monarch best capable of realizing it." In 1787, Lomond, 
of Paris, exhibited to Arthur Young ■' an alphabet of motions" appertaining 
to an electric telegraph ; the distances to be accomplished by which. Young 
expressly states, " depended solely on the length of the wires." In Jan. 1851, 
twenty-two thousand miles of a continuous telegraphic route, extending from 
Halifax, N. S., to New Orleans, and as far West as Dubuque, Iowa, was ac- 
complished as follows : Professor Morse's principle, 12,000 miles ; Messrs. 
House and Bain 10,000 miles. — Scien. American. Dec. 2, 1851, a dispatch of 
84 words was sent from New York to New Orleans, a distance of 1,900 miles, 
and an answer received in less than five minutes ; the whole distance traversed 
being 3,800 miles. — N. Y. Commercial. BakewelFs copying electric telegraph 
expei'imented on, Apr. 1851, gave fac-similes of autographs, at the rate of 
120 to 150 letters per minute. The submarine telegraph between Dover and 
Calais, completed Oct. 17, opened for public use Nov. 13, 1851. United 
States brig Dolphin, sailed Oct. 1851, upon her expedition to run a line of 
soundings for telegraphic purposes across the Atlantic. 

EMIGRATION to the U. S. A. Passengers arrived in the year ending June 
30, 1849, 299,610, of whom 213,736 landed at New York; in 1850 the num- 
ber was 315,333, of whom 212. 796 landed in New York. 

ENGLAND. Resignation of the Russell Ministry Feb. 22, 1851 ; after several 
unsuccessful attempts by Lord Stanley to form a cabinet. Lord J. Russell 
and his colleagues resumed their ministerial functions. Second reading of 
the prohibited Affinity Marriage Bill, lost in the House of Peers, Feb. 25, 
by a vote of 16 to 50 ; Lord Campbell and the Ecclesiastical Bench voting 
in the majority. Great Exhibition, May 1st, which see. Banquet to royal 
and foreign commissioners of Great Exhibition, on board American steamer 
Atlantic at Liverpool, by Mr. W. Brown, M. P., July 12, 1851. Oath of 
Abjuration (Jew) Bill, passed by the Commons, is refused a second read- 
fag in the House of Lords, July 17, by a majority of 36. July 18, Alderman 
Salomons, the Jewish member for Greenwich, not permitted to take his seat. 
(Case in abeyance.) Resignation of Lord Palmerston, Sec. for Foreign Af- 
fairs, Dec. 1851. 

ENVELOPES FOR LETTERS. Delarue's machine in London completes no 
less than 396,000 daily, the cutting, folding, and gumming, being performed 
by one single operation. — Illus. News. Dr. Hawes' three machines at 
Worcester, Mass., complete, count and pack 36,000 per day, and prepa- 
rations are making for a contract of 120,000 daily. — W. Spy. 

ERIE CANAL ENLARGEMENT. The passage of this bill defeated in the 
New York Senate April 16, 1851, by the withdrawal and resignation of 
twelve of the democratic members. The bill passed by new Legislature, 
1851. 

ERIE RAILROAD. This great undertaking, extending from N. Y. city to 



14 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS; 1850-51. [EXP 

Dunkirk, 469 miles, was opened by President Fillmore. Mr. Webster, &c., 
15tli May, 1851. Original charter 1832; cost nearly' $20,000,OJU ; first 
regular journey 19th May, 1851, the whole distance being completed in 17 
hours, or nearly 27-2 miles per hour. 

EXHIBITION. GREAT, LONDON, opened by the Queen, May 1, closed Oct. 
11,1851. This building, erected for the exhibition of the "World's In- 
dustry" in arts, manufactures, &c., covered nearly nineteen acres, being four 
times the size of St. Peter's at Rome. It was erected from the designs of 
Joseph Paxton, almost entirely of glass and iron ; the cubic contents of the 
building were 33,000,000 feet; height of the transept, 108 feet. — 
Total cash receipts from privileges, season tickets and visitors, - - - j6505,107 

DC which ^356,808 25 was taken in the Is. days. 
Expenses and appropriations, 355,000 

Net profit, - £150,107 

Total number of visitors, 6,201,856 

Laraest number of admissions on closing day, being at 5 P. M., - - - 10S,000 

Nurhber of Exhibitors, 17,000 

Council Medals awarded to Great Britain, 79 ; Germany, 12 ; Austria, 4 ; Belgium, 2 ; Tuscany. 
2; Spain, 1 ; France, 56; United States, 5; Russia, 3 ; Switzerland, 2; Holland,!; Rome, 
1 ; and Turkey, 1. Total, 169. 
Jury Medals, of which 9 were awarded to U. S., 2,918. 

Tiie number of letters received by the acting Commissioners during their otficial session was 
Thirly-stven Thousand ! 

It is not a little to the honor of the United States that the articles com- 
bining the greatest utility were exhibited by American citizens ; McCor- 
mic's Reaping Machine being one of the most important and successful. 

EXPLOSIONS, Fires, E.^rthquakes, &c. Portuguese frigate. Donna Maria II., 
of 32 guns, accidentally destroyed by explosion at Macao, China, Oct. 29, 
1850, when 188 of the 244 men on board perished. At Fredericton, N.B., 
near 300 houses destroyed by fii'e, Nov. 11, 1850. A terrible hurricane at 
Cape Girardeau, Mo., Nov. 27, 1850, and many of the principal buildings 
destroyed. Steamer Anglo-Norman, on a pleasure trip, explodes at New Or- 
leans, Dec. 13, 1850, nearly 100 persons killed, wounded and missing. 
Violent storm, Boston and vicinity, March 17, 18.19, 1851, miusual rise of tide, 
and great damage to property on wharves. Earthquake at Valpai'aiso, South 
America, April 2, the most violent since that of 1822, few lives lost, but great 
destruction of property. Great storm on the whole sea-coast of Massachu- 
setts, April 15, 16, 17, greatly exceeding the injuries of the preceding month. 
The city of Amalfi, and neighboring towns southeast of Naples, visited by a 
series of shocks by earthquake July 14, and 3,000 persons supposed to have 
perished. Volcanic eruptions from 8 craters, in the mountains of Martin- 
ique, West Indies, Aug. 5. Tornado, attended with great injury to build- 
ings, &c., at St. Louis, Mo., Aug. 15 ; this was preceded by storms and 
freshets in Iowa and Tennessee. On the 17th great damage to shipping at 
Castries, St. Lucia, by an extraordinary commotion of the sea. A destruc- 
tive tornado passed over Waltham, West Cambridge, and Medford, Mass., 
Aug. 22, doing much damage in its progress. Same day a violent storm 
blew down and unroofed buildings, &c., at Tallahassee, Florida. 

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS, U. S. A. Year ending June 30, 1849, imports 
$147,857,439, exports $145.755,820 ; excess of imports, $2101,619. Imports 
for year ending June 30, 1850, $178,138 318. Year ending June 30, 1851, 
imports $210,000,000, exports $188,000,000 ; excess of imports $22,000,000. 
Specie imported same period, $5,000,000 ; do. exported, chiefly California 
gold, $29,000,000. The amount of imports in 1850, for articles of dress and 
personal ornament, was stated by N. Y. Express to be $18,476,768. 

EXPORTS OF Great Britain and Ireland, 1849, .£58,848,042— being an in- 



f'RAJ ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 15 

crease of £9,902,717 over those of 1848. Of the exports there were : — To 
British Colonies. Xl6.594.087 ; China, ^61.445. 959 ; United States of America, 
£9,564.909 ; Cuba, £733.169 ; Brazil, £2.067,299; Mexico and Central South 
America, £3,757,468. In 1850 the British exports were, to United States, 
£14,891,951, and to forty-four other countries, £37,847.085; total exports, 
1850,£71,867,885. — Pari. Returns. Imports by Great Britain. 1851, amount 
exclusive of London was, England, £6,691,629 ; Scotland, £1,961,981 ; Ireland, 
£2,055,925.— 7/Zus, News. 

FIRES. At San Francisco, $1,500,000 worth of property destroyed, Dec. 24, 
1849 Another at same place, May 4, 1850 ; 200 buildings, value $4,000,000, 
destroyed. Another at same place, 300 houses, &c., value $5,000,000 
burnt, June 14, 1850. — See Explosions. 

FIRE-ANNIHILATORS. The Water Bomb for extinguishing fires, invented 
by Zachary Greyl, a German, 1721 ; another by an English chemist, 1823, 
Phillips's annihilator, experimented with in New York, 1851. Salomon's 
gas engine exhibited, Cincinnati, Sept. 1851 ; and one by W. Lay, at Phila- 
delphia, same 5'ear. First fire engines in New- York, brought from London, 
1713, with hooks and ladders. 

FLAX-COTTON. M. Claussen's patent, in 1850, for a new preparation of hemp, 
under the title of cotton-flax, having excited much attention, extensive pre- 
parations were made in Great Britain and Ireland, for the cultivation of flax 
for the new material. A sample of 60 tons manufactured for a Manchester 
house, I flax and i cotton, was considered decidedly successful, when the 
British Board of Trade agreed to purchase a company's produce of 100,000 
acres, at the rate of £l2 per acre. In the western states, and particularly 
Ohio, the subject excited great interest, as a branch of trade well suited for 
the agricultural facilities of that district. 

FLOGGING IN THK NAVY. Bill to abolish it passed the House of Representa- 
tives of the United States, 131 to 29, Sept. 19, 1850. Mr. Brodhead of Penn- 
sylvania, presented a petition in Senate, Dec. 17, 1851, praying for " restor- 
ation of flogging in the United States Navy." 

FLORIDA, 1851. White population 47,167 ; free colored 925; slaves, 39,309; 
total 87,401. Farms in cultivation 4,304; manufacturing establishments 
producing annually upwards of $500,121. — Census Returns. 

FRANCE, 1849. Nov. 9, M. Poussin, French minister to the U. S., having been 
dismissed by the American government, sails for France. Nov. 12, trial of 
the political offenders of June 1848 ends at Versailles ; 11 are acquitted, 20 
convicted and sentenced — 17 to transportation for life, 3 to imprisonment for 
five years. Nov. 15, Ledrja RoUin and 30 other accused persons, absent from 
trial, are sentenced to transportation for life. 1850, Jan. 1. The President 
creates his uncle Jerome a marshal of France. April 15, 300 soldiers drown- 
ed at Anglers by the fall of a bridge. May 16, the French ambassador re- 
called from London in consequence of a dillaculty connected with an English 
claim on Greece. May 31, new electoral law restricting the right of suffrage, 
passed. June 21, an arrangement Avith England on the Greek dispute. 
June 24, dotation bill, giving the President 2,160,000 francs per ann., passed. 
Dec. the French government protests, at Vienna, against the proposed ex- 
tension of the Germanic Confederation beyond the Alps. 1851, Jan. 3, the 
Ministry resign. Feb. 8, the Presidential Dotation Bill proposing an additional 
grant of 1,800,000 francs, rejected in the assembly. March 25, Declaration at 
Honolulu of arrangement of difficulties between the Haisvaian government 
and the French republic. July 5, report of sub-committee on petitions, for 
revision 741,011; for revision and prolongation of powers 370,511; for pro- 
longation of powers 12,103; total signatures 1,123,165. July 19, question of 



16 ADDENDA TO THE WOULd's PROGRESS, 1 850-5 i. [gOL 

revision of French Constitution again taken in Assembly, when the minority 
was declared 97 less than the three-fourths required by the constitution. Dec. 
1, Revolution in France ; Louis Napoleon by a coup cUilat seizes the reins 
of government, dissolves the National Assembly; declares a state of sie^-e ; ar- 
rests the Members of the Assembly ; constitutes an entire new Ministry. 
The President proposes the instant restoration of universal suffrage ; an 
immediate election by people and army of a President, to hold office for ten 
years, to be supported bj^" a council of state, and two houses of Legislature. 
The revolution creates an intense excitement. Dec. 10, the vote of the army 
shows a large majorityfor Louis Napoleon. Resistance to the usurpation is 
shown in various parts of France, but the overwhelming power of the ainiy, 
and a " state of siege" in 33 departments, crushes all open opposition. Dec. 
20, the election, under various controlling influences, results in the confirm- 
ation of Louis Napoleon as President for 10 j^ears, bj^ a vote of about seven 
millions out of eight millions. The French census of 1851 shows a total pop- 
ulation of 35,500,000. The number of foreigners domiciled, of all nations, 
exceeds 1,000,000, of which 75,000 are British, or about one-half the British 
residents previous to the revolution of 1848. 

GAS. First introduced in U. S. in City of Baltimore 1820, and shortly after in 
Boston, New York and Philadelphia. — Sci. American. Opposed in Italy 
by the Pope (Gregory XVI.) as " subversive of religion " in suppressing the 
sale of wax candles for the shrines. — Gas Journal. Water Gas discovered 
by Lavoisier, circa 1790. — Sci. American. Paine's Water Gas spoken of 
during the last 5 or 6 years, but appears to have been accomplished by the 
French Chemists. Superior gas from wood and fibrous matter, the discovery 
of a German, used at the R. R. Depot at Munich, 1851. In 1847 the expense 
of gas at the London Gen. Post Office was X3.047 ; increased facilities by the 
Gas Co. gradually reduced the charges in 1850, when the whole amount paid 
by the Post Office was ill, 485. 

GEORGIA. Population in 1850 was,— white, 513,083 ; free colored, 2,586 ; slaves, 
362.966; federal representative pop. 733,448. — Census Returns. 

GERMANY. The Archduke John resigns his office as head of the central power 
at Frankfort. Dec. 20, 1849. The Schleswig-Holsteiners under Gen. Willisen, 
engage the Danes at Idstedt, in a bloody but indecisive battle, July 25, 1850. 
The Schleswig-Holsteiners attempt to take Frederickstadt, but are repulsed 
by the Danes and lose 500 men, Oct. 5, 1850. Difficulties in Hesse-Cassel, 
between the Elector and his people, in regard to the mode of taxation. Aus- 
tria aud Prussia respectively send armies to the Electorate, to take opposite 
parts in the struggle ; but they are soon after withdrawn, without collision, 
Sept.— Nov. 1850. 

GIPSIES. A company from England arrived in Cecil county, Maryland, in 
March 1851, bringing with them all their wandering habits and peculiarities. 

GLOBES, MONSTER. Originally exhibited in Paris 1823, and a more perfect 
one by M. Gu^rin in 1844, which he styled the Georama. — Art. Jl. Wyld's 
Monster Globe erected in London 1851. employed 300 men nearly 30 days in 
fitting up the interior. — ///. News. 
GOLD. Received from California, in port of New York, 1851, 

•Tanuary, - - - $2,890,903 

February - - - 4,363,471 

March, - - - 1,951,055 

April, .... 2,02.3,119 

May, . - . 2,282,388 

June, .... 3,975,355 

Gold discovered at Opkir, Bathurst District, Australia, by Mr. Hargreaves, 
in Feb. 1851 ; and at Port Philip, in June, same year. One piece weighed 



July, 


$3,094,311 


August, 


- 4,105,689 


Saptember, 


3,237,460 


October 


- 3,756,241 


Nov. to 21st, 


5,233,813 



hun] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 17 

3 lbs. 10 oz. ; and Dr. Kerr found in one day over 102 lbs., value £4000 ster- 
ling. The diggings are estimated at 300 miles in extent. Gold mines re- 
ported to be discovered in the province of Gerona, Spain, Oct. 1851. Nearly 
.£750,000 sterling was raised in London, Nov. 1851, for California and Aus- 
tralian gold mining operations. 

GREECE. Lord Palmerston's note to the Greek government, Nov. 1851, pro- 
duces great sensation at Athens, and the ministerial crisis likely to end in 
favor of the Russian party. 

GUN COTTON. Discovered by Prof. Schoenbein, in Germany, 1846, but its 
practical utility for mining purposes supersedes its use in tii-e-arms. 

GUTTA PERCHA. Previous to 1844, the very name of gutta percha was un- 
known to European commerce. In that year two cwt. was shipped experi- 
mentally from Singapore. The exportation of gutta percha from that port 
rose in 1845 to 169 piculs (the picirl is 1330 lbs.) ; in 1846, to 5,364 ; in 1847, 
to 9,292 ; and in the first seven months of 1848, to 6,768 piculs. In the first 
four and a half years of the trade, 21,598 piculs of gutta percha, valued at 
$274,190, were shipped at Singapore, the whole of which were sent to Eng- 
land, with the exception of 15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to the continent of 
Europe, and 922 to the United States. The great variety of articles for do- 
mestic use, the ornamental arts, &c., to which this material has been applied, 
has given employment to thousands, not only in the factories of our own 
and other countries, but also to the gatherers in the Indian Archipelago, 
with whom it at present constitutes one of their most profitable articles of 
export. 

HAMBURGH. Occupied by 4,000 Austrian troops, Jan. 1851. 
HATS, STRAW. This branch of trade is principally carried on in Massachu- 
setts. At Medfield the value of Bonnets made in 1851 was ^^134,000 ; Fox- 
boro' for the same period, $122,000 ; and in Franklin $160,000. In Boston 
city alone there are over 300 sewers. 
HESSIAN FLY. This plague to agriculturists was introduced into this country 
by the foreign mercenaries on Long Island, 1777, from their baggage or in 
the forage of their horses. 
HUMAN RACE. Dr. Pickering enumerates eleven different races, of which 
the names and numbers, supposing the whole human family to be 
900,000; 000, are as follows : 

Abyssinian, - - - 3,000,000 

Papuan, - - - 3,000,000 

Negrillo, - - - 3,000,000 

Australian, - - - 500,000 

Hottentot, - - - 500,000 

Dr. P. supposes that there have been at least two centres whence these dif- 
ferent races have been derived, one in Asia and the other in Africa ; he does 
not support the original unity of the races in one parent stem. — See Picker- 
i'lig's Races of Men, 1861. Professor Agassiz contends for a primitive 
ubiquity, or different types of humanity co-existent in different climes and 
countries. 

HUNGARY. The fortress of Comorn surrenders to the Austrians, September 
27, 1849. Count Louis Batthyani, late prime minister of Hungary, shot at 
Pesth, at the sole urgency of Haynau, October 7, 1849. In his visit to Lon- 
don, September, 1850, Haynau was attacked and severely maltreated for his 
cruelty in the late Hungarian war. General Bem dies at Aleppo, December 
9. The Austrian government and the Ottoman Porte, in Feb., 1851, con- 
clude on a general amnesty towai'ds the Hungarian refugees, eight only ex- 
cepted, amongst whom is Kossuth. Mr. Charles Brace, an American, im- 



While, - 


350,000,000 


Mongolian, - 


- 300,000,000 


Malayan, 


120,000,000 


Telingan, - 


60,000,000 


Negro, 


55,000,000 


Ethiopian, - 


5,000,000 



18 ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [iRO 

prisoned in Hungary May 23, on a charge of being an agent of TJjhazy and 
Cretz, and travelling with revolutionary books, &c., for the purpose of ex- 
citing rebellion. The authorities of Pesth. November 15th, forbid the distri- 
bution of all foreign journals, including those intended for editors of news- 
p|ipers, until decision is received as to what papers, &c., shall be admitted. 
Louis Kossuth, ex-governor of Hungary, after a series of vicissitudes, 
during which he was nobly protected by the Ottoman Porte, visits England 
on his route to this country, landing at New- York, December 5, 18-51. where, 
as in England, he was received with every demonstration of friendship and 
liberality, in return for his great exertions to procure the freedom of his 
native country. His arrival in New- York was known, per telegraph, at Mil- 
waukie. 1,000 miles distant, in less than fifteen minutes. Great Kossuth- 
procession, Saturday. December 6th, 1851. This was followed by a public 
banquet, professional dinners, &c., &c. ; Kossuth's semi-official interview 
with the President at Washington, December 31. He is formally presented 
to the Senate of the United States, January 5, 1852. 

ILLINOIS, Population of in 1850 was,— white, 846,104; colored, 5,366; farms 
in cultivation, 76,208; dwelling-houses, 146,544; manufactories producing 
annually ^500 and upwards, 3,099. — Census Retwrns. 

INDEX Expurgatory. In 1850 the " Congregation of the Index" among other 
works placed on their pages Professor Vericour's (Cork College) " Historical 
Annals of Christian Civilization." — Ilhistrated News. In 1851, D'Harmon- 
ville's " Diet, de Dates," 1844, Professor Whateley's " Elements of Logic," and 
Henry's " Historical Institutions of Egyptians," were added to the list. The 
last author, however, "made due submission to the Church." — Giornale di 
Roma, April, 1851. 

INDIA, British. A fourth presidency contemplated by Great Britain, Nov. 1851, 
and a proposal to remove the seat of government from Calcutta to Lahore. 

INDIANA, 1850. White population, 983,634; free colored, 5,100. Total, 
988 734. Farms in cultivation, 93,896 ; manufactories producing annually 
S500 and upwards, 4,326. — Census Returns. 

INDIA RUBBER. The natives of Hindostan were the first to collect this sub- 
stance, which was introduced into England in 1735, for the purpose of re- 
moving pencil marks from paper. — AlJicn. In 1772 a cubical one-half inch 
of this substance cost 3s. sterling. Mr. Macintosh, of England, was the first 
to manufacture the prepared gum for its present innumerable applications. 
Cuirasses of vulcanized rubber were introduced in the French army, 1851, 
and said to be biillet-proof (?) The daily product of India rubber shoes, 
made in the United States, is calculated at 15,000, at an annual profit of 
nearlj' $200 000. — Farmer and Mechanic. 

INOCULATION. The small-pox was introduced into the United States 
about 1517 ; and so late as the year 1769 we find the practice of inoculation 
prohibited by law in Virginia, 

IOWA. The population of this territory, according to census returns 1850, 
was 192 214, and the aggregate valuation of taxable property $22,623,334, 
being an increase of $4,114,567 since 1849. — Avierican Almanac. 

IRON, United States, 1851. 

* Annually. 

Mine at Salisbury, Conn., yields, - ..... 3,000 tons. 

Dulchessand Columbia Co., N.Y., 20,000 " 

EfS'xCo., 15,000 " 

Clinton Co., - - - 3,000 " 

Franklin Co., GOO " 

St. Lawrance Co., 2,000 " 

Value oflron produced in the U.S.,1S35, .... $6,000,000 

'. " " 1837, - ... 7,700,000 



LAN] ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 19 

The iron ores in Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Illinois, Maryland, and Virginia, 
from recent inspections, are found to be inexhaustible. — Sci. American. In 
the Gentleman's Magazine, 1783, is a recommendatoi-y article of cast iron, 
then in its infancy, which is there said to be " capable of being carried to a 
great extent." 

JESUITS. In 1851 this body published in Italy a " Catechism Filosnfio," or 
dialogue on Monarchical "Constitutions, containing instructions for kings, 
how far thty may go with a safe conscience in breaking promises made to 
their people. — Edin. Rev. 

JEWS. Of the original twelve tribes, two only are at present known ; the 
tribes of Judah and Benjamin. The Spanish and Portuguese Jews are the 
descendants of Judah ; the Jews of Germany and Northern Europe are of the 
tribe of Benjamin —Art Jour. Dr.Raphael (lecture N. Y., May, 1851), states 
that with the exception of Josephus. who wrote in Greek, and M. Jost, who 
wrote in German, about 1841, the Jewish historians from the first century 
(A.D.,)'to the nineteenth, invariably wrote in the Hebrew language. Dr. 
Lykins, of the Pottawattamie Reservation, exhibited in the office of Indian 
Department, Washington, in Dec. 1851, a Jewish frontlet, containing por- 
tions of the Pentateuch, which he received from P'ategwe. a Pottawattamie 
Indian, iu whose family it had been from time immemorial. There were 
originally two of these indexes of Jewish faith, one of which was irrecover- 
ably lost in crossing a river. — Nat. Intel. This curious discovery may per- 
haps be considered as strengthening the opinion of the late Major Noah, 
that the American Indians are descended from the lost tribes of the Jewish 
people. 

KAFFIR (or Caffrk) WAR, in South Africa, against the British Colonists ; 
Jan., Feb. 1851, several engagements and many lives lost. — See Africa. 

KENTUCKY. The census returns show the population in 1850 to have been 
987.950; of whom 776,713 were free, and 211.237 slaves. The increase com- 
pared with returns of 1840, is, free, 179,143 ; slaves, 28,979 ; total, 208,122. 
The first white man who built in Kentucky, was James Harrod, in 1774, at 
Harrod's Station, near the present town of Harrodsburg. 

KOSSUTH.— &e Hungary. 

LAND OWNERS. It is a remarkable fact, that of all the constitutional states 
of Europe or America, Great Britain is the country in which the people 
hold the smallest stake in the soil. France with a population of 32,560,034, 
has 10,896,682 landed proprietors, or one in three. The United States, with 
a po])ulation of 20,000 000, has 5,000,000 proprietors, or one in four. Belgium, 
with a population of 5,022,677, has 950,723 proprietors, or one in five. Hol- 
land, a commercial and shipping country, with a population of 3,500 000, has 
400,000 proprietors, or one in nine. Sweden, with a population of 3,874,203, 
has 300,000 proprietors, or one in twelve. While Great Britain and Ireland, 
with a population of 27,041, 050, have only 633,421, or one in forty of the popu- 
lation, including freeholders and copyholders, with a direct interest in the 
soil. 

LANDS (Public) of the U. S. A. Within the limits recognized by treaties and 
cessions (see American Almanac, 1850, p 179), the public lands covered an 
estimated area of 1,584,000,000 acres. To the 30th Sept. 1849, 146,000 000 
acres had been sold, leaving unsold an area of 1,438,000, acres, which land, 
in large bodies of detached tracts, is found in the several States and Terri- 
tories above mentioned. The system for surveying and disposing of the 
public lands was established by the act of 20th May, 1785, and has continu- 
ed to the present time but with slight modifications, viz. ; every township 
of six square miles is to be divided into 36 sections, of one mile square, each 



20 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



section generally containing 640 acres. The lands are then proclaimed by 
the President for sale, at public auction, at not less than SI 25 per acre, and 
such as hereafter remain unsold may be purchased at private sale at that 
rate. — American Almanac. 

Quantity of Public Land sold, and the amount paid for it, in each Year, from 1833 to the 
Third Quarter of 1850. 



Years. 


Acres. 


Dollars. 


Years. 


Acres. 


Dollars. 


1833 


3,856,227-56 


4,972,284-84 


1843 


1,605,264-06 


2,016,O44-.30 


1834 


4,658,218-71 


6.099,981-04 


1844 


1,7.54.763-13 


2,207,678-04 


1835 


12.564,478-85 


15,999,804-11 


1845 


1.843,527-05 


2,470,303-17 


1836 


20,074,870-92 


25,167,833-06 


1846 


2,263,730-81 


2,904,637-27 


1837 


5,601,103-12 


7,007,523-04 


1847 


2,52 1,305 -.59 


3,296,404-08 


1838 


3,414,907-42 


4,305,564-64 


1848 


l,8S7..553-04 


2,621,615-26 


1839 


4,976,382-87 


6,464,556-79 


1849 


1,329,902-77 


1,756,890-42 


1840 


2,236,839-74 


2,789,637-53 


1850" 


869,082-32 


1,129,186-50 


1841 


1.164,796-11 


1,463.364-06 














1842 


1,129,217-58 


1,417.972-06 


Total + 


73,752,221-65 


$94,191,279-21 



' Embracing only three quarters of the year, t Total for eighteen years and three quarters. 
LANGUAGE. Ethnography has furnished conclusive evidence that the 
family of American languages have had a common origin with those of 
Asia. The unity of all human language must be considered as establishing 
an identical unity of all the human races ; all dialects must be regarded as 
dialects of one iiow lost. — Dr. Smyth's Unity of Human Races. 

LAW. The number of Lawyers in the United States, in March 1851, was 21,979, 
or about one to every tifteen hundred inhabitants. — Monthly Law Magazine. 
Estimating their average receipts at SIOOO per annum, their aggregate 
income would reach within a fraction of twenty-two millions of dollars. In 
1851 there were in New York, 4.740 lawyers; in Pennsylvania, 1,848; in 
•Ohio, 2,031 ; in Massachusetts, 1,132 ; in Kentucky, 1,066 ; and in Georgia, 
908. — Livingston's Laiu Register. 

LETTERS. The number of letters transmitted in the following European 
countries annually, were estimated, in March 1851, as follows: — 

Population. Letters. Pr. Head. 

England, - - - 29,000,000 320,000,000 11- 

France, .... 36.000,000 108,000,000 3" 

Prussia, - - - 16,500,000 45.000,000 2-7 

Switzerland, - - - 2,408,000 13.600,000 5-6 

Austria, - - - 37,000,000 23,000,000 0-6 
Being rather more than half a letter iot t&zh inhabitant of the Austrian dominions. 

London Watchman. Vide P. Office. 

LIBRARIES in United States, 1851. Professor Jewett, of the Smithsonian In- 
stitute, shows the number of libraries to March, 1851, to be 10,640, and the 
aggregate number of volumes 3, 641. 765. Of these, Harvard comprises 
83,000; Philadelphia and Loganian, 60,000; Congressional, 50,000 ; Boston 
Athenaeum, 56,000. The aggregate number of volumes in 182 of the largest 
libraries was stated by Mr. Evans, before the select committee, British House 
of Commons, to be 1.294.000. The Legislature of New- York, in 1851, voted 
an appropriation of $75,000 for the erection of a State library in the rear of 
the capitol at Albany. Among the donations to this library is one from 
Austria of the Pater Noster in upwards of 600 languages and dialects. A large 
portion of the valuable library of Congress destroyed by fire in the Cajitol, 
Dec, 1851. 

LINEN. The average annual import of linens into the United States is esti- 
mated at about S6^500,000. The only manufactory in the United States is 
that of Mr. Stevens, at Webster, Massachussetts. In 1840 the flax crop in 
all the States north of the Ohio river, and including Maryland, covered some 



mas] addenda to the world''s progress, 1850-51. 21 

four millions of acres, averaging 350 lbs. flax lint per acre ; of which about 
one-third is fit for linen fabric ; the remainder, say ISOlbs., being available for 
paper bagging, &c. The excess of profit in the culture of flax compared with 
cotton, is shown by A^. Y. Tribune, April, 1851, to be nearly 50 per cent. 

LIGHTHOUSES. In July, 1850. the lighthouse establishment of the United 
States numbered 315 lights in lighthouses, and 40 floating-lights, attended 
in all by 346 keepers, exhibiting over 3,000 lamps, and supported at an 
annual expense of $141,153. 

LITHOGRAPHY. A process for printing in oil by different stones, according 
to the colors required, was invented byJMr. Kronheim, of Pater noster Row, 
London, in March, 1851. 

LOCKS. Mr. Chubb, of London, stated before the Society of Arts in Jan., 
1851, that the basis of all security in modern locks is found in the old 
Egyptian, the original of the patent tumbler lock. — Illustrated News. His 
lock, however, was picked by the celebrated Mr. Hobbs, of New- York, during 
the session of the Great Exhibition, 1851. Day and Newell's parautoptic 
lock, exhibited in the Crystal Palace, is susceptible of 1,307,647,368,000 
changes ; the time required for effecting the whole of which would consume 
13,000,000 years. 

LOTTERIES. The Maryland Convention of 1851 passed a resolution abolish- 
ing all lotteries and their attendant evils, after April, 1859. 

MANHATTAN. This term, as applied to the island on which the city of New- 
York stands, is taken from the name given by the Indians to the original 
Dutch settlement in 1621, and means '^ the place where they (the Indians) all 
got drunk !" 

MANUFACTURES. The increase of manufacturing industry in Great Britain 
in sixty years, is shown by the following table of the raw materials used in 
that kingdom : 

Tn 1790. In 1849. 

Wool, .... 3,245,352 lbs. 76,756.183 lbs. 

Silk, 1,253,445 " 6,881,861 " 

Hemp, .... 592,306 « 1,061,273 " 

Flax, - - ' - - . 257,222 " 1,806,786 " 

Cotton, .... 30,574,374 " 758,841,650 " 
See " Cotton," &c. 

MARYLAND. The new Constitution of this State went into operation on 4th 
July, 1851, and from its general acceptance promises greatly to increase the 
prosperity of the State. Population by the census of 1850, 582,506, of which 
89,800 were slaves. 

MASKS. Before the introduction of females on the British stage, masks were 
used in the representation of female characters', by the male actors who 
were no longer youthful. — Knight's Shakspcare. They were also employed 
by female actors in the early stage of the English drama, and also by women 
when travelling. Miss Livingston, of New-York, who married Nicholas 
Bayard, about 1749, when she rode out in cold weather, or went sleighing, 
wore a black velvet mask, with a silver button or mouthpiece to keep it on. 

MASSACHUSETTS. The polls, population, and valuation, for the last four 
decennary terms, are as follows, viz. : 

Polls. PopTilatinn. Valuation. 

1820, - - - 125,715 - - 523,287 - - $153,644,265 . 

1830, - - - 150,691 • - 610,408 - - 208,908,107 

1840, - - - 185,908 - - 718,592 - - 299,878,327 

1850, - - - 245,142 - - 994,665 - - 597,936,969 

The relative increase of polls, population, and property, during the above 
periods, omitting fractions, is as follows : 



22 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PKOGRESS, 1850-51. [MET 

Polls. Population. Valuation, 

1820 to 1830, - - 28,000 - - 17,000 - - $55,000,000 

1830 to 1840, - • 35,000 . - 108,000 - - 9i;000,O00 

1840 to 1850, - - 57,000 - - 255,000 - - 299,048,666 

In this State systematic beggary is unknown. The poor are provided for by 
law, and for this purpose not less than 204 comfortable alms-houses are 
sustained at the public charge. The number of persons relieved or sup- 
ported as paupers, in the year 1850, was 25.981, and of these 12,334 were 
foreigners, the larger portion being from Ireland. The weekly cost of each 
pauper in alms-houses was Sl'OSs- ; out of alms-houses, $0*98. Estimated 
value of pauper labor in alms-houses, S17,966. Of paupers by reason of 
idiocy, the number was 969 ; while that from intemperance in themselves, 
or through others, was not less than 14,674. Number of pubhc schools in 
this State, 1850, was 3,878 ; scholars in summer, 176,344 ; in winter schools, 
194.403. Male teachers, 2,442 ; female do., 5,985. Average expense each 
scholar in Massachusetts is nearly $8. Value of public school-houses in 
1848 was S2,750,000, of which amount S2,200,000 had been expended since 
1838. Criminal prosecutions in 1850 were 3,764, of which the convictions 
were 1,907. Of the banks in Massachusetts, there are 29 in Boston, and 97 
in various parts of the State ; cash capital, independent of other resources, 
$36,925,050; circulation, $17,005,826. The commerce and manufactures of 
Mass. have advanced 100 per cent, in the last ten years — Am. Al. ; the im- 
portations more than doubled, and its tounaffe has increased more than 50 
per cent. The-Avealth of Boston and its suburbs, in 1840, was $120,000,000 ; 
in 1850 it had increased to nearly $270,000,000. The annual value of the 
boots and shoes manufactured in Massachusetts is estimated at $18,000,000. 

MEDICINE. The first medical school established in the U. S. was commenced 
in Philadelphia in 1768 ; this was closed during the first war with Great 
Britain. First medical degrees conferred were by King's College, New 
York, 1769. Thatcher's " Brief Guide on Small Pox and Measles," Mass., 
1677, was the first medical work published in this country. Inoculation for 
small pox introduced by Dr. Z. Boylston of Boston, 1677, having first ex- 
perimented on his own son ; Dr. B. Van Beuren first practised inoculation in 
New- York. The first recorded post-mortem examination in America was 
that of Gov. Sloughter, by Dr. Johannes Kutbyl and five other physicians 
of New-York, in 1691 ; and the first medical meeting was held in New 
Brunswick, N. J., Vim.— Lit. World. 
Medical Sludents,fall Session, N. Y., 1S51. 

Coll. Physicians and Surgeons, .... 197 

Univei-sity of New-York, ..... 179 
N. Y. Medical College, 69 

445 
Med. Gaz. 
At the Female Med. College, Philadelphia, June, 1851, there were forty 
students. Doctor or Doctress Elizabeth Blackwell practises at this present 
(for females and children) in N. York city. 

MESMERISM. In 1776, F. A. Mesmer of Germany first made pubhc his doc- 
trine of a subtle fluid produced by planetary influence acting on the nervous 
system of the animal frame. Franklin and Dr. Bailly exposed the futility 
of animal magnetism, which theory, however, has been lately revived, both 
in this country and Europe. Among others who have made themselves 
conspicuous in favoring this absurdity, is the celebrated Miss Martineau. — 
Haydn. 

METEORIC Stone falls at Charlotte, N. C, accompanied by explosion. &c., 
Oct. 31, 1849. 

METHODISTS. The general "Book Concern" of this body was first estab- 



mor] addenda to the wokld's progress, 1850-51. 23 

lished at Philadelphia in 1800. — Ezekiel Cooper, Agent ; it was subsequently 
removed to New-York. The unfortunate dissension between the Northern 
and Southern Methodist Conferences on the question of Slavery was brought 
to trial in New-York in May, 1851, and by decision of Judge Nelson, of U. 
S. Circuit Court, in Nov. of that j^ear, judgment was given confirming the 
full right and title of the Southern Conference to their proportion of the 
profits of the General Book Concern, the value in 18i5 being |i750,000. The 
case will be moved to the Superior Court. 

MEXICO. Gen. Arista inaugurated president of republic of Mexico, Jan. 
15, 1851. The initial boundary point between Mexico and the U. States, es- 
tablished on the right bank of the Rio Grande, in 32° 22' north latitude, by 
the American and Mexican commissioners, and a monument recording 
same, erected April 24, 1851. Herrera, ex-president of Mexico, dies in that 
city May 15, 1851. Gen. Carvajal's insurrection in Northern Mexico — his 
attack on Metamoras Oct. 20, 1851, 

MEXICAN WAR with the United States. Mr. Corwin, Sec. of the Treasury, 
estimates the direct and indirect cost of this war to the U. S. at nearly 
$300,000,000. 

MICHIGAN. The population of this state in 1850 was— Whites, 393,156; 
Free colored, 2,547 ; Federal Rep. Poi3ulation, 395,708. — Census Returns. 

MILITIA, U. S. The Army Register for 1851, gives the aggregate number of 
the militia force throughout the States as 2,006,456, this does not include 
Iowa, California, Minnesota, Oregon, Utah, and New Mexico, from which 
there are no returns. Of the volunteer companies included in the militia re- 
turns, New-York city furnishes 170, each of which averages 60 members. 

MILITARY BOUNTY Land Bill, passed the House of Representatives, U. S. 
June 25, 1850. It gives 160 acres of land for 12 months' service in the war 
of 1812, and the Mexican and Indian wai'S. 

MILITARY, U. S. The number of officers, non-commissioned officers, privates, 
&c., attached to the army of the U. States on 1st January, 1851, was 10,334. 

MINNESOTA. The first Territorial legislature closes its session of sixty days 
Nov. 1, 1849. The census retui-ns show the population of this territory in 
1850 to be — white, 6,038; colored, 39— total, 6,077; farms in cultivation, 
157 ; manufactories producing annually S500 and upwards, 5. 

MISSISSIPPI. The literal translation of the aboriginal name is Great River; 
the Indian title is written variously by the early journalists ; Marquette 
spells it " " Missoissippy ;" Heniippin " Meschasipi." Sape is river, running 
water ; the prefix means '-'great" 'Mg." — Christ. Rev. 
The Population of Mississippi in 1850 was -. 

Whites. Slaves. 

North District, 170.459 134.508 

Soutli " ] 29,550 177;060 

Totals, .... 300,009 311,568 

The Mississippi Legislature in the session of 1850 abolished the common- 
law form of pleadings, for a system similar to that of chancery or civil law, 
and appointed a special officer for making up the •' Mississippi Reports," 
to the exclusion of all other reporters. These reports are in future to be 
printed by the State only. — Am. Almanac. 
MORMONS. The number of Mormons in England and U. S. early in 1851 
was estimated at 300,000. Twenty-five hundred left the former country 
for Deseret in the spring of that year. — AUien'm. In April, 18ol. their elders 
and preachers were gathering converts to their principles in Italy and 
Switzerland, and especially among the Waldenses ; also at Paris. Their 



24 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [nEW 

celebrated " Bible," professed to have been delivered to Joe Smith, was 
really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding, about 1812, as a supposed history of 
some ancient mounds in Ashtabula co., Ohio. The MS. is said to have been 
borrowed by one of the Mormons, who copied it and subsequently printed 
the same. — Athen. A copy of this " Bible" in the English, French, and 
Danish languages, was intended for exhibition in the Crystal Palace, 1851. 

MORTALITY, New-York. Deaths— 4,042 men— 3,683 women— 6,798 boys, 
and 5 234 girls — total, 19,755. Greatest mortality in a single month in July 
when 2,364 persons deceased ; lowest in June, when 1,385 died. Deaths in 
1850, were 16,978— increase 1861, 2,777.— iV. Y. Ccmmercial. 

MOUNTAINS, FORMATION OF. Prof Gorini of the University of Lodi, in 
Oct. 1851, by a remarkable process, illiistrated the formation of mountains 
by melting a secret composition, and allowing it gradually to consolidate, 
during which jDrocess portions continue to ooze up in gradual elevations, 
forming ranges and chains of hills exactly corresponding in shape with 
those which are found on the earth. — Lon. Times. 

MUSIC. Jenny Lind, the " Swedish Nightingale " gave her first concert in 
America at Castle Garden, New York. 1850. The proceeds of her 100 sub- 
sequent concerts in the U. States and Havana, were estimated at $^800,000. 

MURDER. John W. Webster, Professor of Chemistry in Harvard College, ex- 
ecuted in Boston for the murder of Dr. Geo. Parkman (Nov. 1849,) August 
30, 1850. 

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF DESIGN, N. Y. Instituted 1826; number of 
members originally limited to 35; but now increased to 50. — A?-t Jour. 

NAVY, OF THE U. S. The Naval power Sept. 1, 1851, consisted of the Penn- 
sylvania, 120 guns ; 10 Ships of line, 74 guns each ; the Independence Razee, 
64 guns ; 12 Frigates of 1st class, 44 guns each ; 2 Frigates of 2d class, 36 
guns each ; 21 Sloops of war, 20 guns each ; 1 do. 18 guns, and 4 of 16 guns 
each ; 4 Brigs of 10 guns each : 3 Schooners, 4 guns ; 5 Steam Frigates, 
30 guns (including the Mississippi) ; the Powhatan — number of gnus not 
returned ; 3 Steamers 1st class 7 guns ; 3 do. 2d class 8 guns, and 4 do. num- 
ber of guns not returned, with 5 store Ships and Brigs, 24 guns. 

NAVY, BRITISH. The Naval force of , the United Kingdom for 1850, compris- 
ed six hundred and seventy-one Ships of war, either in ordinary or commis- 
sion, varying from two to one hundred and twenty guns each ; of this number 
one hundred and seventy-eight are armed Steamers, of one hundred to three- 
hundred horse-power engines, constructed on the most approved principles 
for active sea service. This fleet, the largest of any maritime power on the 
globe, employs in time of peace 35,000 to 50,000 able-bodied seamen, 2,000 
strong lads, and 13,000 royal marines. 

NEW ENGLAND. " In 1630 the whole of New England contained but SOOin- 
habitants, which, in a century afterwards, had increased to 160 000, and may 
at this day be given at nearly three millions. The capital of New England, 
in 1720, contained 12,000 inhabitants; in 1820, 43,000 ; in 1830, 78,000 ; and 
in 1860i 186,000. Boston, in 1789, was proud of two stage coaches, which 
employed twelve horses ; she was prouder still in 1800, of twenty-five stage 
coaches, which employed one hundred horses ; in 1847, these twenty-five 
coaches had risen into two hundred and fifty coaches and omnibuses, em- 
ploying one thousand six hundred horses, without taking into account seven 
railways, which provide, daily, accommodation for 7,000 passengers. The 
first newspaper published in the colonies, was issued in 1704, ia this 
same city of Boston, and a third newspaper published in the same town, in 
1721, under the title of the Nexv England Courant, could not maintain itself, 
though it had very warm advocates, being supported by the Hell-flre Club ; 



new] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 25 

at this moment there are in Boston sixteen daily news-papers, with a 
circulation of 36,000 copies, and fifty weekly news-papers with a circu- 
lation of 223,000— to say nothing of semi-weekly papers, and semi-monthly 
papers, and monthly, quarterly, and annual publications. — Extract from Sir 
H. Bukoer's Speech before N. Eng. Society, Dec. 22, 1850. 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. The returns of the 7th census (1850) show a population 
of 817,997 ; in 1810 it was 284,574 ; gain in 10 years 83,423, being an increase 
of nearly 12 per cent. 

1850. 1851. 

Number of School Districts reported, ..... 2,167 2,222 

" Scholars in winter schools, .... 77,806 73,301 

" " summer " 61,498 58,328 

Whole amount raised for District Schools, - - S174,517 66 $179,065 46 

Increase above preceding year, .... 15,087 28 4,-547 80 

Number of Banks in N. Hampshire is 22 ; cash capital independent of othw 
resources, $2,501,000; circulation $2,012,837. — Am. Almanac. 

NEW JERSEY. The total free population of this State, according to the 7th 
census (1850) was 488.552, viz 466,288 white and 22,269 colored ; of the old 
slave population but 119 remaining. The number of children receiving pub- 
lic instruction in 1851 was 76 245, at the average cost per quarter of $2 10 
each pupil. The appropriations and receipts for school purposes was $152,- 
678 62 ; amount expended $99,560 13 ; whole available school fund was 
$377,929 86. — Am. Almanac. Transit duties levied upon merchandise and 
passengers, for the year 1850, and paid into the State Treasury was $75,511 
— viz.; Delaware fellaritan Canal $20,289; Camden & Amboy Rail-Road & 
Transportation Co., $41,421 ; New Jersey R. R. & Trans'n Co., $13,261. 

NEWSPAPERS. The newspaper press of a country may be regarded as the 
surest index to its intellectual condition. The census of 1850 shows the 
number of newspapers in the United States to be 2,800, of which 2,000 are 
published in the free, and 800 in the slave states. About 850 are Whig ; 
750 Ojiposition ; 70 Freesoil or anti-slavery ; 20 Agricultural ; 40 Temper- 
ance ; 200 Religious ; and 870 neutral and miscellaneous. New York state 
publishes 443 papers ; Pennsylvania 328 ; Massachusetts 212 ; and Ohio 
SOO. — Census Returns. In the Austrian dominions it appears there are but 
10 newspapers ; 24 in Spain ; 20 in Portugal ; 30 in Asia ; 14 in Africa (1) ; 
65 in Belgium ; 85 in Denmark ; 90 in Russia and Poland ; 800 in Prussia ; 
and 320 in other Germanic States. Of the London papers it is stated that the 
daily circulation of the Times, in 1846, was 28,594 ; other papers 88,999 ; but 
in 1850 the Times had run up to 38,019 daily copies, while the circulation of 
all the other papers was only 24,116. The London Illustrated News, in 1849; 
rose to a weekly circulation of 69,000. Of the newspapers published in the 
United Kingdom, 159 are issued in London ; 222 in the English provinces ; 
110 in Scotland ; and 102 in Ireland. The duty paid for the different 
advertisements in these, in 1850, was .£163,038 ! In July, 1851, Burgess, an 
Englishman, issued the tirst number of a Persian Journal, with all the fea- 
tures of a general newspaper, under the patronage of the prime minister of 
that country. — N, Y. Tribune. 

NEW YORK City. The census of 1850 shows a population of 617,849, being an 
increase in ten years of 205,000, or about 65 per cent ; including Brooklyn, 
Williamsburg, and other suburbs, properly belonging to New York, the en- 
tire population was about 700,000. The manufacturing capital employed in 
this city, annually, according to the last census, is $105"218 308. Number of 
children in the Public and Ward schools in 1850, was 105,378. Dreadful acci- 
dent in 9th Ward school, Nov. 20, 1851, through a false alarm of fire, when 43 
children were killed, and 59 injured ; there were 1,800 children in the school 
at the time of the accident, under the superintendence of 24 teachers ! 



26 ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [PAT 

NEW MEXICO. This Territory, according to the census returns, 1850, has a 
white population of 61,632 ; colored 17. Farms in cultivation 3,750 ; man- 
ufactories producing annuallj' $500, and upwards, 20. 

NEW ORLEANS. Population shown hy the census returns, 1850, was 119,- 
285. — Am. Alma. Number of deaths, same year was 7.819, of which 1,389 
were by cholera. The St. Charles Hotel destroyed by fire. Mar. 18, 1851. 

NICARAGUA. General Munoz, ex-minister of war, deposes President Pineda 
and his cabinet, at Leon ; sends them prisoners to Tigre Islands, and elects 
Albaunaz president. The senate assembles at Grenada, and elects Monte- 
negro president, Aug. 4, 1851. Steamer Prometheus arrives at New York 
from San Juan, the Atlantic terminus of the Nicaragua route, Aug. 12, 1851, 
then for the first time opened. 

NORTHWEST PASSAGE. The Investigator and Enterprise, Sir James Ross's 
vessels, arrive in London, on their return from their fruitless Arctic E.xpe- 
pedition, Nov. 11, 1849. Another expedition, under Captains Collinson and 
McClure, sails from Woolwich, Jan. 11, 1850. Another, under Capt. Penny 
and Capt. Stewart, from Peterhead, April 13, 1850. Another under Capt. 
Austin, 4 vessels from Greenhithe, May 4, 1850. Another, under Sir John 
Ross, from Lochyran, May 24, 1850. — See Arctic Expedition. 

OHIO. The total population of this state in 1850, was 1,980,408; viz., white 
1,956 ; colored 24,300. Farms in cultivation 143,887 ; manufacturing es- 
tablishments producing annually over $500, 10 550 ; houses. 336,098. — Cen- 
sus Returns. In 1850 the wheat crop of Ohio amounted to 30,000,000 bushels. 
April, 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white settlers entered 
Ohio. 

OCEANS. Edrisi, the Nubian, writing in the 12th century of the Atlantic, 
says: '-There is no mariner who dares to enter into its deep waters, or if 
they have done so, keep along its coasts, fearful of departing from them." 
— Irding's Columbus. Lieut. Goldsborongh (U. S. ship Saratoga), in Dec, 1850, 
found soundings in the Atlantic 128° 21' south, at 3J miles ; but Sir James 
Ross in 1848, in lat. 15° 3' south, long. 26° 14', run out 4,600 fathoms, or 
nearly 5^ miles, without finding a bottom ; this appears to be the greatest 
depth satisfactorily obtained. In May, 1851, Lieut. Rodgers, TJ. S. navy, in 
Gulf Stream, 30 miles S.W. from Key West, sounded at 730 fathoms; but at 
another point at a depth of 3,000, the line was cut off, '■ supposed by a sword- 
fish." — Tribune. The entire surface of the sea is estimated at 150 millions 
of square miles, the Pacific covering 78 millions, the Atlantic 25 millions, 
and the Mediterranean one million. The waters of the Mediterranean and 
the Red Sea are exactly on a level. — Tribune. Mr. Stephenson (Brit. Ass., 
1850), from actual experiment, found the force of the waves is 1^ ton per 
square foot, in the German Ocean ; and nearly double that force in the waves 
of the At\^^iX\i\c.— Household Words. Dr. Scoresby (Brit. Ass., 1850), stated 
the height of the waves of the Atlantic, from the trough to the crest, to be 
43 feet and their average velocity a fraction over 32 miles an hour ; thus 
confirming Mr. Scott Russel's observations in 1845. 

OMNIBUSES, &c. The number licensed to carry passengers, in New- York 
in the year 1851, was 586 ; hacks d20.— Marshal's Returns. 

PARLIAMENT (British). The House of Commons first meets in the new 
building at Westminster, May, 1850. Baron Rothschild, a Jew, claims his 
seat as member elect for London, but his claim is postponed, August 5, 1850. 
Mr. Alderman Salomons, Jewish member for Greenwich, refused his seat in 
the Commons, July 18, 1851, the question still in abeyance. 

PATENTS, American. The number of patents granted by the oflSce at Wash- 
ington, from 1790 to 1850 inclusive, is 16,296. 



POS] ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 27 

PENCILS. Gessner first describes the " pencil of plumbago, in wooden handles," 
in 1565. — {Fossils.) Pettus (Fleta Minor) speaks decidedly of pencils " in- 
closed in fir or cedar," in 1683. M. Conte, of Paris, made great improve- 
ments in 1795. Mordan's " ever-pointed pencil" was patented about 1820. 
Philip Crabbe, the first manufacturer of lead pencils by machinery, died in 
his 100th year, in London, May, 1851.— Tribune. 

PENS, STEEL. The largest factors are Gillott's, of Birmingham, who em- 
ploy nearly 1,000 hands, for the conversion of 2^ tons of steel into 35,000 
gross of pens weekly ! In 1820-1 the first gross of three-slit pens was sold 
wholesale for ,£7 4s. ; in 1851 a superior article could be furnished at 3s. 6d. 
to 5s per gross, while the commonest pens can be rendered at twopence the 
gross! Gillott's house exhibited in the Crystal Palace, 1851, a giant pen of 
thirty-six inches in length, and close to this was a small glazed frame con- 
taining 15,840 steel pens, the whole weighing only one ounce. The greatest 
number of these pens are sent to the United States. — Illus. News. 

PENNSYLVANIA. The population exhibited by the 7th census, 1850, was 
2,311.681 ; the banking capital, $18,675,484 14 ; tax on dividends, 
$153,877 14 ; tax on corporation stocks, $70,008 86 ; ratio of tax, 12 ; in 
1849 the ratio was 14. — Herald. Total revenue for year ending Novem- 
ber 30, 1851, was $5,645,678 74; total expenditures during the same period 
$4,780,667 53. 

PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. By the census of 1850 this city and suburbs con- 
tains 406.353 inhabitants. Increase in ten years, 148,221, or about 57 per 
cent. In the city and county there are 258 public schools, with 45,388 child- 
ren, under the instruction of 81 male and 646 female teachers. The total 
school expenditure for the year 1850 was $332,433 21, being an average of 
$6 46 each child. Manufacturing capital of this city in 1850, according to 
census returns, was $33,000,000, and the annual products $61,000,000. 
Duties received at custom-house, 1851, Jan. to Nov. inclusive, $3,532,982, 
against $3,213,031 in corresponding period of preceding year. — Tribune. 

PLANK ROADS. The first plank road in Canada was laid down in 1836, and 
in New-York in 1837. Plank roads in operation, Jan. 1, 1851 : 

Canada. New- York. 
Numloer of roads, .... — 19 

Number of miles, .... 442 2,106 

Averase cost per mile, - - - $1,750 $1,833 

Total cost, $773,500 $3,860,292 

Very nearly four millions of dollars have been expended in New-York upon 
these roads, and the resulting advantages are immense. The Troy and 
Lansingburg road pays 10 per cent, dividend, which is generally believed to 
be the case Avith all the others, with the exception of the Utica and Bur- 
lington, which j'ields 20 per cent. None of the stocks are in the market. — 
Kingsford. 
POSTAGE, Gt. Britain. The gross revenue of the Post Office for the year 
ending Jan. 5, 1850, was £2 213,149 ; the cost of management, .£1,307,248 ; 
the net revenue, after deducting charges other than management, was 
^840,787. [An ample proof of the advantage of cheap postage.] The num- 
ber of Money Orders issued was 4,248,891, the representative value, 
.£8,152,643. The value of commission on the issue was £70,670 ; the 
amount of expenses incurred was £70,248. The total amount of the charge 
for packet service in the year was £748,296. The value of bank notes, 
checks, and money orders found in letters returned to the Dead Letter 
office, for the two years ending 5 Jan., 1851, amounted to £1,245,158 Bs. 5d., 
the whole of which was regularly entered and indexed, and is returnable 
to the claimant, on proving his title to same. 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



[pop 



POPULATION, United States of America, viz. : 





I860. 


1840. 


Incre.ise per cent, since 


STATES. 


TOTAL POPULATION. 


POPULA 


TION. 


1840. 




Whites. 


Sl.lves. 


Whites. 


Slaves. 


Whites. 


Maine ... - 


583,088 





501,798 




about 16 pr. ct. 


New Hampshire - 


317,864 




284,574 


i 


" 11 " 


Massachussets 


994,271 




737,699 




« 35 « 


Conrjecticut 


370,604 




309,978 


17 


" 20 « 


Rhode Island 


147.555 




108,830 


5 


" 36 " 


Vermont 


313,466 




291,948 




« 7 « 


New York - 


3,090,022 




2.428.621 


4 


« 28 " 


New .Jersey 


489,333 


222 


■373.306 


974 


» 31 « 


Pennsylvania 


2,311,681 




1,724,033 


64 


" 34 « 


Ohio .... 


1,977,031 




1,519,467 


3 


" 24 " 


Michigan 


395.703 




212,267 




» 86 " ■ 


Wisconsin - 


304,226 




30,945 


11 


« 884 " 


Indiana 


988,734 




685,866 


3 


<( 44 « 


Illinois . . - . 


858,598 




476,183 


331 


« 77 " 


Iowa .... 


192,122 




43,112 




" 347 " 


California . 


200,000 








" . . " 



SLAVE STATES. 





1850. 


18-10. 


Increase 


per cent, sir 


CO 


De- 


STATES. 


TOTAL POPULATION. 


TOTAL POPULATION. 




1840. 




crease. 




Pop. 1 Whiles, 


8lavBS. 


Fop. 


Whites. 


slaves. 


Total. 


Whites. 


Sla. 


W. 


S. 


Delaware 


91,.535i 89,246 


2,339 


78,085 


75,480 


2,605 


17 p. Ct. 


19p. Ct. 






H 


Dis. Columbia 


51,687 1 48,000 


3,687 


43,712 


39,018 


4,694 


18 " 


19 " 






22 


Maryland 


533.035 492,667 


90,368 


470,019 


.380,282 


89,737 


24 « 


30 " 


0^ 






Virginia 


1,421,081 9-18,0.55 


473,026 


1,239,797 


790.810 


448,987 


15 " 


20 " 


5i 






N. Carolina - 


868,903 530,491 


288.412 


753,419 


.507,602 


24.5,817 


15A " 


14i" 


17 






S. Carolina - 


663,469 283,.544 


384,925 


594,398 


267,315 


327,083 


13" « 


6 « 


18 






Georgia 


878,635 515.669 


362.966 


691,392 


410,448 


280,944 


27 " 


26 " 


29 






Florida - 


87,387: 48,046 


39,341 


54,477 


28,760 


25,717 


59 " 


66 " 


.50 






Alabama 


771,659 428.765 


342,894 


590,756 


337,224 


253,532 


31 « 


27 " 


36 






Mississippi - 


592,853 292.434 


300,419 


375,651 


180,440 


195,211 


58 " 


62 " 


54 






Louisiana - 


500,763 269.9.56 


230.807 


352,411 


183,959 


168,452 


42 « 


47 a 


37 






Texas - 


187.403 1.34,0.57 


53,346 


















Arkansas 


209.640 162,658 


46,98::! 


97,574 


77,639 


19,935 


116 " 


111 " 


135 






Missouri 


682,043 594,621 


87,422 


383,702 


325,462 


58.240 


77 " 


83 » 


50 






Tennessee - 


1,002,6:2:5 763.164 


239,461 


829,210 


646,151 


183.059 


21 " 


18 " 


31 






Kentucky 


1,001,495 779,728 


221,768 


779,828 


597,570 


182,258 


29 " 


31 " 


20 






Territories. 
























Minnesota 


6.192 






















N. Mexico - 


61.632 






















Oregon 


20,000 






















Utah - 


25.000 





















KECAPITULATION. 



Free States 
Slave States 
District and Territories 



Total Free 
Population. 



13,533,328 

6,393,757 

160.824 



20,087,909 



119 

3,175,783 
3,687 



3,179589 



Total free population 
Slaves 



Ratio of Representation 



Representative 
Population. 



13,533,399 
8,299,226 



21,832,625 



20.087,909 
3,179,589 



',* The highest rates of increase in the Free States lor the last 10 years were in Wisconsin, 
884 per ct. ; Io"wa, 347 per ct. ; Michigan, 86 per ct. ; Illinois, 77 per ct. The highest in the 
Slave States were, in Arkansas, whites, 111 per ct. ; Missouri, whites, 83 per ct. ; Florida, 66 



pro] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 29 

per ct. ; Mississippi, 62 per ct. Tiie higliest increase of Slaves was in Arkansas, 135 per r.t ; 
Mississippi, 54 per ct. ; Missouri, 50 per ct. Tlie lowest rate in tlie Free States was, in Ver- 
mont, 7 per ct. ; New Hampshire, 11 per ct. The lowest in the Slave States of whites, was 
in South Carolina, 6 per ct. ; North Carolina, 14i- per ct. 

In North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia," Alabama, and Arkansas, the Slaves have in- 
creased more than the Whites. In all ihe other States the proportion of Slaves lias diminished, 
especially in Maryland, Virginia, and Kentucky. 

General ratio of increase of the whole United States. 
FromlSSOtolSlO, white, 34-72 - - - Colored, 23-81 
" 1840 to 1850 " 38-20 ... " 26-16 

The centre of Representative population in 1790, was 46 miles north and 22 east of Washing- 
ton, in Baltimore county, Maryland. In 1800, the centre was 64 miles north and 30 west of Wash- 
ington, in Adams county, Pennsylvania. In 1820, it was 47 miles north and 71 west of Wash- 
ington, in Morgan county, Virginia. In 1830, it was 43 miles north and 108 west of Washing- 
ton, in Marion County, Virginia. By these calculations, the accuracy of which we see no rea- 
son to question, the representative power, in its rapid and accelerated movement westward, 
has for lifty years kept nearly the same parallel of latitude. In that time it lias moved 10 miles 
south, and 182 miles westward. The advance westward was as follows : 

From 1790 to 1800 - - 13 miles. | From 1S20 to 18-30 - - 37 miles. 
" 1800 to 1810 - - 39 " I " 1830 to 1840 - - 52 " 
" 1810 to 1820 - - 41 " I 
The calculation is that the census of 1850 will show the centre of representative population 
in the State of Ohio. 
PHYSICIANS were formerly ecclesiastics. It was during the nunciate of 
Cardinal d'Etouteville in France, in 1452, that he obtained permission for 
them to marr}'. — Menage. Sir William de Butts, phj'sician to Henry VIII., 
and mentioned as such by Shakspeare. was paternal ancestor of Mrs. Sher- 
wood, the popular authoress, who died in Sept., 1851. 
POET-LAUREATE (England). Alfred Tennyson appointed Nov., 1850. 
POST OFFICE, U. S. A. Year ending June 30, 1849 ; length of mail routes 
167,703 miles ; amount of annual transportation, in miles, 42,544.069 ; gross 
revenue $4,905,176; net revenue $426,127. In 1850, the length of mail 
routes was 178,672 miles; revenue $5,552,971; expenditures $5,212,958; 
of which amount the transportation charges were $2,965,786. 

The actual receipts during the year ending June 30, 1851, were, - $6,786,493 22 
Less amount received for Brit. Postages, ...... 58,626 44 

Gross Revenue for the year, ...... $6,727,86678 

Being an increase of $999,006 41 over the proper revenues of the preceding 
year. The ordinary expenditure of the department, year ending .lune 30, 
1851, was $6,024,566 79. Number of post offices in 36 states, and District 
Columbia in 1837, was 19,604.— P. Mas. Gen. Report. 

POST OFFICE, New York. For the quarter ending Sept. 30, 1851, there were 
received by steamers and packet ships 577.885 letters and 261,426 papers; 
despatched by mail per steamer and ship, during same period, papers 
305,448 ; letters 584,038 ; which latter, added to the daily average corre- 
spondence, shows the receipt and transmission of nearly 7 millions of letters 
by the New York office, in three months. During same quarter, 5 100 official 
letters were received, and 3 018 written and despatched. In addition to all 
this, 687 Dead Letters were sent to the proper office at Washington, con- 
taining property of value, gold dust, bank bills, drafts, &c., in amounts 
varying from $1 to $10,000, a large portion of which were returned to the 
writers, and the balance remain subject to the order of the proper owners. 
Increase of business under the new Jaw is 10 per cent,, and about 75 per cent, 
of all letters are prepaid. Number of stamps sold to Sept. 30, was 1,475.555. 

PROTESTANTISM in U. S. In the year 1800, the Episcopal Church, the old- 
est in the Union, numbered 320 churches ; 260 ministers ; 16 000 members ; 
and 7 bishops. In 1850 it had increased fourfold, viz. ; churches, 1,560 ; minis- 
ters, 1,504 ; members, 73, 000; bishops, 28. The congregation lists in 1850, com- 
prised 1,971 churches ; 1,687 ministers ; and 197,175 members. The Baptists 
enumerated 18, 455 churches ; 9,018 ministers ; and 948,867 members. Pres- 



30 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS. 1850-Sl. [raI 

byterians 4 General Assemblies ; 65 Synods ; 360 Presbyteries ; 4,578 minis- 
ters; 1,014 students and licentiates ; 5 672 churches ; and 490.259 members, 
being an increase of eleven-fold since 1800. The various bodies of Methodists 
speaking the English language, had, in 1850, 80,000 places of worship ; 6,000 
regular preachers ; 8,000 local preachers ; and more than a million and a 
quarter of members. The Methodist Protestant churches of German origin, 
have 1,827 regular and 559 local preachers ; 5 356 congregations ; and 333 000 
members. The orthodox Friends had 300 congregations. More than 10,000 
places of worship were erected in 1849, and S"l,670,150 were paid in volun- 
tary subscriptions to ministers. — Dr. Baird before Lon. Evan. Soc. To these 
may be appended the following, viz. : — 

Churches. Ministers. Members. 
Dutch Reformed, ..... 282 299 33,980 

German do. and Lutherans, ... 1,865 936 233,000 

Moravians, ..... 22 24 6,000 

Unitarians, 245 250 30,000 

Universalists, 1,194 700 60,000 

Swedenborgians, .... 42 30 5,000 

Dr. Baird estimates the number of Protestants in the world as follows : — 

England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland, ..... 20,000,000 

Prance, Italy, and Switzerland, ...... 3,000,000 

Germany and Holland, ....... 22,' 00,000 

Hungary and Poland, more than ...... 3,000,000 

In the Scandinavian countries, ...... 8,5L10,1'00 

In Russia, fully ........ 3,000,000 

The United States, all of ...... 19,000,000 

British America, including West Indies, about .... 2,000,000 

Australia, Cape of Good Hope, and British possessions in Asia, Africa, 

and Polynesia, ....... 500,000 

Total, 81,000,000 

PRUSSIA. New edict against the press enforced ; 37 journals forbidden to 
pass through the post, June 5, 1850. The treaty of Olmutz announced at Berlin, 
Dec. 3, 1850. May 31. 1851, Inauguration of Ranch's Colossal Equestrian 
statue of Frederick the Great, Berlin. In Oct., 1851, the question of the ad- 
mission of Jews to judicial office, brought to a partial termination by their 
permission to study law. — Illus. News. 
PYRAMIDS. M. Persigny, in his "Destination," &c., "des Pyramides," lately 
published in France, appears to have made the nearest approach to the 
original design of these structures, viz., that they were intended as a barrier 
to arrest the progress of the sands from the desert, and thus to preserve the 
cultivated fields of Egypt from destruction. The great Pyramid at Ghizeh 
it is stated was first opened by the Caliph Al Mamoun, in the expectation of 
discovering treasure ; when the people murmured at their disappointment, 
he ordered a smn of money to be secretly deposited, which, on its discovery 
by the laborers, is said to have satisfied their cupidity. 
RAILWAYS IN THE United States of America, Jan. 1850. 

In Massachusetts, .... 

In other New England States, 

In New- York, .... 

In other States, .... 

Total, . . . 9,714* " 

* The estimate on page 154* was erroneous. 

Railroad Jubilee at Burlington, Vt., celebrating the union by railroad of the 
waters of the lakes and the Atlantic, June 25, 1850. N. Y. & Erie R. Road 
opened witli appropriate ceremonies, through the entire line. May 14. 1851. 
The Hudson River R. Road Co., organized March, 1847, road completed, 
Oct., 1851, at a cost of 86,666,681. 

RAILWAYS, South America. The first Railway in Peru, from Callao to Lima, 
six miles, was opened Nov., 1850. 




rev] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 



31 



RAILWAYS, Great Britain. During- the year 1849, about 870 miles of new 
railways were opened in the United Kingdom, viz. : 630 miles in England, 
108 in Scotland, and 132 in Ireland. The following table gives the progress 
of railways since 1811, with the average receipts per mile per week : 



YeaTs. 


Miles open 

1,770 


Per mile per v 

£S4 




years. 


Miles open 


Per mile per week 


1844 




1848 


4,178 


£50 


1845 


2,033 


£67 




1849 


4.983 


£46 


1846 


2,498 


£64: 




1850 


6,075 


£44 


1847 


3,375 


£56 











The number of rail-road passengers in England and Wales in 1846, was 35,- 
000,000; in 1850,53 000 000; total United Kingdom in 1850, 66,000,000.— 
Herald. The great Russian rail-road, from Moscow to St. Petersburgh, was 
opened Nov 13, 1851, the distance 420 miles, being run through in 18 hours, 
23j miles per hour. — Londoji Paper. 
RELIGIOUS denominations in the United States, according to returns made 
1844 — 51, and by estimate. 



Names. 


Churches. Ministers. 


Communicants. 


Roman Catholics, 


. 


1,073 1,081 


1,233.350 


Protestant Episcopalians, 


. 


1,232 1,497 


67,550 


Presbyterians, old school, 




2,675 2,027 


210,306 


Presbyterians, new school, 


. 


1,579 1,489 


140,060 


Cumberland Presbyterians, 


. 


480 


350 


50,000 


Other classes of Presbyterians, 


. 


530 


293 


45,500 


Dutch Reformed, - 


. 


282 


299 


33,980 


German Reformed, 


. 


261 


273 


70,000 


Evangelical Lutherans, - 


. 


1,604 


663 


163.000 


Moravians, 


. 


22 


24 


6,000 


Methodist Episcopal CNorth) 


- 


3,984 


662,315 


Methodist Episcopal (South) 


• 








Metliodist Protestant Church, 


. 




740 


64,313 


Reformed Methodists, 


- 




75 


3,000 


Wesleyan Methodists, 


- 




600 


20,U0O 


German Methodists, (United B 


ethren) 


1,800 


500 


15,000 


AUbright Methodists (Evangelical Association) 


600 


250 


15.000 


Mennonites, 




400 . 


250 


58,000 


Orthodox Congregationalists, 




1,971 ■ 1,687 


197,196 


Unitarian do. 


. 


245 


250 


30,000 


Universalists, 


- 


1,194 ■ 


700 


60,000 


Svvedenborgians, 


■ 


42 


30 


5,000 


Resular Baptists, - 




8,872 5,509 


719,290 


Si-if-Principle Baptists, 




21 


25 


3,586 


Seventh-Day Baptists, 


- 


52 


43 


6,243 


Free Will Baptists, 




1,252 


,082 


56,4-52 


Church of God Baptists, 


- 


97 


128 


10,102 


Reformed Baptists (Campbelli 


es). 


1,848 


848 


118,618 


Christian Baptists (Unitarians) 


- 


607 


498 


3,040 


Antiraission Baptists, - 




2,023 


897 
A 


64,738 
m. Almanac, 1852. 


REVENUE, and Expenditures, U. S. A. 










REVENUE. 








Year ending, June 30, 


1848. 


1849. 




1850. 


Customs, 


$31,757,070 


$28,346,733 




$39,668,686 42 


Sale public lands, 


3,3-28,642 


1,688,959 




1,859,894 25 


Miscellaneous sources. 


351,037 


1,038,649 




1,847,218 33 


Loans and balance on hand. 


22,957,951 


2.S,742,-284 




6,230,914 28 


Total, 


$-58,394,700 


$59,816,630 


$49,606,713 28 




EXPENDITURES. 






Civil List, 


$2,647,955 


$2,865,615 




$3,042,770 07 


Foreign Intercourse, 


390,897 


"7,972,832 




4,8-33,594 76 


Miscellaneous, 


2,546.216 


3,179,192 




6,958,360 24 


War Department,t 


27,8-20,163 


17,290.936 




9,401,239 16 


Department of Interior, 

Navy, 








3,400,524 87 


10,670,4 16 


'9,869,8i8 


7,923,313 18 


Public Debt, - 


15,429,197 


16,453,272 




7,437,366 41 



Total, $58,-241,167 

Including the Indemnity to Mexico. 



$57,631,667 $43,002,268 69 

t Inc. part of Mexican war. 



Jackson's Administration. 

Rev. from Ciis. Ex. ofCnU'n. 

1835 .... 26,091,829 1,284,997 

1837 31,129,275 .... 1,397,469 

Van Buren's Administration. 

1838 .... 20,127,988 .... 1,514,633 

1840 .... 15,332,036 .... 1,542,319 

1841 .... 20,104,474 .... 1,483,960 

Tyler's Administration. 
1844 .... 29,560,530 .... 1.807,500 
1815 .... 31,144,244 .... 2,066,033 

Polk's Administration. 

1847 .... 28,305,464 .... 2.099,844 

1848 .... 33,034,275 .... 2,132,636 

Taylor's and Fillmore's 
Administration. 

1849 .... 28,346,738 

1850 .... 39,668,686 



32 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-01. [RUS 

Agsresate receipts for fiscal year ending June 30, 1850, with balance in 

Treasury - - $52,312,979 87 

Total expenditures to same period, .... 48.005,878 68 

Imports for year ending .lunu 30, 1851, .... 215,725,13000 

Of which there were in specie, - - . - 4,967,901 00 

REVENUE FROM CUSTOMS, and Expenses of Collecting it. U. S. A. 

Washington's Administration. 

Rev. from Cus. Ex. of Coll'n. 

1796 .... $12,fB1.866 $291,206 

1797 .... 13,000;i05 .... 343,434 

Adams's Administration. 

1800 16,185,889 440,373 

1801 .... 20,828.336 .... 483,772 

Jefferson's Administration. 

1808 11,349,769 565,238 

1809 .... 11,885,380 .... 498,130 
Madison's Administration. 

1815 .... 39,012,624 .... 476,007 

1816 .... 33,577,988 .... 819,038 

1817 .... 22,706,514 .... 782,308 

Monroe's Administration. 
1824 .... 25,726,836 .... 779,739 
1^5 .... 31,903,875 .... 889,302 

Adams's Administration. 

1827 .... 28,191,308 .... 889,818 

1828 .... 30,187,701 .... 932,093 

1829 .... 27,982,947 1,01.3,667 

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE (Great Britain), year eoding Jan. 5, 1850, 
Revenue, .£52,951,748. Expenditure, £50,853,622. 

RICE. First planted in South Carolina, 1693, and has been grown in that state 
every year since that period. 

RIOTS. At Philadelphia, between a set of white "rowdies," called "killers," 
and negroes. Military called out ; 4 persons killed ; 11 wounded; 4 houses 
burned, Oct. 10, 1849. Riot at Hoboken. N. J., between Germans and " short 
boy" rowdies from N. York. May 26. 1851. Riot at New Orleans in refer- 
ence to Cuban affairs — ^the Spanish Consul's house attacked, and also those 
of the Spanish residents, Aug. 21, 1851. Christiana Treason trial, at Phila- 
delphia, Nov., 1851 ; Hanneway and others acquitted Dec. 11, but the mur- 
derers of Mr. Gorsuch sent to Lancaster for trial. 

•ROMAN CATHOLICS. The appointment by the pope of several R. C. bishops 
and archbishops in England, causes great excitement in that country, and 
an indignant letter from Lord John Russell, the premier, Nov., 1850. A sta- 
tistical account from the Vicar General's office at Rome, in April, 1851, shows 
the ecclesiastical body of that city to consist of 34 bishops, 1,240 seciilar and 
1,892 regular priests, and 1,467 monks. The schools and seminaries under 
their supervision were 321. — See Eccl. States. 

ROME. The Council of State at Rome announces a political amnesty, except- 
ing from it, however, the late Triumvirate, the chiefs of the assembly, and 
the military leaders, and about 13,000 persons supposed to be implicated in 
the late movements, Sept. 18, 1849. The pope returns to Rome, April 19, 

1850. The total population of Rome in April, 1851, was 170,824. — Vicar GenHs 
Office. In 1848 the population numbered 179.000, and a proportional dimi- 
nution is shown in the returns of the other Roman States. — Herald. In Oct. 

1851, a mixed commission of cardinals, prelates, merchants, &c., and simple 
workmen, was formed by the Pope, for the examination and amendment, 
where susceptible, of all corporate laws. — Illus. Neics. 

RUSSIA, The Russian troops repeatedly defeated by the Circassians, June 

1851. 
RUSSIAN ARMY, 1851. Infantry, 640,384 ; cavalry, 101,902 ; artillery, 41,902 ; 

adding to the above the engineer staff", the entire force amounts to 810,000 



sha] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 33 

eifective troops. Other accounts, however, place the actual number of mili- 
tary fit for service no hig'her than 300,000 men, and of these a quarter must 
be kept in Poland. — -Tricskr Zdlung. 
SAN FRANCISCO, Commerce of. The amount of duties collected at San Fran- 
cisco, in the quarter ending- Sept, 30, 1851, as compared with the correspond- 
ing q uarter of the year 1850. 

1850. 1851. 

July, - - - .fl43,276 48 $182,396 75 

August, - - - 176,656 00 104,128 00 

September, - - 144,318 00 162,558 19 

1464,250 48 $459,082 94 

Amount of deposits in September, 1851, on account of unascertained, $72,707 30, being ia 

addition to above. 

Amount of Bullion reported in manifests at Custom's House was, July, 1851, $3,471,245 , ■ 

August, $3,311,100; Sept., $3,488,171 ; Total, $10,270,516. 

Specie brouglit into tlie city in freight was, for July, $84,280 ; August, $61,195 ; Sept,, 

$55,351. 

Males. Females. Cliild'n. Total. Left. 

Passengers arrived, July, . - 1,729 231 134 2,094 1,697 

" '• August, - 1,886 348 211 2,445 2,097 

" " September, - 1,140 140 56 1,336 6,574 

Totals, - 5,875 10,368 

Excessof Departures, Sept. 30, 1851, .... 4^493 

10,368 
SCHOOLS, originally kept in the porches of churches. Even so late as 1624, 
John Evelyn, then four years old, was taught by " one Frier at the church- 
porch of .Wotton." — E^s. Diary. The ragged schools, for the instruction of 
destitute children in England, originated with John Pounds, a poor cripple 
and shoemaker at Portsmouth, who, while laboring for his daily sustenance, 
found tiine to instruct the vagabond children of his neighborhood. He died, 
"deplored by all his scholars and their relatives, Jan., 1839." Infant 
schools originated about 1780, with Oberlin, pastor of Waldbach (Germ.); 
and in England were first put in operation in 1815, by James Buchanan, one 
of the masters engaged by Robert Owen at Lanark. Wilderspin's plans 
were subsequent to the above. — West. Review. Sabbath schools were par- 
tially in operation previous to the great effort of Mr. Raikes, through the 
instrumentality of Miss Walker, a Quaker lady of Tottenham, near London, 
and the Rev. Mr. Lindsay and wife, of Catterick, Yorkshire. — Nor. of Scot. 
Gaz. The first S. school in the United States is said to have been estab- 
lished by Mrs. Archibald Lake, in the stockade in Marietta, Ohio, March, 
1791. 
SEWING MACHINES. Invented 1848, and brought to general use by the 
large tailoring establishments. A machine, with the attention of one girl, 
will sew six overcoats per day. — Sci. Am. 
SHANGHAI. The population trading with this Chinese port is between 
60,000.000 and 80,000,000. The teas grown here are the finest in the world, 
and its supplies to foreign countries are about seven-eights of the whole pro- 
duct exported from the empire. The amount sent forward from China in 
1850. is given officially as follows: To Russia, 7,000 000 lbs.; France, 
2.000 000 lbs. ; Holland 3,000,000 lbs.; Great Britain, 52,000 000 lbs.; and 
the U. States. 30 000 000 lbs. ; the total valuation of which shipments can- 
not fall far short of $30,000,000. The rich silk fabrics of Suchan are brought 
to Shanghai, as well as numerous other articles of valuable traffic, all of 
which may be more readily purchased here than at Canton, which port re- 
ceives its principal export supplies from the former. The importance of 
Shanghai as a port of entrance for the American merchant offers incalculable 
advantages. — See N. Y. Courier. 

2* 



34 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [STE 

SHIPPING, U. S. A. Vessels built and tonnage thereof in the U. S. : year end- 
ing June 30, 1849. Ships, 198; brigs, 148; schooners, 623; sloops and 
canal boats, 370; steamers, 208. Total, 1,547. Aggregate tonnage, 3,535,000. 
Iron cylinder masts first fitted in a Dutch E. Indiaman at Liverpool. March, 
1851. Amount of tonnage of American vessels engaged in foreign trade, for 
year ending 30th June, 1850, was entered 2,573,016 ; cleared, 2.632,788. For- 
eign tonnage during same period entered, 1,775,623; cleared, 1,728 214. 
Number of vessels built in 1850 was 1 360. their total tonnage 272,218 54-95. 
In 1851 the total U. S tonnage was 3,772,439, including the whaling vessels, 
181.644 ; vessels built, 1.367. Massachusetts total tonnage engaged in foreign 
and domestic trade, 694,402; New- York. 1,041.013; Oregon (smallest), 
1,063.— ikf. Courier. The clipper ship " Flying Cloud," Capt, Cressy, left 
New- York June 2, 1851, and arrived at San Francisco, August 20, making 
the trip round Cape Horn in the unprecedented short space of 90 days ; the 
shortest passage on record. In three days the F. C. made 992 miles. 

SLAVE-TRADE. Official returns made to the foreign ofSce in London show 
that from the year 1840 to the year 1848, inclusive, 594 vessels, containing 
37,824 slaves, were captured by the British squadron, and 556 of them con- 
demned. It has been estimated by the English statician McQueen, that the 
loss sustained by slave-traders in conseqiience of the caiitures or presence 
of African cruisers, from the year 1800 to 1847, was £30,240,000. 

SLAVERY, U. S. A. Renewed agitation of this subject caused by the passage 
and enforcement of the " Fugitive Slave Bill" (passed by Congress in Aug., 
1850). In several instances, the claims for fugitive slaves are resisted or 
defeated in the Northern States, but without serious collision or bloodshed; 
Sept., Dec, 1850. By decision of Judge Hoadly, Superior Court, Cin., in 
Oct., 1851, this law was pronounced as '■ opposed to the spirit and letter of 
the Constitution of the TJ. S." The Boston Post of Dec., 1850, states that 
the original Fugitive Slave Law was drafted by Geo. Cabot, of Mass., Nov. 
1792, and passed unanimously by the Senate on the 18th of Jan'y following, 
by a majority of 41. A Papal Bull of Dec, 1839, prohibits all traffic in 
human beings by subjects of Roman Catholic States. — Wade's Brit. Hist. 

SPAIN. Queen Isabella personally opens the Cortes in the new palace, in the 
Plaza de Cervantes, Oct. 31, 1850. At Madrid, Nov., 1851, the commission- 
ers for regulating the liberty of the press refuse to assent to the ministerial 
proposition of seizing newspapers before publication. 

STAGES. In 1749 there was a daily stage route between Newark, N. J., and 
New-York, during the summer months only. The number of passengers 
in one season was considered large at 3.000; the number of passengers over 
the railroad to the same place v.'as, in 1850, 959,000 ! 

STEAM ENGINE. A patent was granted in England in 1618, for a steam— or 
as it is there designated, a " fire-engine, for taking ballast out of rivers and 
for raising fresh water." It is supposed to have been an invention brought 
from Italy, where it is stated to have been anteriorly used. Brancas, an 
Italian philosopher, published at Rome, in 1629, a book on the subject. — 
Wade's Brit. Hist, A complete steam-engine, weighing only three fourths 
of an ounce, and capable of full motion, was finished and intended for exhi- 
bition at the Crystal Palace by an ingenious mechanic of Saddleworth, 
Yorkshire, in Feb., 1851. — Illus. Nev^s. The tubular boiler was invented by 
Col. John Stevens, Hoboken, N. J., 1805. 

STEAM NAVIGATION, U. S. A. The steamer Atlantic, 3,500 tons, the first 
of the Collins' line, sailed for Liverpool, from New York, April 27, 1850. 
Steam communication between Philadelphia and Liverpool opened jby the 
" City of Glasgow," arrived at Philadelphia, Jan. 1, 1851. The first steamer 



sug] 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



35 



that ever crossed the Atkntic was the " Savannah," 350 tons, from Savannah, 
Geo., to Liverpool, which port she reached 20th July, 1819. — Manoade's 
Com. Report. The first steamboat that ascended the Mississippi was com- 
manded by Capt. Henry M. Shreeve, who subsequently invented the steam 
snag-boat ; he died in 1851. The number of steamboats on the Western 
watei's in 1850 was estimated at 575, investing a capital of S60,000,000, 
and employing 15.000 hands. The annual cost to the U. S. government of 
the Steam Mail Service in 1850. was distributed as follows : — Collins' line, 
New York and Liverpool, $385, 000 ; Ocean Steam Navigation Company, 
New York and Bremen, $200.000 ; do., do., do., do.. New York and Havre, 
$150.000 ; New York, Havana and New Orleans, $290,000 ; Panama and 
Oregon line, $199,000; Charleston and Havana line, $.50,000.— Total, 
$1,274,000. The first steamer on Lake Nicaragua began its trips January, 
1851. Duty paid by Cunard steamers at Boston, in 1847, was $1,199,971 78; 
in 1850, $1,322,383 30. Marine Steam Force of Great Britain in 1851 was— 
147 ships, including 3 in Canada, and 32 iron steamers, 11 ranging from 
1.547 to 1,980 tons. A discovery in 1851 of a work in the archives of Venice, 
of a treatise on " Navigation by Fire," byM. Gautier, Mem. Roy. Soc. Paris, 
shows that the professor's plans for steam navigation were exhibited by him 
to the Venetian Republic in 1756. 

STEAMBOAT BUILDING. The annual report on commerce and navigation, 
gives the following aggregate of the number of steamboats built in the 
United States since 1824 — twenty-five years, in periods of five years each : 
From 1824 to 1829, - - - 194 I From 1844 to 1849, - - - 960 

" 1829 to 1834, - - 304 I • 

" 18:34 to 1839, - - - 504 I Total, - 2,492 

" 1839 to 1844, - - 522 I 

Two-thirds of these were built in the West, one-sixth of them in Ohio. 

STEAM AND POWDER EXPLOSIONS. The most fatal accident of this 
nature in 1849 was that of the steamboat Louisa, at N. 0., Nov. 15, when 
60 persons were killed and 92 wounded and missing. During 1850 the 
number of steamboats lost in the Western waters was 53, and 64 seriously 
injured. Nearly 700 persons lost their lives, and $1 500,000 of property 
was destroyed. Some of the most prominent accidents by explosion in 
1850 and 1851, were :— 

FACTORY OR VESSEL. 

Steamer Telegi-aph, 
Ship of war, Volney, 
Am. Steamer Resolute, 
Ste. Antoinette Douglas, 
Am. Steamer Colurnbus, 
Steamer Anglo Norman, 
South America, 

Knoxville, 

Fashion, 

Oregon, 

Ferry-boat (many injured), 

Victoria Coalpit, 

Cotton mil], 

Distillery, 

Balloon, 1 mile high, exploded near Lon- 
don ; the 4 passengers providentially 
escaped without serious injury. 

Steamer .lai-kson (35 injured), Shawneetown, III., 7 

Brilliant, Bayou Sara, La., many. 

ed years ago the Jesuits brought a few bundles of cane from 
planted them in the second municipality of New Orleans. 



1850. 




November 7, 


u 


10, 


« 


23, 


a 


26, 


December 13, 


t' 


l?", 


« 


IS, 


ii 


20, 


l&jl. 




March 2, 




February 


23, 


March 15, 




" 27, 




August 2, 




September 8, 



Near Newcastle, Del 
Near Brest, 
New- York, 
Tate's Shoals, 
OtT Point Lookout, 
New Orleans, 
Near Bayou Sara, 
New Orleans, 
Near Pittsburgh, 

Mississippi, 
St. Louis', 
Scotland, 
Stockport, Eng., 
Harrison, Ohio, 



LIVES 
LOST. 

, 15 

10 

5 

30 

7 

40 

20 

many 

21 
15 
61 
14 
15 



" 21, 

" 25 

SUGAR. A hutldr 
Hispaniola, and 



36 ADDENDA TO THE WOR-LD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [UNI 

In 1759 the first sugar-mill was erected. In 1840 the number of slaves em- 
ployed in the sugar culture was 148,890, and the product was 119,947 hogs- 
heads, of 1,000 pounds each, and 600,000 gallons of molasses. — Mobile 
Register. 

TEA. Quantity imported into Great Britain in 1849, 53,460.751 lbs. The 
duty upon it amounted to i;5,471,671. This is an increase of nearly 50 per 
cent, over the imports of 1840. 

TELEGRAPH, THE SNAIL. The actuality of telegraphic communication 
by medium of magnetism in snails, experimentally demonstrated by Prof. 
Gregory of Edinburgh, May, 1851. 

TELEGRAPH— see " Electric:' 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. The benevolent influence of these associations 
may be estimated from the fact that the amount of taxation in the state of 
New York, in 1850, occasioned by pauperism and crime resulting from in- 
temperance, was nearly S2 600,000, and the amount for the entire Union 
during that period, and resulting from the evils of intemperance, was over 
S16,OL)0,000. The daily expenditure in the 5,000 drinking places in New 
York is calculated at over ^40,000. — Mr. Foster's Speech at Tripler Hall. 
March, 1851. — Father Matthew, the " Apostle of Temperance," after visiting 
numerous states in the Union during two years, and administering over 
600,000 pledges, sailed for Liverpool in steamer Pacific, Nov. 8, 1851. 

TEXAS. The question of the boundary line between Texas and New Mexico, 
after mrrch excitement and discussion, is settled by the payment of S'lO,- 
000,000 by the U. S. to Texas, as indemnity for the territory claimed by 
New Mexico, Sept., 1850. Population in 1850, 188,403, including 53,346 
slaves. 

TIDES. The highest known are in the Bay of Fundy, Newfoundland, and 
the Bay of Tonquin, Cochin China. — Q. Rev., 1819. That of the former 
rises 60 feet; the tide at Chepstow (Monmouth, Eiig.) rises 70 feet. — Illus. 
News. That of Baffin's Bay only 4 feet. — Capt. Russ, 1819. Seeds dropped 
accidently into the sea in the W. Indies, were subsequently found on the 
shores of the Hebrides. — Dr. Walker to Lord Karnes. — See Oceans. 

TIGRE (Island of). Central America, seized by Mr. Chatfield, British Consul, 
with an armed force, for the " British Queen," Oct. 17, 1849 ; but the claim 
was not enforced, and was settled in the " Nicaragua Treaty," signed at 
Washington, by Clayton and Bulwer, June, 1850. 

TURKEY. Battle between the Turks and Syrians, who had revolted against 
the Turkish recruiting system — Syrians defeated with loss of 1,000 men, 
1850. Explosion on board the Neiri Schevket, line of battle ship, at Con- 
stantinople, 1,000 persons killed, Oct. 23, 1850. 

UNION MEETINGS. Gov. Quitman of Miss., addresses a disunion meeting 
with some opposition, at Natchez, Oct 7, 1850. A similar meeting in Yazoo 
city votes down the resolutions proposed. A convention for amending the 
constitution of Indiana, assembles at Indianapolis, Oct. 7. A great union 
meeting at Mobile, Ala., Oct. 8. Convention for amending constitution as- 
sembles at Richmond, Va., Oct. 14. A union festival in compliment to Mr. 
Clay, at Lexington, Ky., Oct. 17. A Woman's Rights convention held in 
Worcester, Mass., Oct. 23. A great union meeting at Dayton, Ohio, Oct. 26, 
and an immense meeting for like purpose in New York, Oct. 30. Conven- 
tion to amend constitution of Maryland, meets in Annapolis. Nov. 4 ; another 
at Concord, N. H., for revising constitution of that state, Nov. 6 ; and one at 
Manchester, N. H., Nov. 20. A great union meeting at Philadelphia, Nov. 
21. One at Bath. Me.. Dec. 16. Convention of Delegates from Southern 



wis] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 37 

Rights Association, of S. Carolina, at Charleston, May 8 ; adjourns after 
resolving " that with or without co-operation they are for dissolution of the 
Union !" 

UTAH Terrttort of U. S. A territorial government provided bj^ Congress, 
Sept. 9, 1850. The territory is bounded on the west b}^ California, north by 
Oregon, east by the summit of the Rocky Mountains, and south by the 
parallel of ST'' N. The act provides the sum of S5,000 for a library. 

VENEZUELA. Gen. J. G. Monagas elected president for four years, Jan. 
20, 1851. 

VIRGINIA. According to the census returns, the real estate, &c., of Virginia, 
1850, was 8530,000.000, viz. :— Real estate, 8278.000,000 ; value of slaves, 
$147,000,000 ; other personal estate, $105 000,000. The returns further 
show that nearly 83,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read 
nor write! The new Constitution of this state adopted 1851, in the 111th 
article has the following clause : " And no person shall have a right to vote 
who is of unsound mind, or a pauper, or a non-commissioned officer in the ser- 
vice oftke United States." Population of 1850, 1,421,081, including 473,026 
slaves. 

WAMPUM. This material as a representative circulating medium, was bor- 
rowed by the people of Plymouth. Mass., from the Manhattan Dutch, and 
was found very profitable in their traffic with the eastern Indians, and subse- 
quently among the colonists generally. Three of the blackheads and six of 
the white, were considered as equivalent to a penny ; and for convenience' 
sake, they were strung in lengths of certain value from one penn}^ to 5 shil- 
lings, in white ; and from twopence to ten shillings in black; as the quan- 
tity in circulation increased, the value depreciated and the number of beads 
to the penny was augmented. — See Hild.retKs U. S. America, 1850. 

WARS, Modern. Those of the 17th century, were wars of religion; of the 
18th century, of conquests and dynasties ; of the 19th, of monarchs against 
the people, — Berlin Corres. N. Y. Com. The actual cost of the late Mexi- 
can war is estimated at $300,000,000, The wars of Europe from 1783 to 1815, 
are estimated at $15 000,000.000. The late Hungarian war left 25,000 widows, 
and 80,000 orphans of soldiers, almost entirely without food, shelter, or 
clothing. 

WASHINGTON, D. C, Population in 1810. 8,201, in 1820, 13.248, in 1830, 
18 827, in 1840, 23.,364, in 1850, about 42.000. 

WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS, The original MS. was sold 
at auction in Philadelphia, to a citizen of New York, for $2,300, February 
12, 18-50, 

WESTMINSTER, Archbp. op. Nicholas Wiseman, having been created Car- 
dinal by the Pope, is installed as Roman Catholic Archbishop of Westmin- 
ster, Nov., 1850. This, in addition to Dr. Ullathorne's enthronement as R, C. 
bishop of Birmingham, in Oct., together with the parcelling out of all Eng- 
land into Roman dioceses, created great excitement, and petitions from every 
quarter of the United Kingdom were addressed to the Queen and govern- 
ment, praying their resistance to the '• monstrous usurpation." 

WHALE FISHERY. Registered tonnage employed in this branch of commerce, 
1850, was 146.016, Fish and sperm oil exported during the year ending 
June 30, 1850, $1,809,115. The average yield of a polar whale is about 
120 barrels oil. 

WILLIAM THE CoNauEROR. Inauguration of the statue of this renowned 

monarch at Falaise, Normandy, his native place, Oct, 26, 1851. 
WISCONSIN. The population of this State is shown by the census returns, 



S8 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESSj 1850-51. [ZIN 

1850, to be : white, 304,565 ; colored, 626 ; total, 305.191. Farms in cultiva- 
tion, 20,177; manufactories producing annually S'500, and upwards, 1,273. 

WOOL. The imports of wool into the U. S. for fiscal year 1850, amounted to 
^1,681,691 ; and for same period 1851, 83,883,160.— Cowie?-. 

WORSHIP, Forms of. The Jews and Quakers wear their hats during worship, 
Protestants and Catholics remove them. — The Mohammedans wear their 
turbans, but put off their shoes on entering their mosques, evidently from 
their Prophet's adoption of many of the Jewish customs. — See Exodus in, 5. 
It is particularly worthy of remark that the Moliammedans invariably re- 
move from their persons all jewelry, and articles of adornment previous to 
the commencement of their prayers. 

WRECKS, &c. The number of vessels belonging to the U. S. lost during the 
year ending June, 1818, was 585 ; value, $2,021,495 ; value of cargoes. 
$2,501,771 ; total number of lives lost in connection with them, 477. The 
Caleb Grimshaw, Liverpool and N. Y. packet ship, burnt at sea ; 60 passen- 
gers lost on a raft ; 339 rescued by Capt. David Cook of Nova Scotia, Nov. 
12, 1849. 

DATE. NAME OF VESSEL. 

1850. 

January 13, Am. Ship Hottinguer, 

May 6, Steamer Commei-ce, 

" 24, Br. Indiaman, Sulimary, 

June 2, A barge, 

" 17, Am. Steamer, Griffith, burnt 

" 18, Br. Steamer Orion, 

July 18, Brig. Elizabeth, 

October 4, Am. bark Isaac Mead, 

" 7, Br. ship Providence, 

Nov. 24, Br. Ship Edmund, 

" 28, Propeller Helena Sloman, 

Minot's Ledge lighthouse carried away, April 17, '51, and the two assistant 
keepers droAvned. Steamship Union lost on her passage from San Francisco 
to Panama, July 5, '51 ; passengers and gold dust saved. 

YACHTING. The Yacht America, built by Steers of New- York, 204 tons bur., 
after winning the " cup of all nations" at Covves, I. of Wight, England, and 
out-sailing the British j^acht Britannia, Aug., 1851, was sold by Messrs. 
Stevens to Capt. Blaquiere for i;5,000 ! 

YANKEE. The derivation of this word is generally accredited to the Indian 
pronunciation of the word English, which they render Yengeese. — In New- 
York it is applied to the New Englanders ; in the South to all the North- 
eners ; and in Europe to all Anglo-Americans. — In a curious book on the 
Round Towers of Ireland, published some j'ears ago, the origin of the term 
Yankee-Doodle was said to have been traced to the Persian phrase Yanki 
^oiiwiaA, or "Inhabitants of the New World." Layard, in his "Nineveh," 
also mentions Yanghi-dunia as the Persian name of America. — Illus. News. 

YUCATAN. Intelligence received at New Orleans, Jan. 3, 1851, that a battle 
between the whites and Indians in Yucatan resulted in the victory of the 
latter, 300 of the whites being killed. 

ZINC. The Soc. Jndust. Nationale in Paris, granted to M. Leclaire, 1846, a 
medal of gold worth 3000 francs, for his substitution of zinc for white lead 
in the formation of painter's color, the use of which latter has been attended 
with so much danger to healtli. — Art Journal. White paint prepared from 
zinc is much used of late in the U. States, and has hitherto been greatly 
approved. 



WHERE. 


LIVES 




lOST. 


Wexford rocks. Ire. 


13 


Lake Ontario, 


38 


From Boinbay, 


100 


Near Neuwerk, Ger. 


100 


Off Port Patrick, 


50 


Lake Erie, 


300 


OffFirelsland, N. Y. 


many 


Charleston to N Y. 


24 


Near Belfast, 


19 


Near Limerick, 


95 


At sea, Hamburgh to N. Y. 11 



PAINTING. 

PAINTING-. Chronological Table of the most celebrated Painters, arranged in 
Schools and Ages, from the revival of the art, 1600, to the commencement of 
the Nineteenth Century. 

(From Bell's Edition of Bredow's Tables of Universal History.) 

1. Florentine School.— Style elevated and Ijold, seeking rather to be admired than 
to please ; sometimes gigantic ; neglects coloring and grace.— 1240, Gimabue : 1726, Giotto ■ 
1211, Andrea Taffi; 14(Ji), Wassolino ; 1402, Massacio ; 1431, FilippoLippi; 1432, Andrea 
Verrochio, Andrea Castagna, Pisanello; 1443, Ghirlandajo ; 1445, Leonardo da Vinci; 
1469, Bartolorameo di San Marco ; 1471, Baldassarre Peruzzi ; 1474, Michael Angelo Buon- 
arotti ; 1484, Dominico Beccafurai ; 1488, Andrea del Sarto ; 1493, Jacopo Carrucci da Pon- 
toruio ; 1496, Del Rosso ; 1500, Perino del Vaga ; 1509, Daniel da Volterra ; 1510, Francesco 
Salviati; 1510, Giorgio Vasari ; 1545, Antonio Tempesta ; 1559, Luigi Cardi ; 1563, Fran- 
cesco Vanni; 1578, Matteo Rosselli ; 1596, Pietro Berretini, called Pietro da Cortona; 1611, 
Pietro Testa; 1615, Benvenuto da Garofoli ; 1616, Carlo Dolci ; 1666, Benedetto Lutti ; 
1695, Giovan' Geronimo Servandoni ; 1702, Pompeo Battoni. 

2. Roman School carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analyti- 
cal study of the antique and of nature ; heads of the most sublime beauty ; coloring and 
chiaro oscuro less perfect. 1513, Bernardino Pintuiichio; 1446, Pietro Perrugino; 1483, 
RatTael ; 1488, G. F. Penni ; 1492, Giulio Romano ; 15-28, Frederico Barocci ; 1529, Taddeo 
Zucchero; 1.543, Frederico Zucchero ; 1589, Dominico Feti ; 1594, Nicholas Poussin • 
1598, Giovan' Lorenzo Bernini; 1599. Andrea Sacchi ; 1600, Claude Gelee, called Claud * 
of Lorraine ; 1602, Ceriozzi ; 1605, G. B. Salvi, called 11 Sassoferrato ; 1613, Gaspard E-.- 
ghet, called Poussin or Guaspre; 1616, Luigi Scaramuccia ; 1617, Francesco RomaneF ' 
1623, Giacinto Brandi; 162:!, Filippo Lauri ; 1625, Carlo Maratti ; 1634, CiroFerri; 169-. 
Pietro Bianchi ; 1728, Raftael Mengs. 

3. Venetian School.— Faithful imitation of well-chosen subjects of nature, excellent 
coloring, admirable effect; design less perfect throu,-;!! the neglected study of the antique; 
this school is now extinct. 1421, Gentile Bellini ; 1431, Andrea Mantegna; 1478 Gior''!- 
one; 1477, Titian (Tiziano Vecelii da Cadore) ; 1480, G. A. Regillo; 1485, Sebastiano del 
p,„,„K„. ,:.,A . ._T, ,.,„ r „ , ™. 1522, Paolo Pari ■ 

Cagliari ; 1535, 

,..-.,, - • , , , , ,.- Pal ma (Tl Vec- 

chio); Io44, ,lac Palma; 1549, Giov. Contarino ; 1560, Maria Tintoretta ; 1561, Leonardo 



1687, Ant. Canale ; 1693, Giov. Bat. Tiepolo ; 1699, Giuseppe Nogari. 

4. Lombard and Bolognese Schools. — Correggio, born in Lombardy, not having 
founded a permanent School, but having been imitated by the painters of Bologna, these 
two Schools are conjoined. Correggio's distinguished characteristics are a seducing and vo- 
luptuous (though perhaps somewhat affected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic 
harmony in his coloring. Tibaldi and the Caracci introduce a more elevated character of 
design, and many of their pupils unite therewith the fine coloring and the graces of Correg- 
gio. 1450, Francesco Franco; 149i), F. Priinaticcio; 1494, Coiiregoio Antonio AUe-'ri ; 
1495, Polidori Ca'dari ; 1504, Fr Mazzuoli ; 1522, PelleOTino Tibaldi; 1546, Camillo I'ro- 
caccini ; 1559, M. Angelo Araerigi, called Carravaggio ; 1555, Lodo v. Caracci ; 1557, A-'OS- 
tino Caracci; 1560, Anniba'e Caracci ; 1560, Bartol. Schidone; 1575, Guido Reni. caTled 
Guido; 1.576, Lionello Spada; 1577, Aless. Tiarini ; 1578, Francesco Albano; 1580, Gia- 
como Cavedone ; 1581, Dom. Zampieri, called Domenichino ; 1581, Giov. Lanfranco ; 1588, 
Frances Gessi ; 1590, G. F. Barbieri ; 1597, Lodov Lana ; 1600, Mic. Ang. Colonna ; 1606 
Grimaldi ; 1618, Giorg. And. Sivani ; 1612, SimoneCanlarini ; 1624, P. Fran. Mola ; 1628, 
Cignani; 1638, P. F. Caroli; 1643, Lodov. auaini ; 1648, Ant. Franceschini ; 1654, Guis. 
del Sole; 1657, Fer. Galli Babiena ; 1665, Guis. Maria Crespi ; 1668, Dom. Maria Viani ; 
1671, DonatoCreti; 1674, Giov. P. Zanotti ; 1691, G. P.Paniui. 

(Neapolitans, Genoese, Spaniards. These nations are not regarded as having found- 
ed general Schools ; their painters are formed on the masters of the great Italian Schools. 
Neapo.itan.— The painters of this nation are reproached with being in general somewhat af- 
fected. Pietro and Tommaso Stefani, d. 1310 ; Fit del Tesauro, 1320 ; 15(10, And. Sabbata- 
ni; looO, Guis, Cesare d'Arpiuo ; IBUO, Aniello Falcone; 1603, Mario Nuzzi ; 1613, Mat- 
teoPetri| 1615. Salvator Rosa; 1631; Luca Giordano; 1657, Fran. Solimene ; 1661, Nun- 
zio Feiajoli; 1679, Sebast. Conca ; 1693, Carl Corrado. Genoese are often incorrect in 
design.— 14(10, Nich. da Vnttri ; 1527, Cambiasi ; 1544, G. B. Paggi ; 1557, Bern. Castelli • 
1581, Bernardo Strozzi ; 1590. Gio. Carlone ; 1616, Benedetto Castiglione ; 1625, F. M. Bor- 
zoni;^1639, G. B. Gauli; 1644, Greg. Ferrari; ]6.=i4, Bart. Guidobjni ; 1660, II Molinaret- 
to. Spaniards.- These painters have especially imitated the Venetian School, and often 
display Its brilliant coloring.— 1400, Alonso Berragente ; 1487, Blaise de Prado ; 1519, Mo- 



rales; 15-28, Luis de Vargas; 1532, J. F. Ximenez deNavarete; 1550, Pablo de las Eovlas; 
1589, Josef Ribera; 1599, Don Diego Velasquez de Siiva; i601, Alonso Cano ; 1610, Hen- 
rique de las Marinas ; 1(313, Barto'ome Esteban de Murillo ; 1617, Franc. Rizzi ; 1631, Mai ias 
de Torres; 1640, Pedro de Nunez ; 1640, Juan de AU'aro ; 1651, Juan C. Falco ; 1663, P. di 
Pietri.) 

5. Gersian School. — This school having never had a common point of union, btars no 
general and distinctive character; it produces, in the different styles of painting, rival artists 
to the great masters of Italy and of the Netherlands. l-i97, Th.de Matina ; 13.57, Theo. de 
Prague; 1357, N. Wurmser ; 1479, Albert Durer; 1492, Lucas MUller; 1498, Hans Holbein ; 
1515, Lucas Cranach ; 1534, Tobias Stimmer; 1550, Christ. Schwartz; 15.56, John Van 
Aachen; 1564, J. Rottenhammer ; 1570, J. Lys; 1574. Adam Elzheimer ; 1598, Sam. Hof- 
mann ; 1600. J. W. Bauer ; 1C06, Jo. Sandrart ; 1611 Ch. Loth ; 1616, Govaert Flink ; 1618, 
P. VanderFaes; 1619, J. Spilberg ; 1621, Leb. Stopkopt ; 1625, J. Lingelback ; 1631, J. 
HenRoos; 1637, Jos. Warner; 1639, Gasp. Netscher ; 1640, Ab, Mignon ; 1647, M. S. Me- 
rian ; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1666, G. P. Ruggendas; 1668, J. R Ruber ; 1669, Anna Wa- 
ser; 1685, Balthasar Deuner ; 1689, Fr. P. Ferg ; 1698, J. E.Riedenger; 1709, Brinkmann ; 
1712, C. W. E. Dietrich ; 1728, Raffael Blengs ; 1730, Solomon Gessner. 

6. Flemish or Belgic School. — This School e.xcels in coloring and in the faithful imi- 
tation of nature, but does not always e.\hibit sufficient nobleness of design ; it produces 
eminent artists in every style; that to which Teniers has affixed his name bad its birth in 
this School ; the Academy at Antwerp, the cradle of this School, was founded in 1510, but 
there was a Society of Painters at Antwerp from the year 1442. — -1306, Eubert Van Eyk ; 
1370, John Van Eyk; 1450, ttuentin Messis; 1490, Ber. V. Orley ; 1499, J. de Mabuse; 
1553, Peter Knock ; 1520, Frank Floris ; 1534, Mar de Vos ; 1536, J. Straden ; 1540, F. Por- 
bus; 1546, B. Spranger ; 1548. C. Van Mander ; 1550. H. Steenwyck; 1555, DenysCalvart ; 
1556, OttoVenius; J569, P. Van Breughel ; 1570, P. Neefs ; 1573, S.Frank; 1576, Fr. 
Sneyders; 1577, Peler Paul Rubens; 1580, David Teniers; 1.594, James Jordaens; 1599, 
Anthony Van Dyk ; 1602, Phillip de Champagne; 1610, David Teniers ; 16l3, J. Van Ar- 
tois; 1618, Gonzales Coques; 1634, Van der Meulen ; 1664, Simon Varelst ; 1068^0. P. 
Vanbruggen; 1672, Ab. Breughel; 1742, Henry de Coort. 

7. Dutch School. — ^This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence 
of the chiaro oscuro; exhibits good coloring, and a faithful imitation of nature in the mi- 
nutest details. The style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this School. 
1407, Erasmus; 1494, Luke of Leyden ; 1498, Martin Hemskerk ; 1518, 'An. Moro ; 1564, 
Ab. Blofmart; 1579, Sol. de Brey ; 1586, Cornelius Poelenberg ; 1596, Leo Bramer ; 1600, J. 
D. de Heein ; 1600, John VVyuants ; 1606, Albert Cuyp ; 1606, Paul Rembrandt van Ryn ; 
1008, Gerard Terburg; 1610, Adrian Van Ostade ; 1613, Gerard Dnw ; 1615, Gabriel Mot- 
zu ; 1620, Philip VVouvermans ; 1624, Nicholas Bergham ; 1625, Paul Putter ; 1631, Ludolph 
Bakhuytzen; 1633, W. Van der Velde ; 163.5, Jac. Ruysdael, Hobbema; 163.5, Fran. Miens; 
1636, John Steen ; 1637, Van den Heyden ; 1638, Adrian van der Velde ; 1640, Karel du Jar- 
din ; 1664, John Weenix; 1669, Adrian van der Werf; 1682, John Van Huysum. 

English Painters. — Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Italian 
Schools; excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-colors. — 1480, Haus Hol- 
bein; 1543 F. Zucchero; 1.572, Inigo Jones ; 1601, P. Oliver ; 1009, S. Cooper ; 1610, W. 
Dobson; 1620, Ric. Gibson ; 1019, John Greenhill ; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1660, Luke 
Cradock; 1677, James Thornhill ; 1697, William Hogarth; 1714, Rich Wilson; 1723, 
Joshua Reynolds ; 1727, Tbom. Gainsborough ; 1733, Sawrey Gilpin ; 1734, P. J. de Louth- 
erbourg; 1735, David Allan ; 1738, Benjamin West; 1745, James Strutt; 1746, James North- 
cote; 1748, J. F. Nollekins; 1748, Philip Reinagle; 1751, William Hamilton ; 1752, Wm. 
Beechey ; 1755, Thorn. Stothard ; 1759, Francis Bourgeoise; 1761, John Opie ; 1764, Geo. 
Morland; 1769, Thomas Lawrence; 1774, Edward Bird; 1776, John Constable; 1786, 
Will. Hilton ; 1787, Geo. Hen. Harlow ; , Thomas Daniell ; 1785, David VVilkie ; 1786. 

R B. Haydon ; , A. W. Calcott ; 1789, W. Etty. 

8. French School. — The good painters of this School are formed on the model of the 
different Italian Schools, of which they bear the several characteristics ; they are in general 
more successful in composition and design than in coloring. It is emancipated from the de- 
gradation and afliected style it assumed after the death of Le Brun by Vien, and become ihe 
most numerous and flourishing school of all. — 1490, Fran. Primaticcio; 1490, Rosso de 
Rossi; l.')02, J. Cousin ; 1582, Simon Vouet; 1594, Nicholas Poussin ; 1600, Claude Lor- 
raine ; 1600, Le Va'entin; 1600, James Blanchard ; 1607, James Petitot ; 1016, Sebastian 
Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius le Seur; 1619, Charles le Brun ; 1640, Charles de la Fosse; 
1644, John Jouvenet; ]6.')7, Joseph Vivien; 1667, Nicho'as Berlin ; 16B7. Anth. Rivallv; 
1684, Ant. Watteau; 1683, Francs Le .Mo-ne; 1692, Noel N. Covpel ; 1700, Chas.Natoire ; 
1794, F. Bouchier; 1712, Joseph Vernet ; 1716, Vien; 1729, J. B.Deshays ; 1756, J, L. Da- 
vid ; 1758, Carle Vernet; 1767, A. L. Girodet. 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



41 



ADDITIONS TO THE BIOaRAPHICAL INDEX. 

(including accidental omissions in the former editions.) 



NATION, 

Eng. 

Eiig. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Gev. Fr. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Hung. 

Jew. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Russ. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Moor. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Enff. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Polish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Fr. Ital. 

Eng. 

Sp. Eng. 

Fr, 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Adelaide, Queen Dowaser, widow of William IV. 
Adrian IV. (N. Breakspeare), the only English pope 
.SIgineta, Paulus, writer on medicine .... 

iEifric, Abp. Canterbury, author of Anslo Saxon works . 
Almon, John, political writer and publisher 
Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France 
Armstrong, S. T., book publisher and Lt Governor of Mass. . 
Armenides, philosopher of the Eclectic School 
Aspasia, celebrated courtesan — cause of the Pelop. war ' temp. 
Audubon, John James, traveller and naturalist (b. at New-Orleans) 
Baffin, Wm., navigator— explorer of Baffin's Bay . 
Balboa, Vasco Nunez D., one of the first navigators to the W. Indies 
Barron, James, Commod. TJ. S. Navy 

Bartram, William, horticulturist . ,'.".' 

Baskerville, John, celebrated printer, publisher, and ty'pe-fourider 
Bastide, .John F. de, voluminous writer and editor 
Bates, William, non-conformist divine, and theol. writer . 
Beck, John B., writer on medicine, botany, &c. . 
Beckmann, John A,, author of History of Inventions . 
Bell, Andrew, D.D., founder of national schools 
Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe 
Bem, Gen , military commander in the war with Austria 
Benjamin of Tudela, one of the earliest modern travellers . 
Beniivoglio, Guido, cardinal, and historian 
Benger, Eliz. Ogilvie, biog. of Anne Boleyn, Queen of Scots, &c. 
Behrmg, or Beering,Vitus, captain in Russian navy who gave name to 
the "Straits" . . . . ... 

Behn, Aphra, female dramatist, temps. Charles II '. " . ' 
Berrington, Joseph, Author of History of Middle Ages. " . 
Bickersteth, (Rev. E.,) author of popular religious works . 
Bickerstaff, Isaac, dramatic writer of 18th century 
Bilderdyk, George, poet ...... 

Bingham, George, author of Ecclesiastical History— Christ. Antici 
Blainville, M. de, chemist and naturalist ... 
Blanchard, Laman, essayist and magazine writer 
Bloomfield, E. V., classical scholar, ed. of Museum Criticum' 
Boabdil, the last Moorish king of Grenada . . about 

Bodley, Sir Thomas, founder of the Bodleian Library 
Bonaparte, N. F. C. J., duke of Reichstadt— only son of Napoleon 
Boleyn, Anne, second queen of Henry VIII. . 
Bos, Lambert, Greek scholar, author of works on Greek Classics 
Bowles, Rev. W. L., poet ..... 

Boyer, Abel (Fr. refugee in England), author of Fr. Dictionary 

Brigham, Amariah, M D., medical writer and philanthropist 

Brand, J., Author of ■' Popular Antiquities " 

Brinvilliers, Marchioness, notorious poisoner 

Brunton, Mary, novelist—" Discipline," &c. 

Bryan, Michael, author of Diet, of Painters 

Buckingham, John Sheffield, duke of, military comm'r, poet 

Burgundy, Charles the Bold, duke of . . 

Buckminster, J. S., author of " Sermons," &c. 

Buxton, T. Fowell, leading opponent of the slave trade . 

By thner, Victorinus, author of Lyra Prophetica 

Cadmus, founder of Thebes, introducer of letters . 

Cade, Jack, noted for his rebellion asainst Henry VI. . 

Calhoun, John C, senator of U. S. for'S. Carolina— ex-Sec. of State, &c 

Calamy, Ed., numerous theological works 

Cambridge, duke of, youngest son of George III. 

Capo D'Istria, John, Count of, diplomatist— o^sassmaZed 

Catharine de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France . 

Catharine Parr, 6th queen of Heurv VIII. 

Catharine of Arragon, 1st queen of Henry VIII. 

Caulaincourt, A. A. L., Duke of Vicenza 



BORN. DIED. 

1850 
11.59 
630 
1005 

1738 1805 
1604 1666 
1784 1850 
5th c. B c. 

Pericles, b c. 450 
1780 1851 
1584 

1517 
1769 1851 

1823 
1706 1775 

1724 
1625 1699 
1794 1851 

1739 1811 
1753 1832 
1767 1830 

1851 
1173 

1579 1641 

1827 

1741 
1689 
1827 
1850 



1760 
1668 
1778 
1803 



1544 
1811 
1507 
1670 
1761 
1664 
1798 
1743 



1723 
1850 
1844 
1816 
1495 
1612 
1832 
1536 
1717 
1850 
1729 
1849 
1806 
1676 
1778 1818 
1757 1821 
1649 1720 

f. 1470 
1784 1812 
1787 1845 
1664 
f. B. 0. 1700 
f. 1450 

1782 1850 
1732 
1774 1850 
1780 1831 
1503 1589 
15 1548 
1483 1536 
1773 1827 



42 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



NATION. 
Ital. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Kom. 

Mex. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 
Rom. 
Pers. 
Fran. 
Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Swiss. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Pr. 



BORN. 

1749 
1637 
1500 



1788 



1650 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Cavallo Tiberius, author of works on nat. phil. in England . 

Cave. Dr. William, author of ■' Primitive Christianity" 

Cellini, Benvenu-o, Florentine artist, author of Autobiography 

Chastelleux, F. .1 , marquis, author of '-Travels in America" 

Cogswell, Kev. Wm., D.D., theological and statistical writer 

Chillingworth, Wm., theologian — author of Religion of Protestants 

Claudianus, Claudius, poet, temp. Emperor Theodosius, Arcadius, &c. 

Clavigero, F. S., author of the History of Mexico 

Clemens, or Clement, of Alexandria, one of the fathers of the church 

Clinton, Sir Henry, commander-in-chief of British army in Amer. Revol. 

Clovis, first Christian king of France . . , 

Codrus, 17th and last king of Athens . . . 

Collier, Jeremiah, non-juring divine, author of Ecc'I History 

Colton, Waller, Rev., author of several books of travel 

Commines, Philip de, historian, chronicler, statesman, and courtier 1445 

Condorcet, .John. A. N. C, marquis of, mathematician and philosopher 1743 

Congreve, Sir Wm., inventor of Congreve rockets, &c. . 1772 

Cooper, J. Fenimore, novelist, traveller and histoiian 

Corday, Charlotte, the executioner of the sanguinary Marat 

Cosmo I., grand duke of Tuscany, promoter of the arts, &c. . 1519 

Coverdale. Miles, one of the earliest English relormers — trans, of the Bible 1509 

Cowper, Wm., earl, lord high chancellor 

Crichton, .Tames, an accomplished gentleman — the " admirable Crichton" 1560 

Crcssus, 5th and last king of Lydia, famed for his riches, . 

Curtis, William, botanisi, author of" Flora Londinensis" 

Curtius Marcus, who devoted himself for his country 

Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, conqueror of Lydia, Assyria, &c. 

Daguerre, perfecter of the rfao-i^erreoii/yje process 

Dale, Richard, naval commander, associate of Paul Jones, &c. 

Damon, Pythagorean philosopher, friend of Pythias — in Sicily 

Daniel, Samuel, poet-laureate on the death of Spenser, and historian 

Danton, George .lames, sanguinary revolutionist (guillotined) 1759 

Daru, P. a. n. B., statesman, poet and historian . . . 1767 

Davenant, Sir Wm., poet-laureate after Ben Jonson . . 1606 

Davis, Matthew L., politician, biographer of Burr . . 1766 

Da voust, L. N., duke of Auerstadt, marshal of France . . 1770 

Dearborn, H. A. S., Gen., military commander in war of 1812, &c., 1783 



DIED. 

1809 
1713 
1.570 
1738 
1850 
1644 



f. 189 



1795 

511 

. 1069 

1726 

1851 

1509 

1794 

18-28 

1851 

1793 

1574 

1580 

1723 

1583 

f. B. c. 5.57 

1799 

B. c. 362 

B. c. 529 

1789 1851 

1756 1826 

1562 



Delolme, J. L., author of work on English Constitution 
Denham, Sir John, poet ..... 

Denon, D. V., baron de, author of the great work on Egypt 

Dewitt, John, an enlightened staiesman 

Diodati, John, translator of the Bible into Italian . 

Dodsley, Robert, bookseller, editor of Old Plays, and author 

Donne, .Tohn, a divine and poet . . . . , 

Douce, Francis, antiquarian — '• Shakspeare and his Times," &c. . 
Douglas. David B., officer in the war of 1812, engineer, &c. 
Drake, Nathan, essayist. — " Mornings in Spring," &c. 
Drayton, Michael, poet — '' Polyolbion," &c. . . . 

Drew, Samuel — ^" Essay on ihe Soul," &c. 

Drummond, Wm., poet — friend of Ben Jonson 

Drummond, Sir William, antiquary — "Origines," &c. 

Dugdale, Sir Wm., antiquary, '■ Monasticon," &c. 

Dumont, Stephen, writer on legislation, &c. 

Dwight, Rev. S. E., biographer of Edwards, &-c. . 

Eaton, Wm., consul at Tunis— distinguished in war with Tripoli 

Eichhorn, John Geo., biblical critic, author of History of Literature 

Ellenborough, lord, chief justice of England 

Elliott, Eben, the Corn-law Rhymer . . . . 

Eschenbers, .1. J — " Manual of Classical Literature" . 
Estaing, Chas. Hen., count de, naval coinm. in Amer. war 
Exmouth, Viscount, naval coiumander — at Algiers, &c. 
Fabius Pictor, the first Roman historian — works not extant 
Facciolati, James, author of Latin Dictionary 
Fairfax, Edward, poet — translator of Tasso, 
Falkland, viscount, statesman and soldier in the civil war 
Feltham. Owen, author of " Resolves, Moral," ifec, about . 
Fichte, John Gotlieb, philosopher and metaphysician 
Fitch, John, one of the first experimenters in steam-boats . 
Flamstead, John, astronomer .... 

Fletcher, Giles, poet ...... 

Fletcher, Phineas, brother of foregoing, poet 
Foix, Gaston de, nephew of Louis XII., warrior 



1619 

1794 

1829 

1668 

1850 

1823 

1851 

1806 

1668 

1825 

1672 

1649 

1764 

1631 

1834 

1849 

1836 

1631 

1833 

1649 

18-28 

1686 

1829 

1850 

18U 

1827 

1818 

1850 

18-20 

1793 

1757 ,1833 

f. B. c. 2-25 

1682 1769 

1632 

1610 1643 

1678 

1762 1814 

1743 1798 

1646 1719 

1588 1G23 

1582 1650 

1489 1512 



1745 
1615 
1747 
1625 
1589 
1703 
1573 

1793 
1766 
1.563 
1765 
1585 

1605 
1750 

1764 
1752 
1748 
1782 
1743 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



43 



NATION. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Scotch. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Garth. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Max. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng, 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ens. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer, 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

En?. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 



Swe. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ens. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 



NAME AND PROPESSION. 

Foscolo, TIgo, writer of plays and essays, &c, . 

Francis. Saint, founder of the Franciscan Friars 

Fuller, S. Margaret, marchioness d'Ossoli, essayist and critic 

Fugger, the name of a nohle and very wealthy "family at Augsburgh 

Gay-LAissac, N. F., chemist, .... 

Gell, Sir Wm., antiquary — " Pompeiana," and " Rome " 

Goguot, Anth. Y., advocate, author of "Origin of Laws," &c. 

Good, John Mason, medical writer — " Book of Naturej" &c. 

Gordon, lord George, author of the Anti-popery Riots in 1780 

Gore, Christopher, Gov. of Mass., senator of U. S. 

Grahaine, James, historian of the United Slates 

Grammont, Philibert, count of, famous wit at court of Chaa. II. 

Grenville, Rt. Hon. W. Wynilham, lord, prime minister 

Hall, .Joseph, bishop of Norwich, the Christian Seneca . 

Hamilton, Anlh., count, poet, courtier, and man of letters . 

Hannibal, the Carthaginian general — invader of Italy 

Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman, patron of Pope 

Harris, .Tames, philologist, author of " Hermes," &c. . 

Hatton, Sir Christopher, lord chancellor for Queen Elizabeth 

Heinecius, .lohn G., jurist, civilian, prof, of philosophy 

Heloise, or Eloise, celebrated for beauty and wit, and love for Abelard 

Herbelot, Bartholomew d'. learned orientalist 

Herrera, ex- president of Mexico .... 

Herbert, Edward, lordof Cherbury, diplomatist and historian 
Hill, Aaron, poet ...... 

Hill, Rev. Rowland, a popular and eccentric preacher 
Hipparchus, the most eminent of ancient astronomers 
HoUis, Thos., benefactor of Harvard College, U. S. A. 
Holyoke, Edw. A., physician and man of science — lived 101 years 
Home, Sir Everard, author of Comparative Anatomy, &c. . 
Hopkins, Stephen, statesman and jurist— signer of Dec. of Indep. 
Hopkinson, Francis, political writer — signer of Dec. of Indep. . 
Hortensius, Q.uintus, eloquent orator and writer . 
Hoste, Paul, mathematician — author of Naval Evolutions 
Howe, .John, non-conformist divine and theol. writer 
Howe, Sir Wm., British comtnander-in-chief in America 
Howell, .Jas., author of Familiar Letters . , 

Hunter, Wm., anatomist ..... 

Hunter, .John, anatomist .... 

Hunter, W. L., diplomatist and senator 

Huntingdon, Henry of, historian 

Huntingdon, Selina, countess of, founder of chapels, schools, &c. 

Hurd, Richard, bishop of Litchfield — philologist and miscel. writer 

Hutchinson, Anne, i-eligious enthusiast — banished from N. E. . 

Hutton, Wm., an ingenious self-educated writer 

Hypatia, a female philosopher of great attainments, in Alexandria 

Ignatius, St., eminent father of the Church, and martyr . 

Irensus, St., bishop of Lyons, Christian father and martyr 

Irene, empress of Constantinople — famous for beauty, talent and crime 

Isabella of Castile, wife of Ferdinand of Arragon — patron of Columbus 

lamblicus, a philosopher — author of Life of Pythagoras 

Jervis, .John, earl St. Vincent, admiral — victor ofl'Cape St. Vincent 

John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, warrior, &c. 

John of Salisbury, bp. of Chartres, latin poet — promoter of literature 

Johnson, Sir Wm.. British commander in N. America 

Johnsonj Richard M., Col. distinguished in war of 1812, V. Pres. IT. 

Joinville, John Sieur de, statesman and historian . 

Jones, Jacob, commodore in U. S. N.— victor in the " Wasp," &c. 

Jutlson, Rev. Adoniram, D.D., missionary in Burma 

Jugurtha, king of Numidia — conquered and put to death 

Justinian I., the Great, emperor of the East — fanned for his Code 

Kalm, Peter, naturalist— author of travels in America 

Kellermann, Francis C, duke of Valmy, marshal of France 

Kent, Edward, duke of, 4th son of Geo. III., father of Q. Victoria 

Keppel, Augustus, viscount, admiral 

Kirby, Rev. W., entomologist .... 

Knowles, Richard, author of Hist, of the Turks, &c. 
Korner, Theodore, poet and dramatist 
Lannes, John, duke of Montebello and marshal of France . 
Larcher, P. H., classical philologist and translator 
Latham, John, M.D., ornithologist and antiquarian 
Law, John, the originator of the " Mississippi Bubble" 



BORN. DIED. 

me 1827 

1132 1226 
1810 18-50 
15lh and 16th c. 
1778 1850 
1777 1836 
f. 1758 
1764 1827 
1750 1793 
17.58 1827 
1790 1842 

1707 
1759 1834 
1574 1656 
1646 1720 
, c. 247 B. 0. 183 
1661 1724 
1709 1780 

1591 
1681 1741 
1101 1164 
1625 1695 

1851 
1581 1648 

1750 
1744 1833 
f. about 150 B. c. 
1720 1774 
1728 1829 
1756 1832 
1707 1785 
1738 1791 
B. c. 49 
1652 1700 
1630 1705 

1814 
1595 1666 
1718 1783 
1728 1793 
1774 1849 
f. 1150 



1707 
1720 



1791 
1808 
1643 
1723 1815 
415 
f. 68 

202 
803 
1451 1504 
f. 300 

1734 1823 
13— 1399 

f. 12th c. 

1774 
1780 1850 
1228 1318 

1768 18.50 
1788 1850 

s. 0. 106 
483 565 
1715 1779 

1735 1820 
1767 1820 

1786 
1751 1850 

1610 
1788 1813 

1769 1809 
1726 1811 
1740 1837 
1681 1729 



44 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Lee, Nathaniel, dramatic poet 

Fr. L'Enclos, Anne or Ninon de, a noted voluptuary 

Eng. Lennox, Charlotte, poet and novelist — born at New-York 

Ire. Leslie, Charles, theological writer 

Ger. Lessing. Gotthold Ephraim, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. L'Estrange. Sir Robert, polit. and controversial writer . 

Scotch. Leyden, .John, poet and oriental scholar 

Leyden, .John of, 

Eng. Lillo, George, dramatist — " Geo. Barnwell," &c. 

Eng. Lilly, Wm., astrologer .... 

Scotch. Lindsay, Sir David, poet 

Amer. Livingston, Brockholst, jurist .... 

Amer. Livingston, Robt. R., chancellor of the State of N. Y. and diplomatist 

Fr. Louis Philippe I., king of the French 

Span. Loyola, Ignatius, founder of the Jesuits 

Eng. McAdam, John Loudon — Co\ossus of Roads 

Amer. McDuffle, Geo., ex-Gov. of S. C, senator of U. S., &c. 

Eng. Macauley, Catharine, historian 

Irish. Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist 

Rom. Macrobiiis, A. A. T., miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Madan, Martin, translator of Juvenal, &c. 

Irish. IVIagee, Wm., archb. of Dublin — theological writer 

Fr. Malebranche, Nicholas, priest and philosophical writer 

Fr. Malesherbes. C. W., statesman and author 

Eng. Mandeviile, Sir John, traveller 

Egypt. Manetho. historian 

Rom. Manlius, Titus Torquatus, warrior and consul 

Rom. Manlius, Marcus, saved capitol from Gauls 

Scotch. Mansfield, Wm. Murray, earl of, chief justice. 

Fr. Marceau, F. S. D., general under Napoleon 

Rom. Blarcellus, M. Claudius, general against Hannibal 

Ital. Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England 

Ger. Maria Theresa, empress of Germany 

Eng. Marlowe, Chrisiopher, yjoet and dramatist 

Irish. Martin- Mis. Bell, novelist— died at New-York 

Eng. Marvel, Andrew, poet and political writer 

Scotch. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots — murdered by Queen Elizabeth 

Eng. Maskelyne, Nevil, mathematician and astron. 

Amer. Mather, Increase, D.D., theol. and historian . 

Eng. Maurice, Thomas, oriental scholar and historian . 
Maximus Tyrius, philosopher of second century 

Ital. Medici, Cosmo de, merchant and statesman 

Scotch. Melville, Henry Dundas, viscount — statesman 

Jew. Mendelssohn, Moses — the Socrates of the Jews 

Port. Mendez-Pinto, Ferdinand — lying traveller 

Amer. Mercer, Hugh, brig'r general in Revolutionary army 

Ger. Mesmer, Fred. A., discoverer of animal magnetism 

Fr. Michaux, Andre, traveller and botanist — N. A. Sylva 

Amer. Miller, James, gen. Milit. commander in war of 1SI2 

Eng. Miller, Philip, gardener and botanist 

Eng. Miller, .Joseph, witty actor — the Father of Jests 

Amer. Miller, Samuel, D.D., historian of" 18th Century" and theologian 

Amer. Miller, Wm., founder of the " Millerites," " End of the World^' sect 

Eng. Milner, John, Catholic divine and theological writer 

Minucius-Felix, Marcus, rhetorician 

Fr. Mirabaud, J. B. de, philosopher and translator 

Eng. Monmouth, James, Duke of, natural son of Charles II. 

Eng. Montagu, Elizabeth, essayist and founder of tlie Blue Stockings 

Fr. Blontespan, Mad. de, mistress of Louis XIV. 

Mex. Montezuma, emperor of Mexico — conquered by Cortes . 

Fr. Mont.faucon, antiquary and critic 

Eng. Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester — founder of the H. of Commons 

Fr. Montgollier, J. E., inventer of air balloons 

Scotch. Montrose, Jarnes Graham, marquis of, royalist general 

Eng. More, Henry, theological and philosophical writer 

Welsh. Morgan, William, mathematician 

Ger. Munchausen, J. C. F. — proverbial for "stories" 

Assy. Nabonassar, 1st king of the Chaldeans 

Assy. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon 

Irish. Napier, W. J., lord, naval commander 

Eng. Nash, Richard — commonly called Beau Nash 

Gr. Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople— founder of Nestorians 



JORN. 


DIED. 




1692 


1616 


1705 


1720 


1804 




1732 


1729 


1781 


1616 


1704 


1775 


1821 


1693 


1733 


1602 


1681 


1490 


1557 


1757 


1823 


1746 


1813 




1850 


1491 


1556 


1756 


1836 




1851 


1730 


1791 


1690 


1787 




420 


1726 




1765 


1831 


1638 


1715 


1721 


1794 




1372 


f. B. c 


304 


f. B. C 


340 


I 


. c. 383 


1705 


1783 


1769 


1796 


B 


. c. 209 




1482 


1717 


1780 




1593 




1850 


1620 


1678 


1542 


1587 


1732 


1811 


1639 


1723 


1753 


1824 


1389 


1464 


1740 


1811 


1729 




f. 


1550 




1777 


1734 


1815 


1746 


1802 


1775 


1851 


1691 




1684 


1738 


1759 


1850 


1781 


1849 


1752 


1826 


f. 3d c. 


f. 


1770 


1649 


1685 


1720 


1800 




1520 


1655 


1741 




1265 


1745 


1799 


16- 


1645 


1614 


1687 




1833 




1797 


f. B. 


747 


f. B. C 


626 


1787 


1834 


1674 


1761 




439 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



45 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Gr. Nicephorus, Calistus, ecclesiastical historian 

Gr. Nicephorus, Gregorius, Byzanline historian 

Eng. Nichols, John, antiquary and miscellaneous writer 

Amer. Noah, Mordecai M., ex-consul to Mcu'occo, editor and politician 

Ger. Noheden, G. H., grammarian and misc. writer . 

Eng. North Fred., lord, premier during Amer. war 

Irish. Nugent, lord, author of Life of Hampden, &c. 

Rom. Numa Pompilius, 2d king of Rome 

Eng. Oglethorpe. J. E., general — founder of Georgia 

Eng. Oldcastle, Sir J., lord Cobham 

Amer. Olin, Stephen, D. D., Pres. Wesleyan Sem., author of Travels in the 

East, &c., ..... 

Irish. O'Keefe, J., dramatist, .... 

Sar Omar, 3d caliph of the Saracens— founder of the Mosque 

Irish. O'Meara, surgeon and biographer of Napoleon 

Fr. Orleans, L. J. P , duke of— "Egalite -'' — guillotined 

Scotch. Ossian, ancient Gaelic bard— supposed to have lived in the 

Egypt. Osymandyas, king of Egypt — about 

Eng. Overbury, Sir T., poet, &c. — poisoned in the Tower 

Span. O viedo, J. G., bishop of, author of " Travels in W. Indies " 

Ger. Panzer, G. W. F.. bibliographer 

Irish. Parnell, T., poet and divine . . 

Eng. Parr, Thomas — lived 152 years 

Eng. Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist . 

Eng. Patrick, Simon, learned prelate and theological vrater 

Paul, St. Vincent de, missionary ecclesiastic 

Eng. Pearson, John, bishop of Chester — writer on the Creed, &c. 

Eng. Peele, George, dramatist and poet 

Eng. Penn, Wm., admiral — father of the founder of Pennsylvania 

Eng. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to the admiralty, author of" Diary," &c, 

Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister — assassinated . 

Eng. Peters, Hugh, eccentric preacher and Roundhead — executed 

Fr. Philidor, Andrew, writer on chess playing 

Span. Phillip II., king— married Mary Q ueen of England— sent the Armada 

Eng. Philipps, Ambrose, poet and dramatist. 

Jew. Philo Judaeus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria 

Ital. Piazzi, astronomer ..... 

Swiss. Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer 

Eng. Picton, Sir T., general — killed at Waterloo 

Eng. Piozzi, Hester L., miscel. writer — friend of Dr. Johnson 

Eng. Pocock, Dr. E., learned critic and commentator . 

Eng. Pocock, R., learned prelate and traveller 

Amer. Poinsett, Joel R., statesmen, diplomatist, and author 

Polycarp, St., Christian father and martyr 

Fr. Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness de, mistress of Louis XV. 
Polish. Poniatowski, Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland . 

Fr. Pradt, Abbe Dominique de, political writer 

Eng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty 

Eng. Pritchard, J. C, ethnologist — " Natural History of Man," 

Eng. Prynne, Wm., learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary 

Fr. Psalmanazar, Geo., literary impostor . 

Eng. Purchas, Samuel, divine — editor of Voyages and Pilgrimages 

Eng. Puttenham, Geo., poet and critic 

Eng. Pye, H. J., poet-laureate .... 

Fyrrhus, king of Epirus — one of the greatest warriors of antiquity 

Eng. Q,uarles, Francis, poet — author of "Emblems," &c. 

Eng. Q,uin, Jaines, eminent actor .... 

Fr. Rabelais, Fi'an., wit and satirist 

Eng. Raffles, Sir T. Stamford, author of History of Java 

Eng. Raikes R., printer — founder of Sunday schools 

Fr. Rapin de Thoyras, Paul, author of History of England . 

Fr. Reggio, C. N. Oudinot, due de, marshal of France 

Rom. Regulus, M. A., patriotic general and consul 

Eng. Rennell, Major J., geographer and topographer 

Eng. Repton, Humphrey, landscape gardener and architect . 

Eng. Jew. Ricardo, David, writer on political economy and finance 

Amer. Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer 

Eng. Richard I., Cosur de Lion, king 

Eng. Richard III. king— killed at Bosworth . 

Eng. Richardson. James, traveller in Africa, &c. 

Ensr. Ridley, Nicholas, prelate and protestant martyr 

Eng. Ritson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and editor of poets 



BORN. DIED. 

14th c. 
14th c. 
1744 1828 
ia51 
1770 1826 
1733 1792 
1850 
f. E c 714 
1698 1785 
1417 



1748 



1851 

1833 

643 

1778 1836 
1747 1793 

3dc. 

1500 B. 0. 

1581 1613 

1540 

1729 1812 

1679 1717 

1483 1635 

1746 1825 

1626 1707 

1576 1660 

1612 1686 

1598 

1621 1670 

1703 

1762 1812 

1599 1660 

1726 1795 

1556 1598 

1749 

f. A. D. 40 

1746 1826 

1655 1724 

1815 

1739 1821 

1604 1691 

1704 1765 

1778 1851 

169 

1720 1764 

1732 1798 

1759 1837 

1723 1791 

1849 

1609 1669 

1679 1763 

1577 1628 

1600 

1745 1813 

B. c. 272 

1592 1644 

1693 1766 

1483 1553 

1781 1826 

1735 1811 

1661 1725 

1767 

f. B. c. 256 



1742 
1752 
1772 

1157 
1450 

1500 
1752 



1830 
1818 
1823 
1850 
1199 
1485 
1651 
1555 

ia)3 



46 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



NATION. NAME AND PHOPESSION, 

Scotch. Rob Roy, (Robert Macgregor.) highland freebooter, about 

Fr. Rocbambeau, J. B. D, colintde, marshal of France 

Fr, Roland, M. J. P.. madame, martyr to the Revolution 

Eng. Romilly, Sir S., jurist and statesmen 

Irish. Roscommon, W. D., Earl of, poet and critic 

Scotch. Ruddiman, Thos., critic and grammarian 

Dutch. Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral 

Eng. Rymer, Thomas, antiquarian and historian (Fcedera) . 

Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, divine — impeached for sedition 

Eng. Sackville, T., Earl of Dorset, poet, . 

Eng. Sackville, Ch., earl of Dorset, wit and poet 

Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian . 

Jewish. Sadoc, Rabbi, founder of the sect of Sadducees 

Fr. Saint Pierre, Bernardin de— " Paul and Virginia," " Stud, of Nat." &c. 

Eng. Sale, George, hist(U'ian and translator of the Koran 

Phoen. Sanchoniatho, philosopher and iiistorian 

Eng. Savage, Richard, poet .... 

Fr. Savary, N., traveller and Oriental scholar 

Ital. Savonarola, Jeroine, monk — famed for zeal and eloquence 

Dan. Saxo Grammaiicus, Iiistorian 

Ital. Scala, statesmen and historian of Florence 

Ital. Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian 

Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist . 

Ger. Schlegel, Fred., critie and historian 

Ger. Schwab, Gustav., poet, .... 

Ger. Secundus, John, Latin poet 

Eng. Sedley. Sir C, poet .... 

Eng. Selden, John, antiquary and historian 

Scotch. Selkirk, John, mariner — the original of" Robinson Crusoe 

Span. Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin 

Eng. Seward, Anna, poetess and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Shadwell, T., poet laureate 

Eng. Shirley, James, dramatic writer, 

Anier. Short, Wm., charge d'affaires to France, Holland and Spain 

Rom. Silius Italicus, Caius, Roman poet . 

Sam. Simon Magus, religious impostor 

Gr. Simonides, ancient poet . . . , 

Eng. Skelton, John, poet-laureate to Henry VIII. 

Gr. Socrates, ecclesiastical historian 

Span. Soils, Antonio de, historian of Mexico, &c. 

Eng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and polit. writer — " Coll. of Tracts' 

Eng. Somerv'ille, Wm., poet, 

Pr. Sorbonne, R. de, divine, founder of the college at Paris 

Fr. Soult, one of Napoleon's marshals, ex-statesman, &c. 

Eng. Southern, T., dramatic writer and poet 

Gr. Sozomen, Hermias, ecclesiastical historian 

Eng. Speed, John, chronologist, historian and antiquary 

Eng. Spel man, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary 

Dutch. Spinoza. Bened., remarkable atheist . 

Eng. Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bp. of Worcester and theological writer 

Eng. Slow, John, antiquary and historian 

Eng. Strype, John, dirine, biographer and historian 

Amer. Stuart, Moses, professor, theologian, and philologist 

Eng. Stukely, Wm., divine and antiquary 

Eng. Suckling, Sir J., poet and dramatic writer 

Eng. Sylvester, Joshua, poet .... 

Eng. Taylor, John— called the "Water Poet," 

Eng. Tenyson, Dr. T., ab'p of Canterbury, polemical writer 

Gr. Theoduret, ecclesiastical historian 

Eng. Thoresby. Ralph, biographer and antiquary 

Eng. Tickell, Thomas, poet, and writer in the " Spectator" . 

Eng. Tindal, Matthew, D D., polemical divine 

Ital. Tiraboschi, G., historian .... 

Irish. Tone, Theobold Wolle, general in the Irish Rebellion 

Jew. Tudela, Benjamin de, rabbi and traveller 

Eng. Tusser, Thomas, old English writer and poet 

Eng. Tyndale, Wm., reformer, and first translator of the Bible into English 

Eng. Tytler, P. F., historian 

Eng. Tyrwhitt, T., critic and antiquary 

Fr. Valliere, the duchess de la, mistress of Louis XIV. 

Eng. Vanbrugh, Sir John, dramatist, .... 

Swiss. Vattel, E. de, jurist and metaphysical writer (" Law of Nations ") 



BORN. 


DIED. 




1733 


1725 


1807 


1754 


1793 


1757 


1818 


1663 


1684 


1674 


1757 


1607 


1679 




1713 


1672 


1724 


1536 


1608 


1637 


1706 


1507 


1587 


f. B. C. 


220 


1737 


1814 




173G 


f. B. C 


760 


1697 


1743 




1788 


1452 


1498 




1208 


1430 


1497 


1540 


1609 


1610 


1660 


1772 


1829 


1792 


1850 


1511 


1536 


1639 


1701 


15S4 


1654 


1680 




1509 


1553 


1744 


1809 


1640 


1692 


1594 


1666 


1759 


1850 


B. C. 1 


k. D. 74 




66 


f. B. C. 


450 




1529 


f. 5th 


c. 


1610 


1686 


16.50 


1716 


1002 


1743 


1201 


1274 


1769 


1851 


1662 


1746 




450 


1555 


1629 


1561 


1643 


1633 


1677 


1635 


1699 


1535 


1605 




1737 


1780 


18.51 


1687 


1765 


1613 


1641 


1563 


1618 


1580 


1654 


1636 


1715 


386 


457 


16.58 


1725 


1686 


1740 


1657 


1733 


1731 


1794 


1763 


1798 


f. 12th c. 




1580 


1500 


1536 


1790 


1849 


1730 


1786 




1726 


1714 


1767 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



47 



NATION. NAME AND PKOPESSION. 

Span. Vega, Lopez de, dramatic poet . . . . 

Ital. Virgil, Polydore, priest and liistorian 

Fr. Voiture, v., poet and miscellaneous writer 

IJrit. Vortigern, warriur ..... 

Ger. Voss, , J. G., liistorical writer and chronologist 

Ger. Voss, Isaac, critic and philologist .... 

Eng. Warwick, R. Neville, earl of, general and statesman— " King Malcer' 

Eng. Waierland, Dr. D., divine, and polemical writer 

Eng. Wedgewood, . I., scientific manulacturer of pottery 

Eng. Whiiehead, Wm., poet-laureate . . . . 

Eng. Whiielocke, Bulslrode, lawyer and statesman 

Eng. Whitgift archb'p, divine, and writer against the Puritans . 

Eng. Wither, George, poet ..... 

Eng. Wood, Anthony j\, antiquary and biographer 

Eng. Wotton, Sir H., statesman and poet .... 

Eng. Zouch, T., D.D., biographer . . . . . 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1562 


1635 




1555 


1598 


1648 




484 


1577 


1649 


1618 


1689 




1471 


1683 


1740 


1731 


1795 


1715 


1785 


1605 


1676 


1530 


1604 


1590 


1667 


1632 


1695 


1568 


1639 


1737 


1816 



PAINTEES, ENGEAYEES, SCULPTOES, &c. 



NATION. 

Scotch. 

Irish. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Ilal. 

Eng. 

Eng. 
Dutch. 
Ital. 
Ital. 

■ Ital. 
Dutch. 
Ger. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Ital. 

Dutch. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Pruss. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 



{Additions to list on page 688.) 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 



Allen, Sir William 

Barker, Robert, inventor of panoramas 

Bartolozzi, Francesco 

Bauer, Ferdinand 

Bellini, Giov., founder of the Ven'n School 

Bernini, Giovanni, L. . 

Bewick, John, publisher of various works 
witli woodcuts 

Bone, Henry 

Brill, Paul .... 

Brunelleschi, Philip, " Pitti Palace" at Flor. 

Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist— au- 
thor of Autobiography 

Cignani, Carlo 

Con, Cornelius 

Cranach, Lucas, 

Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak 

Guilio, Romano, (see Julio) . 

Greuze. Jean Baptiste . 

Metzii, Gabriel 

Mieris, Francis 

Morghen, Raphael . ... 

Neel's, Peter, .... 

Pannini, Giov. Paolo 

Piombo, Sebastiano del . 

Richardson, Jonathan, writer on art and 

Roubilliac, L. F. 

Rousseau, James 

Schadow, J. G. , , 

Scheffer, Ary, — living 

Schidone, Bartolomeo 

Shee, Sir M. A., pres't Royal Academy 

Spagnoletto, Guiseppe Ribera la, 

Steen, Jan .... 

Sunder, Lucas, (see Cranach) 

Thom. Jas.— Tam O'Shanter, &c. 

Thornhill, Sir James 

Turner, J. W. M. . 

Van der Neer, Arnold 

Van Huysum 

Watteau, Antoine 

Westall, llichard 

Wyatt, R. J. . 



SSION. 


BORN. 


DIED. 


Painter 


1781 


1850 


Painter 


1740 


1806 


Engraver 


1730 


1813 


Botanical painter . 




1826 


Fainter 


1462 


1512 


Pain'r, Sculp' r 8^ Arch't 


1598 


1680 


Wood engraver 




1795 


Enamel painter 


1755 


1834 


Landscax)e painter . 


1556 


1625 


Architect 


1377 


1476 




1.500 


1570 


Painter 


1628 


1719 


Engraver 


1536 


1.578 


Engraver . 


1470 


1553 


Sculptor 




1721 


Painter . ' . 


1726 


1805 


Familiar life painter 


1615 


1669 


U (h 


1635 


1681 


Engraver . 


1758 


1833 


Arch'l painter . 


1570 


1651 


" " 


1691 


1764 


Painter 


1485 


1547 


Painter 


1665 


1745 


Sculptor 




1762 


Painter 


1630 


1693 


Sculptor 


1764 


1850 


Painter 






Painter 


1560 


1616 


Painter 


1795 


1850 


Painter 


1589 


1656 


Painter 


1636 


1689 


Engraver 






Sculptor 




1850 


Historical painter 


1676 


1732 


Painter 




1851 


Landscape painter . 


1619 


1683 


Fruit painter . 


1682 


1749 


Painter 


1684 


1721 


Historical painter 


1731 


1836 


Sculptor 


1795 


1850 



ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 



MUSICIANS, 

(/ra addition to those mentioned in the Biographical Index.) 



NATION. 

Ger. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Eng. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Eng. 
Ital. 

Ital. 
Ital. 
Ger. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 



Bach, John Sebastian 

Bishop, Henry Rowley — living 

Boieldieu, Francois Adrien 

Calcott, J. W., musical doctor, atjthor of 

" Musical Grammar," and 
Corelli, Arcangelo . 
Gemimani, Francesco . 
Giardini, Felice 
Gluck, Christopher 
Jomelli, INicolai 
Lully, Giovanni Battista 
Blendelssohn, Felix Bartholdy 
Mehul, Etienne Henri . 
Paer, Ferdinand 
Paesiello, or Paisiello, Giovanni 
Palestrina, Giovanni Perluigi da 
Peraolesi, Giovanni Battista Jesi da 
Peri, Jacopo, (see Rimicini, v/ho did 

compose the first opera — Peri did) 
Purcell, Henry 

Sacchini, ARtonio, Maria Gaspardo 
Sapio 

Scarlatti, Alessandro 
Spentini 

Spohr, Louis — still living 
Stradella, Alessandro, about . 
Tanini, Giuseppe 
Tallis, Thomas 



Organist and composer 
Cotnposer . 
Comjyoser 

Composer . 

Violinist and composer 



Composer . 

Violinist and com,poser 
Composer 



1782 
1775 

1766 
1663 
1680 
1716 
1712 
1714 
1634 
1809 
1763 
1771 
1741 
1524 
1707 



DIED. 

1750 

1834 

1821 
1713 
1762 
1795 
1787 
1744 
1687 
1848 
1817 
1839 
1816 
1594 
1737 or '9 



Tenor vocalist 
Comjjoser 

Violinist and composer 
Vocalist " 

Violinist 
Composer . 



1550 1625 

1658 1695 
1734 1786 
1792 1851 

1659 1725 
1780 1851 
1783 

1645 1670 

1692 1770 

16th c. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



Amer. 


American, 


Gr. 


Greek. 


Pruss, 


Ara. 


Arabian. 


Heb. 


Hebrew. 


Rom. 


Assy. 


Assyrian. 


Hind. 


Hindoo. 


Kuss. 


Bab. 


Babylonian, 


Ital. 


Italian. 


Sam. 


Bav. 


Bavarian. 


.Tew. 


Jewish. 


Sar. 


Car. 


Carthaginian. 


Mace. 


Macedonian. 


Span. 


Dan. 


Danish. 


Nor. 


Norman. 


Swe. 


Eng. 


English. 


Pers. 


Persian. 


Syr. 


Fr. 


French. 


Phen. 


Phoenician. 


U. S. A 


Ger. 


German, 


Port, 


Portuguese. 


U.S. 



Prussian. 
Roman. 
Russian. 
Samaritan. 
Sardinian. 
Spanish. 
Swedish. 
Syrian. 
, I* United States of 
5 America. 



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